The meaning of the symbols of dreams/dreams/ seen in a dream.


Salpingitis

Inflammation of the fallopian tubes. (See PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE.)... salpingitis

Sassafras

Sassafras albidum

Description: This shrub or small tree bears different leaves on the same plant. Some leaves will have one lobe, some two lobes, and some no lobes. The flowers, which appear in early spring, are small and yellow. The fruits are dark blue. The plant parts have a characteristics root beer smell.

Habitat and Distribution: Sassafras grows at the margins of roads and forests, usually in open, sunny areas. It is a common tree throughout eastern North America.

Edible Parts: The young twigs and leaves are edible fresh or dried. You can add dried young twigs and leaves to soups. Dig the underground portion, peel off the bark, and let it dry. Then boil it in water to prepare sassafras tea.

Other Uses: Shred the tender twigs for use as a toothbrush.... sassafras

Scabies

Sarcoptic infestation of the human skin particularly a contagious skin disease caused by invasion of the epidermis... scabies

Sciatica

This is neuralgia of the sciatic nerve. These are the two largest nerves in the body, composed of the tibial and common perineal nerves, bound together and containing elements of the lowest two lumbar and upper three sacral spinal cord nerves. Sciatica is felt as severe pain from the buttocks, down the back of the thighs, often radiating to the inside of the leg, even to the point of parasthesia or prickly numbness. Although tumors can cause the problem, far and away the most common causes are a lower back subluxation (responding to adjustment) or pelvic congestion and edema (responding to laxatives, exercise, and decreasing portal vein and lymphatic congestion).... sciatica

Scrofula

Tuberculous cervical adenitis with or without ulceration... scrofula

Senna

Cassia acutifolia. N.O. Leguminosae.

Synonym: Alexandrian Senna, Cassia, East Indian Senna, Tinnevelly Senna.

Habitat: Imported from Alexandria, East Indies, and the Near East.

Features ? Leaves, grey-green, lanceolate, unequal and varying at the base, between half an inch and one and a half inches long, and about a third of an inch across. Tinnevelly Senna leaves are broader near the middle and proportionately longer than the Alexandrian leaves. The commercial "Mecca Senna" is usually badly picked, and of poor quality generally. Pods (Alexandrian) green, about two inches by a quarter-inch ; East Indian narrower and darker coloured. Taste, sickly sweet.

Part used ? Leaves, pods.

Action: Laxative, cathartic.

For occasional and chronic constipation, dyspepsia, and disordered stomach. Two ounces of the leaves may be infused in 1 pint of boiling water and allowed to stand for an hour before use in wineglass doses. Any possibility of griping will be avoided if 1 drachm of Ginger is added to the Senna leaves before infusing.

The Alexandrian leaves and pods are considered superior to the East Indian kind as, with most people, they act more mildly, but with equal certainty.... senna

Sinusitis

Inflammation affecting the mucal epithelium of a sinus... sinusitis

Stasis

Static, atonic, unable to resolve or initiate change, resulting in lympatic and venous stasis, congestion or stagnation...such as an intestinal blockage.... stasis

Stomatitis

Generalised inflammation of the oral mucosa... stomatitis

Symptom

A sign or indication of disorder or disease, especially when experienced by an individual as a change in normal function, sensation or appearance.... symptom

Syphilis

A contagious venereal disease... syphilis

Ankylosing Spondylitis

See SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.... ankylosing spondylitis

Aortic Stenosis

Narrowing of the AORTIC VALVE in the HEART which obstructs the ?ow of blood through it, with serious effects on the heart and the circulation. The muscle in the left ventricle works harder to compensate for the obstruction and thickens as a result. Stenosis is usually caused by the deposition of calcium on the valve and is commonly associated with ATHEROMA. Untreated, the condition leads to heart failure, but nowadays the stenosis can be treated surgically.... aortic stenosis

Altitude Sickness

This condition, also known as mountain sickness, occurs in mountain climbers or hikers who have climbed too quickly to heights above 3,000 metres, thus failing to allow their bodies to acclimatise to altitude. The lower atmospheric pressure and shortage of oxygen result in hyperventilation – deep, quick breathing – and this reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood. Nausea, anxiety and exhaustion are presenting symptoms, and seriously affected individuals may be acutely breathless because of pulmonary oedema (excess ?uid in the lungs). Gradual climbing over two or three days should prevent mountain sickness. In serious cases the individual must be brought down to hospital urgently. Most attacks, however, are mild.... altitude sickness

Carcinoma In Situ

The ?rst stage of CARCINOMA in which the malignant tumour is present only in the EPITHELIUM, and when surgical excision of the local growth, with its pathological status con?rmed in the laboratory, should ensure a cure.... carcinoma in situ

Case Control Study

A study that starts with the identification of persons with the disease (or other outcome variable) of interest, and a suitable control (comparison, reference) group of persons without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing the diseased and non-diseased with regard to how frequently the attribute is present or, if quantitative, the level of the attribute, in each of the groups.... case control study

Central Nervous System

A collective term for the brain, spinal cord, their nerves, and the sensory end organs. More broadly, this can even include the neurotransmitting hormones instigated by the CNS that control the chemical nervous system, the endocrine glands.... central nervous system

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

(CFS) is a recently designated semi-disease, often attributed to EBV (the Epstein-Barr virus) or CMV (Cytomegalovirus) infections, characterized by FUOs (Fevers of Unknown Origin) and resulting in the patient suffering FLS (Feels Like Shit). In most of us, the microorganisms involved in CFS usually provoke nothing more than a head cold; in some individuals, however, they induce a long, grinding, and debilitating disorder, characterized by exhaustion, depression, periodic fevers...a crazy-quilt of symptoms that frustrates both the sufferer and the sometimes skeptical physician. MCS (Multiple Chemical Sensitivities) are another syndrome that is often lumped with CFS, and they may often be two faces of the same condition. I am not using all these acronyms to mock the conditions, but as an irony. There is too much (Acronym Safety Syndrome) in medicine, reducing complex and frustrating conditions to insider’s techno-babble, somehow therein trivializing otherwise complex, painful and crazy-making problems. The widest use of acronyms (AIDS, HIV, CFS, MCS, MS etc.) seems to be for diseases hardest to treat, least responsive to procedural medicine, and most depressing to discuss with patients or survivors.... chronic fatigue syndrome

Dumping Syndrome

A sensation of weakness and sweating after a meal in patients who have undergone GASTRECTOMY. Rapid emptying of the stomach and the drawing of ?uid from the blood into the intestine has been blamed, but the exact cause is unclear.... dumping syndrome

Frozen Shoulder

A painful condition of the shoulder accompanied by sti?ness and considerable limitation of movement. The usual age-incidence is between 50 and 70. The cause is in?ammation and contracture of the ligaments and muscles of the shoulder joint, probably due to overuse. Treatment is physiotherapy and local steroid infections. There is practically always complete recovery, even though this may take 12–18 months.... frozen shoulder

Immune System

See IMMUNITY.

Age Disease and mode of administration

3 days BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin) by injection if tuberculosis in family in past 6 months.

2 months Poliomyelitis (oral); adsorbed diphtheria, whooping-cough (pertussis)1 and tetanus2 (triple vaccine given by injection); HiB injection.3

3 months Poliomyelitis (oral); diphtheria, whooping-cough (pertussis)1 and tetanus2 (triple vaccine given by injection); HiB injection.3

4 months Poliomyelitis (oral); diphtheria, whooping-cough (pertussis)1 and tetanus2 (triple vaccine given by injection); HiB injection.3

12–18 months Measles, mumps, and rubella (German measles)4 (given together live by injection).

(SCHOOL ENTRY)

4–5 years Poliomyelitis (oral); adsorbed diphtheria and tetanus (given together by injection); give MMR vaccine if not already given at 12–18 months.

10–14 females Rubella (by injection) if they have missed MMR.

10–14 BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin) by injection to tuberculin-negative children to prevent tuberculosis.

15–18 Poliomyelitis single booster dose (oral); tetanus (by injection).

1 Pertussis may be excluded in certain susceptible individuals.

2 Known as DPT or triple vaccine.

3 Haemophilus in?uenzae immunisation (type B) is being introduced to be given at same time, but di?erent limb.

4 Known as MMR vaccine. (Some parents are asking to have their infants immunised with single-constituent vaccines because of controversy over possible side-effects – yet to be con?rmed scienti?cally – of the combined MMR vaccine.)

Recommended immunisation schedules in the United Kingdom... immune system

Limbic System

A functional, not physical, system in the brain, generally considered to mediate emotions with metabolism.... limbic system

Multiple Sclerosis

A chronic, usually progressive disease of the central nervous system, with the gradual patchy disorganization of the protective myelin cells. It is almost certainly an auto-immune disorder, although viral infections sometimes seem to initiate the condition, and physical trauma is often seen to anomalously precede the first symptoms.... multiple sclerosis

Nervous System

This extensive, complex and ?nely tuned network of billions of specialised cells called neurones (see NEURON(E)) is responsible for maintaining the body’s contacts with and responses to the outside world. The network also provides internal communication links – in concert with HORMONES, the body’s chemical messengers – between the body’s diverse organs and tissues, and, importantly, the BRAIN stores relevant information as memory. Each neurone has a ?lamentous process of varying length called an AXON along which passes messages in the form of electrochemically generated impulses. Axons are bundled together to form nerves (see NERVE).

The nervous system can be likened to a computer. The central processing unit – which receives, processes and stores information and initiates instructions for bodily activities – is called the central nervous system: this is made up of the brain and SPINAL CORD. The peripheral nervous system – synonymous with the cables that transmit information to and from a computer’s processing unit – has two parts: sensory and motor. The former collects information from the body’s many sense organs. These respond to touch, temperature, pain, position, smells, sounds and visual images and the information is signalled to the brain via the sensory nerves. When information has been processed centrally, the brain and spinal cord send instructions for action via motor nerves to the ‘voluntary’ muscles controlling movements and speech, to the ‘involuntary’ muscles that operate the internal organs such as the heart and intestines, and to the various glands, including the sweat glands in the skin. (Details of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and the 31 pairs of nerves emanating from the spinal cord are given in respective texts on brain and spinal cord.)

Functional divisions of nervous system As well as the nervous system’s anatomical divisions, the system is divided functionally, into autonomic and somatic parts. The autonomic nervous system, which is split into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, deals with the automatic or unconscious control of internal bodily activities such as heartbeat, muscular status of blood vessels, digestion and glandular functions. The somatic system is responsible for the skeletal (voluntary) muscles (see MUSCLE) which carry out intended movements initiated by the brain – for example, the activation of limbs, tongue, vocal cords (speech), anal muscles (defaecation), urethral sphincters (urination) or vaginal muscles (childbirth). In addition, many survival responses – the most powerfully instinctive animal drives, which range from avoiding danger and pain to shivering when cold or sweating when hot – are initiated unconsciously and automatically by the nervous system using the appropriate neural pathways to achieve the particular survival reaction required.

The complex functions of the nervous system include the ability to experience emotions, such as excitement and pleasure, anxiety and frustration, and to undertake intellectual activities. For these experiences an individual can utilise many built-in neurological programmes and he or she can enhance performance through learning – a vital human function that depends on MEMORY, a three stage-process in the brain of registration, storage and recall. The various anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous system that have been unravelled as science has strived to explain how it works may seem confusing. In practical terms, the nervous system works mainly by using automatic or relex reactions (see REFLEX ACTION) to various stimuli (described above), supplemented by voluntary actions triggered by the activity of the conscious (higher) areas of the brain. Some higher functions crucial to human activity – for example, visual perception, thought, memory and speech – are complex and subtle, and the mechanisms are not yet fully understood. But all these complex activities rest on the foundation of relatively simple electrochemical transmissions of impulses through the massive network of billions of specialised cells, the neurones.... nervous system

Respiratory System

All the organs and tissues associated with the act of RESPIRATION or breathing. The term includes the nasal cavity (see NOSE) and PHARYNX, along with the LARYNX, TRACHEA, bronchi (see BRONCHUS), BRONCHIOLES and LUNGS. The DIAPHRAGM and other muscles, such as those between the RIBS, are also part of the respiratory system which is responsible for oxygenating the blood and removing carbon dioxide from it.... respiratory system

Sarcoma

A cancer of connective tissue, bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, nerve sheath, blood vessels or lymph system.... sarcoma

Schistosomiasis

A disease caused by parasites o f the genus Schistosoma , also known as bilharzia, which has an aquatic snail intermediate host.... schistosomiasis

Scleritis

Inflammation of the sclera... scleritis

Sclerosis

This term means literally hardening, and is applied to conditions in which portions of organs harden and lose their function as the result of an excessive production of CONNECTIVE TISSUE. The term is especially applied to a change of this type taking place in the nervous system. (See MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS)).... sclerosis

Scurvy

A deficiency disease due to lack of Vitamin C... scurvy

Seborrhoea

Excessive production of SEBUM; it occurs in ACNE vulgaris.... seborrhoea

Secondary Prevention

Measures that identify and treat asymptomatic persons who have already developed risk factors or preclinical disease, but in whom the condition is not clinically apparent. These activities are focused on early case-finding of asymptomatic disease that occurs commonly and has significant risk for negative outcome without treatment.... secondary prevention

Seminal Vesicle

The dilated lower part of the vas deferens of cestodes which opens into cirrus.... seminal vesicle

Sensitivity

A high rate of detection of “true positives”, for example, the fraction of subjects who actually received good care who are classified as recipients of good care. For medical screening tests, sensitivity is the proportion of truly diseased persons in the screened population who are identified as diseased by the screening test. Sensitivity is a measure of the probability of correctly diagnosing a case, or the probability that any given case will be identified by the test (synonymous with ‘true positive rate’).... sensitivity

Sepsis

Like septicemia, an infection that has moved deeply into the body, involving the subcutaneous or submucosal layers, connective tissue, lymph system...or blood... sepsis

Septicaemia

The presence of multiplying bacteria in the bllod associated with severe clinical symptoms.... septicaemia

Septum

A membrane wall separating two or more cavities, such as the one between the nasal fossae and those separating the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs.... septum

Serum Sickness

A complex systemic reaction that may become evident any time up to 14 days after antivenom or antitoxin use. Symptoms are fever, generalised lymphadenopathy and an urticarial rash. Severe cases of serum sickness may have to be treated with oral steroids. The incidence of serum sickness is often related to the amount of antivenom used.... serum sickness

Shingles

Also called Herpes zoster. It is caused by the chickenpox virus, and usually occurs in middle-age, beginning as inflammation, sharp pain and finally vesicles, erupting at the edges of posterior ganglia of the trunk or face. Usually lasting two or three weeks, it is often triggered by stress or a concurrent viral infection, and can return again in some individuals.... shingles

Shock

Collapse of the circulation resulting in inadequate tissue perfusion to the body cells.... shock

Sleeping Sickness

A disease caused by haemoflagellate protozoa and transmitted by blood-feeding tsetse flies of the genus Glossina. East African (Rhodesian) Sleeping Sickness is the more severe zoonotic form caused byTrypanosoma brucei rhodesiense found on the game-rich savannahs of East Central Africa while West African (Gambian) Sleeping Sickness is the more chronic form found in riverine areas of West Central Africa and which has a significant human reservoir although animals such as pigs may also be involved as reservoirs.... sleeping sickness

Smallpox

Variola. A human viral disease characterised by vesicular skin lesions covering the whole body but being particularly heavy at the extremeties including the face. Caused by a pox virus. The disease can be prevented through regular smallpox vaccinations. Variola has now been officially declared eradicated by the WHO.... smallpox

Somatic

Of the body.... somatic

Sperm

See SPERMATOZOON.... sperm

Sphincter

A circular muscle which surrounds the opening from an organ, and, by maintaining a constant state of moderate contraction, prevents the escape of the contents of the organ. Sphincters close the outlet from the URINARY BLADDER and RECTUM, and in certain nervous diseases their action is interfered with, so that the power to relax or to keep moderately contracted is lost, and retention or INCONTINENCE of the evacuation results.... sphincter

Splenitis

Inflammation of the spleen... splenitis

Splenomegaly

Enlargement of the spleen... splenomegaly

Spleen

The large organ lying to the left of, below, and behind the stomach. This organ is partially responsible for white blood cell formation (red blood cells in childhood), and it is lined with resident macrophages that help it filter the blood, remove and recycle old and dead red blood cells, and send this all up to the liver in the portal blood. The liver, in fact, does most of the recycling of splenic hemoglobin derivatives. The spleen initiates much resistance and immunologic response, being made mostly of lymph pulp, and it stores and concentrates a large number of red blood cells. These can be injected into the bloodstream for immediate use under flight or fight stress, since the spleen is covered with capsule and vascular muscles that constrict in the presence of adrenalin or sympathetic adrenergic nerve stimulus.... spleen

Stimulant

Making a body organ active... stimulant

Strangury

Painful, sporadic and drop-by-drop urination, caused by the presence of kidney stones, chronic inflammation such as interstitial cystitis, or urethral scar tissue. This is not a specific disease, but a symptom, like nausea or a sore joint.... strangury

Subacute

Having characteristics of both acute and chronic. This is the state in a disease when most of the aches and pains have subsided and you are likely to overdo things and not completely recover. The chest cold that lingers for weeks as a stubborn cough is a subacute condition, as is the tendonitis that lingers because you won’t stop playing tennis long enough to completely heal.... subacute

Subcutaneous

Below the surface of the skin, but probably above the following term...well anyway, definitely lower than the TOP of the skin... subcutaneous

Subclinical

This is our turf, the period of time when a potential disease is still potential, and a functional imbalance or tendency has not caused any organic disruption. Years of poor digestion, heartburn, and systematic suppression of upper GI function by adrenalin stress have not become overt gastritis, ulcers, or IBS. You have symptoms of distress (subclinical) but no real, ripened clinical disease. Some medical authorities (usually administrative docs from the “spokesman” and “quack-patrol” ranks of industry, academia or agency) actually insist that there is no such thing as a subclinical condition...you are either SICK or NOT SICK and presumably well. Sort of like the mechanic saying that the car works or doesn’t work...four quarts low on oil, but it WORKS. Only when it is five quarts low and has a siezed-up engine is there a need for a mechanic.... subclinical

Syndrome

A pattern of symptoms and signs, appearing one by one or simultaneously, that together characterise a particular disease or disorder.... syndrome

Systemic

Involving the whole body or organism, and not just individual parts.... systemic

Adrenogenital Syndrome

An inherited condition, the adrenogenital syndrome – also known as congenital adrenal hyperplasia – is an uncommon disorder affecting about 1 baby in 7,500. The condition is present from birth and causes various ENZYME defects as well as blocking the production of HYDROCORTISONE and ALDOSTERONE by the ADRENAL GLANDS. In girls the syndrome often produces VIRILISATION of the genital tract, often with gross enlargement of the clitoris and fusion of the labia so that the genitalia may be mistaken for a malformed penis. The metabolism of salt and water may be disturbed, causing dehydration, low blood pressure and weight loss; this can produce collapse at a few days or weeks of age. Enlargement of the adrenal glands occurs and the affected individual may also develop excessive pigmentation in the skin.

When virilisation is noted at birth, great care must be taken to determine genetic sex by karyotyping: parents should be reassured as to the baby’s sex (never ‘in between’). Blood levels of adrenal hormones are measured to obtain a precise diagnosis. Traditionally, doctors have advised parents to ‘choose’ their child’s gender on the basis of discussing the likely condition of the genitalia after puberty. Thus, where the phallus is likely to be inadequate as a male organ, it may be preferred to rear the child as female. Surgery is usually advised in the ?rst two years to deal with clitoromegaly but parent/ patient pressure groups, especially in the US, have declared it wrong to consider surgery until the children are competent to make their own decision.

Other treatment requires replacement of the missing hormones which, if started early, may lead to normal sexual development. There is still controversy surrounding the ethics of gender reassignment.

See www.baps.org.uk... adrenogenital syndrome

Apgar Score

A method of assessing at birth whether or not a baby requires resuscitation. The newborn is routinely assessed at 1 minute of age and again at 5 minutes, and a value of 0, 1 or 2 given to each of ?ve signs: colour, heart rate, muscle tone, respiratory (or breathing) e?ort, and the response to stimulation. A total score of 7 or more indicates that the newborn child is in excellent condition. An Apgar score of 5 or less at 15 or 20 minutes predicates an increased risk of subsequent CEREBRAL PALSY.... apgar score

Atrial Septal Defect

See HEART, DISEASES OF – Congenital heart disease.... atrial septal defect

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system which regulates the bodily functions that are not under conscious control: these include the heartbeat, intestinal movements, salivation, sweating, etc. The autonomic nervous system consists of two main divisions – the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and the PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. The smooth muscles, heart and most glands are connected to nerve ?bres from both systems and their proper functioning depends on the balance between these two. (See also NERVES; NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... autonomic nervous system

Blind Loop Syndrome

A disorder in which abnormal FAECES occur as a result of a redundant loop in the small INTESTINE. The loop obstructs the normal ?ow of the contents of the bowel, causing stagnation. The syndrome is characterised by light-yellow, smelly, fatty, bulky faeces. The patient suffers from tiredness, malaise and loss of weight. Previous abdominal surgery is sometimes the cause, but the condition can be inherited. Blockage of intestinal contents upsets the bowel’s normal bacterial balance and hinders the normal absorption of nutrients. Treatment is either with antibiotics or, if that fails, surgery.... blind loop syndrome

Cat-scratch Fever

An infection in humans caused by a small gram-negative BACILLUS (Bartonella henselae). The domestic cat is a reservoir for the bacteria, and up to 50 per cent of the cat population may be affected. The disorder manifests itself as a skin lesion 3–10 days after a minor scratch; within two weeks the victim’s lymph glands enlarge and may produce pus. Fever, headache and malaise occur in some patients. Antibiotics do not seem to be e?ective. The skin lesion and lymph-gland enlargement subside spontaneously within 2–5 months.... cat-scratch fever

Caesarean Section

The operation used to deliver a baby through its mother’s abdominal wall. It is performed when the risks to mother or child of vaginal delivery are thought to outweigh the problems associated with operative delivery. One of the most common reasons for Caesarean section is ‘disproportion’ between the size of the fetal head and the maternal pelvis. The need for a Caesarean should be assessed anew in each pregnancy; a woman who has had a Caesarean section in the past will not automatically need to have one for subsequent deliveries. Caesarean-section rates vary dramatically from hospital to hospital, and especially between countries, emphasising that the criteria for operative delivery are not universally agreed. The current rate in the UK is about 23 per cent, and in the USA, about 28 per cent. The rate has shown a steady rise in all countries over the last decade. Fear of litigation by patients is one reason for this rise, as is the uncertainty that can arise from abnormalities seen on fetal monitoring during labour. Recent research suggesting that vaginal delivery is becoming more hazardous as the age of motherhood rises may increase the pressure from women to have a Caesarean section – as well as pressure from obstetricians.

The operation is usually performed through a low, horizontal ‘bikini line’ incision. A general anaesthetic in a heavily pregnant woman carries increased risks, so the operation is often performed under regional – epidural or spinal – ANAESTHESIA. This also allows the mother to see her baby as soon as it is born, and the baby is not exposed to agents used for general anaesthesia. If a general anaesthetic is needed (usually in an emergency), exposure to these agents may make the baby drowsy for some time afterwards.

Another problem with delivery by Caesarean section is, of course, that the mother must recover from the operation whilst coping with the demands of a small baby. (See PREGNANCY AND LABOUR.)... caesarean section

Cascara Sagrada

Rhamnus purshiana. N.O. Rhamnaceae.

Synonym: Sacred Bark, Chittem Bark.

Habitat: California and British Columbia. Features ? Bark in quills about three-quarter inch wide by one-sixteenth inch thick,

furrowed-longitudinally, purplish-brown in colour. Inner surface longitudinally

striated, transversely wrinkled. Fracture pale brown, or dark brown when older.

Persistently bitter taste, leather-like odour.

Older bark is preferred, younger sometimes griping. Part used ? Bark.

Action: Tonic laxative.

In habitual constipation due to sluggishness and atony of the lower bowel, and for digestive disorders generally. Doses for chronic constipation, firstly 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful at bedtime, afterwards 5-10 drops before each meal, of the fluid extract.... cascara sagrada

Cohort Study

An observational study in which outcomes in a group of participants that received an intervention are compared with outcomes in a similar group (i.e. the cohort) of participants, either contemporary or historical, that did not receive the intervention. In an adjusted (or matched) cohort study, investigators identify (or make statistical adjustments to provide) a cohort group that has characteristics (e.g. age, gender, disease severity) that are as similar as possible to the group that experienced the intervention.... cohort study

Crush Syndrome

A condition in which kidney failure occurs in patients who have been the victims of severe crushing accidents (see also KIDNEYS). The fundamental injury is damage to muscle. The limb swells. The blood volume falls. Blood UREA rises; there is also a rise in the POTASSIUM content of the blood. Urgent treatment in an intensive therapy unit is required and renal dialysis may well be necessary. The patient may survive; or die with renal failure. Post-mortem examination shows degeneration of the tubules of the kidney, and the presence in them of pigment casts.... crush syndrome

Extrapyramidal System

This is a complex part of the nervous system, extending from the cortex to the medulla in the BRAIN, from which emerge descending spinal pathways which in?uence voluntary motor activity throughout the body. Although the normal functions of the system are poorly understood, there are characteristic signs of an extrapyramidal LESION. These include disturbance of voluntary movements, notably slowness and ‘poverty’ of movement; disturbance of muscular tone, which may be increased or decreased; and involuntary movements, such as a tremor, irregular jerking movements, or slow writhing movements.

Diseases There are several diseases that result from lesions to the extrapyramidal system, of which the most common is PARKINSONISM. Others include WILSON’S DISEASE, KERNICTERUS, CHOREA and ATHETOSIS.... extrapyramidal system

Follicle-stimulating Hormone

A hormone produced by the anterior PITUITARY GLAND which stimulates the formation of follicles in the ovary each menstrual cycle (see OVARIES; MENSTRUATION) and of spermatocytes in the testis (see TESTICLE). It is under hypothalamic control (see HYPOTHALAMUS) and in the female there is feedback inhibition by oestrogens from the developing follicle.... follicle-stimulating hormone

Gram Stain

Stain developed in 1884 by Hans Christian Gram, whereby Gram positive bacteria stain purple while Gram negative bacteria stain red.... gram stain

Guillain-barré Syndrome

A disease of the peripheral nerves causing weakness and numbness in the limbs. It customarily occurs up to three weeks after an infection – for example, CAMPYLOBACTER infection of the gastrointestinal tract provoking an allergic response in the nerves. It may begin with weakness of the legs and gradually spread up the body. In the worst cases the patient may become totally paralysed and require to be arti?cially ventilated. Despite this, recovery is the rule.... guillain-barré syndrome

Gulf War Syndrome

A collection of varying symptoms, such as persistent tiredness, headaches, muscle pain and poor concentration, reported by members of the Coalition Armed Forces who served in the 1991 Gulf War. Whilst there is strong evidence for a health e?ect related to service, there is no evidence of a particular set of signs and symptoms (the de?nition of a ‘syndrome’) unique to those who served in the Gulf War. Symptoms have been blamed on multiple possible hazards, such as exposure to depleted uranium munitions, smoke from oil-well ?res and use of pesticides. However, the only clearly demonstrated association is with the particular pattern of vaccinations used to protect against biological weapons. Many con?icts in the past have generated their own ‘syndromes’, given names such as e?ort syndrome and shell-shock, suggesting a link to the psychological stress of being in the midst of warfare.... gulf war syndrome

Herpes Simplex

An acute infectious disease, characterised by the development of groups of super?cial vesicles, or blebs, in the skin and mucous membrane. It is due to either simplex type 1 or 2 virus, and infection can occur at any time from birth onwards; however the usual time for primary infection with type 1 is between the second and 15th year. Once an individual is infected, the virus persists in the body for the rest of their life. It is one of the causes of scrum-pox. Type 2 causes HERPES GENITALIS.

Symptoms Symptoms vary with the age of infection. In young infants, herpes simplex may cause a generalised infection which is sometimes fatal. In young children the infection is usually in the mouth, and this may be associated with enlargement of the glands in the neck, general irritability and fever. The condition usually settles in 7–10 days. In adults the vesicles may occur anywhere in the skin or mucous membranes: the more common sites are the lips, mouth and face, where they are known as cold sores. The vesicles may also appear on the genitalia (herpes genitalis) or in the conjunctiva or cornea of the EYE, and the brain may be infected, causing ENCEPHALITIS or MENINGITIS. The ?rst sign is the appearance of small painful swellings; these quickly develop into vesicles which contain clear ?uid and are surrounded by a reddened area of skin. Some people are particularly liable to recurrent attacks, and these often tend to be associated with some debilitating condition or infection, such as pneumonia.

Except in the case of herpes of the cornea, the eruption clears completely unless it becomes contaminated with some other organism. In the case of the cornea, there may be residual scarring, which may impair vision.

Treatment Aciclovir is e?ective both topically as cream or eye drops or orally. In severe systemic infections it can be given intravenously.... herpes simplex

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

(IBS) This is a common and generally benign condition of the colon, taking different forms but usually characterized by alternating constipation and diarrhea. There is often some pain accompanying the diarrhea phase. The bowel equivalent of spasmodic asthma, its main cause is stress, often accompanied by a history of GI infections. Adrenalin stress slows the colon and causes constipation, followed by a cholinergic rebound overstimulation of the colon. It is also called spastic colon, colon syndrome, mucous colitis, even chronic colitis. True colitis is a potentially or actually serious pathology.... irritable bowel syndrome

Infantile Spasms

Also known as salaam attacks, these are a rare but serious type of EPILEPSY, usually starting in the ?rst eight months of life. The spasms are short and occur as involuntary ?exing of the neck, arms, trunk and legs. They may occur several times a day. If the baby is sitting, it may collapse into a ‘salaam’ position; more usually there is a simple body jerk, sometimes accompanied by a sudden cry. An electroencephalogram (see ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)) shows a picture of totally disorganised electrical activity called hypsarrhythmia. The condition results from any one of many brain injuries, infections or metabolic insults that may have occurred before, during, or in the ?rst few months after birth. Its importance is that in most cases, the baby’s development is seriously affected such that they are likely to be left with a profound learning disability. Consequently, prompt diagnosis is important. Treatment is with CORTICOSTEROIDS or with certain anti-convulsants – the hope being that prompt and aggressive treatment might prevent further brain damage leading to learning disability.... infantile spasms

Keyhole Surgery

See MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY (MIS).... keyhole surgery

Mountain Sickness

See ALTITUDE SICKNESS.... mountain sickness

Nephrotic Syndrome

Nephrotic syndrome is one of PROTEINURIA, hypo-albuminaemia and gross OEDEMA. The primary cause is the leak of albumin (see ALBUMINS) through the GLOMERULUS. When this exceeds the liver’s ability to synthesise albumin, the plasma level falls and oedema results. The nephrotic syndrome is commonly the result of primary renal glomerular disease (see KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF – Glomerulonephritis). It may also be a result of metabolic diseases such as diabetic glomerular sclerosis and AMYLOIDOSIS. It may be the result of systemic autoimmune diseases such as SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) and POLYARTERITIS NODOSA. It may complicate malignant diseases such as MYELOMATOSIS and Hodgkin’s disease (see LYMPHOMA). It is sometimes caused by nephrotoxins such as gold or mercury and certain drugs, and it may be the result of certain infections such as MALARIA and CROHN’S DISEASE.... nephrotic syndrome

Peripheral Nervous System

See NERVOUS SYSTEM.... peripheral nervous system

Plastic Surgery

See RECONSTRUCTIVE (PLASTIC) SURGERY.... plastic surgery

Port Wine Stain

See NAEVUS.... port wine stain

Premenstrual Syndrome

This has been de?ned as ‘any combination of emotional or physical features which occur cyclically in a woman before MENSTRUATION, and which regress or disappear during menstruation’. It is characterised by mood-changes, discomfort, swelling and tenderness in the breasts, swelling of the legs, a bloated feeling in the abdomen, headache, fatigue and constipation. The mood-changes range from irritability and mild depression to outbursts of violence. It may last for 3–14 days. How common it is is not known, as only the more severe cases are seen by doctors, but it has been estimated that one in ten of all menstruating women suffer from it severely enough to require treatment. The cause is not known, but it is probably due to some upset of the hormonal balance of the body. In view of the multiplicity of causes that have been put forward, it is not surprising that there is an equal multiplicity of treatments. Among these, one of the most widely used is PROGESTERONE. Others include pyridoxine, danazol, and gamma linolenic acid available in the form of oil of evening primrose. Whatever drug may be prescribed, counselling is equally essential and, in many cases, is all that is required.... premenstrual syndrome

Prospective Study

See “cohort study”.... prospective study

Pulmonary Stenosis

A disorder of the HEART in which obstruction of the out?ow of blood from the right ventricle occurs. Narrowing of the pulmonary valve at the exit of the right ventricle and narrowing of the pulmonary artery may cause obstruction. The condition is usually congenital, although it may be caused by RHEUMATIC FEVER. In the congenital condition, pulmonary stenosis may occur with other heart defects and is then known as Fallot’s tetralogy. Breathlessness and enlargement of the heart and eventual heart failure may be the consequence of pulmonary stenosis. Surgery is usually necessary to remove the obstruction.... pulmonary stenosis

Pyloric Stenosis

Narrowing of the PYLORUS, the muscular exit from the STOMACH. It is usually the result of a pyloric ulcer or cancer near the exit of the stomach. Food is delayed when passing from the stomach to the duodenum and vomiting occurs. The stomach may become distended and peristalsis (muscular movement) may be seen through the abdominal wall. Unless surgically treated the patient will steadily deteriorate, losing weight, becoming dehydrated and developing ALKALOSIS.

A related condition, congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, occurs in babies (commonly boys) about 3–5 weeks old, and surgery produces a complete cure.... pyloric stenosis

Radiation Sickness

The term applied to the nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite which may follow exposure to RADIATION – for example, at work – or the use of RADIOTHERAPY in the treatment of cancer and other diseases. People exposed to radiation at work should have that exposure carefully monitored so it does not exceed safety limits. Doses of radiation given during radiotherapy treatment are carefully measured: even so, patients may suffer side-effects. The phenothiazine group of tranquillisers, such as CHLORPROMAZINE, as well as the ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS, are of value in the prevention and treatment of radiation sickness.... radiation sickness

Retrospective Study

A research design used to test hypotheses in which inferences about exposure to the putative causal factor(s) are derived from data relating to characteristics of the persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or other outcome condition of interest, and their characteristics and past experiences are compared with those of other, unaffected persons.... retrospective study

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever

A fever of the typhus group (see TYPHUS FEVER). It received its name from the fact that it was ?rst reported in the Rocky Mountain States of the United States; these are still the most heavily infected areas, but the fever is now found in all parts of the US. The causative organism is Rickettsia rickettsi, which is transmitted to humans by tics.... rocky mountain spotted fever

Sacral Nerves

These are five pairs of CNS nerves that exit through the sacral foramen and sacral hiatus, and bring information in and out of the spinal cord. Much of their function relates to the sciatic nerve, and they bring information in from the skin sensory zones (dermatomes) of the heel, back of the legs, buttocks, and the pelvic floor.... sacral nerves

Sacrum

The portion of the SPINAL COLUMN near its lower end. The sacrum consists of ?ve vertebrae fused together to form a broad triangular bone which lies between the two haunch-bones and forms the back wall of the pelvis.... sacrum

Safe Period

That period during the menstrual cycle (see MENSTRUATION) when fertilisation of the OVUM is unlikely to occur. OVULATION usually occurs about 15 days before the onset of the menstrual period. A woman is commonly believed to be fertile for about 11 days in each menstrual cycle – in other words, on the day of ovulation and for ?ve days before and ?ve days after this; this would be the eighth to the 18th day of the usual 28-day menstrual cycle. Outside this fertile period is the SAFE PERIOD: the ?rst week and the last ten days of the menstrual cycle. On the other hand, there is increasing evidence that the safest period is the last few days before menstruation. In the case of irregular menstruation it is not possible to calculate the safe period. In any event, the safety is not absolute. (See also CONTRACEPTION.)... safe period

Salbutamol

A short-acting selective beta2-adrenoceptor stimulant delivered via a metered-dose aerosol inhaler, a powder inhaler or through a nebuliser to control symptoms of ASTHMA. If stimulant inhalation is needed more than twice a day to control asthma attacks, prophylactic treatment should be considered including, in severe cases, oral CORTICOSTEROIDS. Salbutamol relaxes the muscles which cause bronchial spasms in the lungs – the prime symptom of asthma. There are other similar preparations such as terbutaline.... salbutamol

Salicylic Acid

A crystalline substance sparingly soluble in water that is used externally in ointments and pastes. It has antifungal properties and helps to loosen and remove scales. In high concentrations it is useful in treatment of verrucae (WARTS) and corns (see CORNS AND BUNIONS).... salicylic acid

Saline

Normal saline is a solution containing 0·9 per cent of sodium chloride (common salt). Saline is used clinically to dilute drugs given by injection; it is also given as an intravenous infusion to restore blood volume if blood loss from accident or operation is not too serious, or to tide a patient over until PLASMA or blood for TRANSFUSION becomes available.

Saline is also given orally to severely dehydrated children or adults suffering from diarrhoea and, in particular, CHOLERA.... saline

Saliva

The ?uid secreted by the SALIVARY GLANDS into the mouth. The ingestion of food stimulates saliva production. Saliva contains mucus and an ENZYME known as PTYALIN, which changes starch into dextrose and maltose (see DIGESTION); also many cells of di?erent types. About 750 millilitres are produced daily.

The principal function of saliva is to aid in the initial processes of digestion, and it is essential for the process of mastication (chewing), whereby food is reduced to an homogeneous mass before being swallowed. In addition, the ptyalin in the saliva initiates the digestion of starch in the food.

An excessive ?ow of saliva known as salivation occurs as the result of taking certain drugs. Salivation also occurs as the result of irritation in the mouth – as for instance, in the teething child – and from DYSPEPSIA. De?ciency of saliva is known as XEROSTOMIA.... saliva

Salivary Glands

The glands that produce the saliva injected when a mosquito or other ectoparasite bites, which prevent blood from clotting while the mosquito feeds.... salivary glands

Salpingo-oöphorectomy

Surgical removal of a Fallopian tube (see FALLOPIAN TUBES) and its accompanying ovary (see OVARIES).... salpingo-oöphorectomy

Sarcoidosis

An uncommon chronic in?ammatory disease of unknown origin which can affect many organs, particularly the SKIN, eyes (see EYE) and LUNGS. Commonly, it presents as ERYTHEMA nodosum in association with lymph-gland enlargement within the chest. In the eyes it causes UVEITIS. BIOPSY of affected tissue allows diagnosis, which is con?rmed by a KVEIM TEST. Often sarcoidosis is self-limiting, but in severe cases oral CORTICOSTEROIDS may be needed.... sarcoidosis

Scab

The crust which forms on super?cial injured areas. It is composed of FIBRIN, which is exuded from the raw surface, together with blood corpuscles and epithelial cells entangled in its meshes. Healing takes place naturally under this protection, and the scab dries up and falls o? when healing is complete. Scabs appearing on the face without any previous abrasion are usually caused by an infection (see IMPETIGO).... scab

Scald

The lesion caused by contact with a hot liquid or vapour... scald

Scalpel

A small, straight, surgical knife.... scalpel

Scapula

The scienti?c name for the shoulder-blade. (See SHOULDER.)... scapula

Scar

The name applied to a healed wound, ulcer or breach of tissue. A scar consists essentially of ?brous tissue, covered by an imperfect formation of epidermis in the case of scars on the surface of the skin. The ?brous tissue is produced by the connective tissue that migrates to the wound in the course of its repair (see WOUNDS). Gradually this ?brous tissue contracts, becomes more dense, and loses its blood vessels, leaving a hard white scar. (See also KELOID.)... scar

Scarlet Fever

This disorder is caused by the erythrogenic toxin of the STREPTOCOCCUS. The symptoms of PYREXIA, headache, vomiting and a punctate erythematous rash (see ERYTHEMA) follow a streptococcal infection of the throat or even a wound. The rash is symmetrical and does not itch. The skin subsequently peels.

Symptoms The period of incubation (i.e. the time elapsing between the reception of infection and the development of symptoms) varies somewhat. In most cases it lasts only two to three days, but in occasional cases the patient may take a week to develop his or her ?rst symptoms. The occurrence of fever is usually short and sharp, with rapid rise of temperature to 40 °C (104 °F), shivering, vomiting, headache, sore throat and marked increase in the rate of the pulse. In young children, CONVULSIONS or DELIRIUM may precede the fever. The rash usually appears within 24 hours of the onset of fever and lasts about a week.

Complications The most common and serious of these is glomerulonephritis (see under KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF), which may arise during any period in the course of the fever, but particularly when DESQUAMATION occurs. Occasionally the patient develops chronic glomerulonephritis. Another complication is infection of the middle ear (otitis media – see under EAR, DISEASES OF). Other disorders affecting the heart and lungs occasionally arise in connection with scarlet fever, the chief of these being ENDOCARDITIS, which may lay the foundation of valvular disease of the heart later in life. ARTHRITIS may produce swelling and pain in the smaller rather than in the larger joints; this complication usually occurs in the second week of illness. Scarlet fever, which is now a mild disease in most patients, should be treated with PENICILLIN.... scarlet fever

Schizophrenia

An overall title for a group of psychiatric disorders typ?ed by disturbances in thinking, behaviour and emotional response. Despite its inaccurate colloquial description as ‘split personality’, schizophrenia should not be confused with MULTIPLE PERSONALITY DISORDER. The illness is disabling, running a protracted course that usually results in ill-health and, often, personality change. Schizophrenia is really a collection of symptoms and signs, but there is no speci?c diagnostic test for it. Similarity in the early stages to other mental disorders, such as MANIC DEPRESSION, means that the diagnosis may not be con?rmed until its response to treatment and its outcome can be assessed and other diseases excluded.

Causes There is an inherited element: parents, children or siblings of schizophrenic sufferers have a one in ten chance of developing the disorder; a twin has a 50 per cent chance if the other twin has schizophrenia. Some BRAIN disorders such as temporal lobe EPILEPSY, tumours and ENCEPHALITIS seem to be linked with schizophrenia. Certain drugs – for example, AMPHETAMINES – can precipitate schizophrenia and DOPAMINE-blocking drugs often relieve schizophrenic symptoms. Stress may worsen schizophrenia and recreational drugs may trigger an attack.

Symptoms These usually develop gradually until the individual’s behaviour becomes so distrubing or debilitating that work, relationships and basic activities such as eating and sleeping are interrupted. The patient may have disturbed perception with auditory HALLUCINATIONS, illogical thought-processes and DELUSIONS; low-key emotions (‘?at affect’); a sense of being invaded or controlled by outside forces; a lack of INSIGHT and inability to acknowledge reality; lethargy and/or agitation; a disrespect for personal appearance and hygiene; and a tendency to act strangely. Violence is rare although some sufferers commit violent acts which they believe their ‘inner voices’ have commanded.

Relatives and friends may try to cope with the affected person at home, but as severe episodes may last several months and require regular administration of powerful drugs – patients are not always good at taking their medication

– hospital admission may be necessary.

Treatment So far there is no cure for schizophrenia. Since the 1950s, however, a group of drugs called antipsychotics – also described as NEUROLEPTICS or major tranquillisers – have relieved ?orid symptoms such as thought disorder, hallucinations and delusions as well as preventing relapses, thus allowing many people to leave psychiatric hospitals and live more independently outside. Only some of these drugs have a tranquillising e?ect, but their sedative properties can calm patients with an acute attack. CHLORPROMAZINE is one such drug and is commonly used when treatment starts or to deal with an emergency. Halperidol, tri?uoperazine and pimozide are other drugs in the group; these have less sedative effects so are useful in treating those whose prominent symptoms are apathy and lethargy.

The antipsychotics’ mode of action is by blocking the activity of DOPAMINE, the chemical messenger in the brain that is faulty in schizophrenia. The drugs quicken the onset and prolong the remission of the disorder, and it is very important that patients take them inde?nitely. This is easier to ensure when a patient is in hospital or in a stable domestic environment.

CLOZAPINE – a newer, atypical antipsychotic drug – is used for treating schizophrenic patients unresponsive to, or intolerant of, conventional antipsychotics. It may cause AGRANULOCYTOSIS and use is con?ned to patients registered with the Clorazil (the drug’s registered name) Patient Monitoring Service. Amisulpride, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, sertindole and zotepine are other antipsychotic drugs described as ‘atypical’ by the British National Formulary; they may be better tolerated than other antipsychotics, and their varying properties mean that they can be targeted at patients with a particular grouping of symptoms. They should, however, be used with caution.

The welcome long-term shift of mentally ill patients from large hospitals to community care (often in small units) has, because of a lack of resources, led to some schizophrenic patients not being properly supervised with the result that they fail to take their medication regularly. This leads to a recurrence of symptoms and there have been occasional episodes of such patients in community care becoming a danger to themselves and to the public.

The antipsychotic drugs are powerful agents and have a range of potentially troubling side-effects. These include blurred vision, constipation, dizziness, dry mouth, limb restlessness, shaking, sti?ness, weight gain, and in the long term, TARDIVE DYSKINESIA (abnormal movements and walking) which affects about 20 per cent of those under treatment. Some drugs can be given by long-term depot injection: these include compounds of ?upenthixol, zuclopenthixol and haloperidol.

Prognosis About 25 per cent of sufferers recover fully from their ?rst attack. Another 25 per cent are disabled by chronic schizophrenia, never recover and are unable to live independently. The remainder are between these extremes. There is a high risk of suicide.... schizophrenia

Sclera

See EYE.... sclera

Scleroderma

A rare autoimmune disease. Scleroderma circumscriptum (morphoea) affects the skin, usually of the trunk, producing indurated plaques which resolve over many years. The more serious systemic form of scleroderma usually begins with RAYNAUD’S DISEASE, eventually producing a deforming hardening and clawing of the hands. Later the face and sometimes the internal organs, particularly the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys, may be affected.... scleroderma

Sclerotherapy

A treatment that involves injecting varicose veins (see VEINS, DISEASES OF) with a sclerosing ?uid. This causes ?brosis of the lining of the vein and its eventual obliteration. Sclerotherapy is also used to treat varicose veins in the legs, anus (HAEMORRHOIDS) and at the junction of the OESOPHAGUS with the stomach.... sclerotherapy

Scoliosis

The name applied to curvature of the spine. (See SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.)... scoliosis

Scotoma

An area of blindness in the ?eld of vision.... scotoma

Scrotum

The pouch of skin and ?brous tissue, positioned outside the abdomen behind the root of the PENIS, within which the testicles (see TESTICLE) are suspended. It consists of a purse-like fold of skin, within which each testicle has a separate investment of muscle ?bres, several layers of ?brous tissue, and a serous membrane known as the tunica vaginalis. The extra-abdominal site means that the production and storage of sperm (see SPERMATOZOON) in the testicles is at a lower temperature than internal body heat. Temperature control is facilitated by contraction and relaxation of the scrotal muscles.... scrotum

Scullcap

Scutellaria lateriflora. N.O. Labiateae.

Synonym: Sometimes named Skullcap, and locally known as Madweed.

Habitat: Indigenous to the United States, the plant is also found in England on the banks of streams and in wet ditches.

First introduced by the Spaniards in 1563 as a specific for syphilis, this claim has long been disproved, although the root undoubtedly possesses active alterative principles. It is consequently now held in high regard as a blood purifier, and is usually administered with other alteratives, notably Burdock.

Compound decoctions of Sarsaparilla are very popular as a springtime medicine, and Coffin's prescription will be found in the Herbal Formulae section of this volume.... scullcap

Sebaceous Cyst

A misnomer applied to epidermoid cysts of the skin whose contents are kerateous not sebaceous. The common ‘wen’ of the scalp arises from follicular epithelium and is similar.... sebaceous cyst

Sebum

The secretion of the SEBACEOUS GLANDS. It acts as a natural lubricant of the hair and skin and protects the skin from the effects of moisture or excessive dryness. It may also have antibacterial action.... sebum

Secondary Care

Specialist care provided on an ambulatory or inpatient basis, usually following a referral from primary care.... secondary care

Secretin

A hormone (see HORMONES) secreted by the mucous membrane of the duodenum, the ?rst part of the small INTESTINE, when food comes in contact with it. On being carried by the blood to the PANCREAS, it stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice.... secretin

Secretion

The term applied to the material formed by a GLAND as the result of its activity. For example, saliva is the secretion of the salivary glands; gastric juice that of the glands in the stomach wall; bile that of the liver. Some secretions consist apparently of waste material which is of no further use in the chemistry of the body. These secretions are often spoken of as excretions: for example, the URINE and the sweat – see PERSPIRATION. (For further details, see ENDOCRINE GLANDS, and also under the headings of the various organs.)... secretion

Sedation

The production of a calm and peaceful state of mind, especially by the use of SEDATIVES. The aim is to reduce abnormal anxiety and bring aggressive behaviour under control. Sedation is also a part of the preparation of a patient for surgery or for any procedure that may be frightening or uncomfortable.... sedation

Sedative

Acting on the central nervous system to produce sleep... sedative

Selegiline

A monoamine-oxidase-B-inhibiting drug used in conjunction with LEVODOPA to treat severe PARKINSONISM. Early treatment with selegiline may delay the need to give the patient levo-dopa, but at present there is no ?rm evidence that it slows down the progression of the disease.... selegiline

Semen

Fluid produced by the male on ejaculation from the penis at sexual orgasm. Each ejaculate contains up to 500 million spermatozoa (male germ cells) suspended in a ?uid that is secreted by the PROSTATE GLAND, seminal vesicles (see TESTICLE), and Cowper’s glands – a pair of small glands (also called the bulbo-urethral glands) that open into the URETHRA at the base of the penis. Semen, or seminal ?uid, contains a form of sugar (fructose) essential for the motility of sperm. The hormone TESTOSTERONE is a key element in the production of sperm and of seminal ?uid.... semen

Seminoma

A malignant tumour of the testis (see TESTICLE) that appears as an often painless swelling. This tumour usually occurs in an older age-group of men than does TERATOMA. The treatment is surgical removal. (See also TESTICLE, DISEASES OF.)... seminoma

Senility

The generalized characterization of progressive decline in mental or physical functioning as a condition of the ageing process. Within geriatric medicine, this term has limited meaning and has generally been replaced by more specific terminology.... senility

Senile Dementia

DEMENTIA was traditionally divided into presenile and senile types; this is increasingly recognised as an arbitrary division of a condition in which there is a general and often slow decline in mental capabilities. Around 10 per cent of people over 65 years of age and 20 per cent over 75 are affected by dementing illness, but people under 65 may also be affected. Treatable causes such as brain tumour, head injury, ENCEPHALITIS and alcoholism are commoner in younger people. Other causes such as cerebrovascular disease – which is a major factor, especially among older people – or ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE are not readily treatable, although ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS for the former disorder may help, and symptomatic treatment for both is possible.

Individuals with dementia suffer a gradual deterioration of memory and of the ability to grasp what is happening around them. They often cover up their early failings and the condition may ?rst become apparent as a result of emotional outbursts or uncharacteristic behaviour in public. Eventually personal habits and speech deteriorate and they become thoroughly confused and di?cult to look after. Treatment is primarily a matter of ameliorating the symptoms, coupled with a sympathetic handling of the sufferer and the relatives. Admission to hospital or nursing home may be necessary if relatives are unable to look after the patient at home. (See also MEDICINE OF THE AGEING.)... senile dementia

Sensation

See PAIN; TOUCH.... sensation

Sensory Cortex

See BRAIN.... sensory cortex

Sensory Deprivation

A substantial reduction in the volume of SENSORY information impinging on the body – for instance, sitting in a dark, silent room. Prolonged deprivation is potentially harmful as the body needs constant stimulation in order to function normally. The main input organs are the eyes, ears, skin and nose. The absence of sensations disorients a person and results in neurological dysfunction. Some interrogation techniques involve sensory deprivation to ‘soften up’ the individual being questioned.... sensory deprivation

Septic Arthritis

Infection in a joint which becomes warm, swollen and sore, with restricted movement. The infectious agent may enter the joint as a result of a penetrating wound or via the bloodstream. The condition is treated by ARTHROTOMY or ARTHROSCOPY, joint irrigation and ANTIBIOTICS. Unless treated, the articular CARTILAGE of the joint is destroyed, resulting in a painful, deformed and sometimes immobile joint. (See ARTHRITIS.)... septic arthritis

Septal Defect

A congenital abnormality of the HEART affecting about 260 babies in every 100,000, in which there is a hole in the septum – the dividing wall – between the left and right sides of the heart. The effects of the defect depend upon its size and position. A defect in the wall between the atria (upper chambers of the heart) is called an atrial septal defect, and that between the ventricles, a ventricular septal defect – the most common form (25 per cent of all defects). Both defects allow blood to circulate from the left side of the heart, where pressures are highest, to the right. This abnormal ?ow of blood is described as a ‘shunt’ and the result is that too much blood ?ows into the lungs. PULMONARY HYPERTENSION occurs and, if the shunt is large, heart failure may develop. A small septal defect may not need treatment but a large one will need to be repaired surgically.... septal defect

Septic Shock

A dangerous disorder characterised by a severe fall in blood pressure and damage to the body tissues as a result of SEPTICAEMIA. The toxins from the septicaemia cause widespread damage to tissue, provoke clotting in small blood vessels, and seriously disturb the circulation. The kidneys, lungs and heart are particularly affected. The condition occurs most commonly in people who already have a chronic disease such as cancer, CIRRHOSIS of the liver or DIABETES MELLITUS. Septic shock may also develop in patients with immunode?ciency illnesses such as AIDS (see AIDS/HIV). The symptoms are those of septicaemia, coupled with those of SHOCK: cold, cyanotic limbs; fast, thready pulse; and a lowered blood pressure. Septic shock requires urgent treatment with ANTIBIOTICS, intravenous ?uids and oxygen, and may require the use of drugs to maintain blood pressure and cardiac function, arti?cial ventilation and/or renal DIALYSIS.... septic shock

Serotonin

Also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine, this is a substance widely distributed in the body tissue, but especially in the PLATELETS in the blood, the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, and the BRAIN. Serotonin is believed to have a similar function to that of HISTAMINE in INFLAMMATION. In the gut it inhibits gastric secretion and stimulates smooth (involuntary) muscle in the walls of the INTESTINE. Serotonin participates in the transmission of nerve impulses and may have a function in controlling mood and states of consciousness. (See also SELECTIVE SEROTONIN-REUPTAKE INHIBITORS (SSRIS).)... serotonin

Serum

The ?uid which separates from blood, LYMPH, and other body ?uids when clotting occurs (see COAGULATION; HAEMORRHAGE). PLASMA is the ?uid of the blood, including FIBRIN, which carries the circulating blood cells and PLATELETS.

Serum is a clear, yellowish ?uid containing around 7 per cent proteins and globulins, small quantities of salts, fat, sugar, urea, and uric acid, and even smaller quantities of immunoglobulins, essential in the prevention of disease (see IMMUNITY; IMMUNOLOGY). The serum given in the commonly used vaccines is generally derived from horses’ blood, after they have been subjected to a long course of treatment.... serum

Sesame

See Ajonjolí.... sesame

Sessile

A growth or tumour that has no stalk.... sessile

Sexual Abuse

See CHILD ABUSE.... sexual abuse

Sexual Deviation

Any type of pleasurable sexual practice which society regards as abnormal. Deviation may be related to the activity, such as EXHIBITIONISM or sadomasochistic sex (see SADISM; MASOCHISM); or to the sexual object, for example, shoes or clothes (fetishism). Di?erent cultures have di?erent values, and treatment is probably not required unless the deviation is antisocial or harmful to the participant(s). Aversion therapy, or the conditioning of a person’s behaviour, may help if treatment is considered necessary.... sexual deviation

Sheltered Housing

Purpose-built or adapted accommodation for older people with a warden and an emergency alarm system. Different kinds of sheltered housing provide different levels of care. See “extra care sheltered housing”.... sheltered housing

Shigellosis

An acute, self-limiting intestinal infection, with diarrhea, fever, and abdominal pain, caused by one of the Shigella genus of gram-negative bacteria. The infection is contracted through food prepared by infected individuals or by direct contact with them. Raw sewage contamination can also be a source.... shigellosis

Shoulder

The joint formed by the upper end of the HUMERUS and the shoulder-blade or SCAPULA. The acromion process of the scapula and the outer end of the collar-bone (see CLAVICLE) form a protective bony arch above the joint, and from this arch the wide and thick deltoid muscle passes downwards, protecting the outer surface of the joint and giving to the shoulder its rounded character. The joint itself is of the ball-and-socket variety, the rounded head of the humerus being received into the hollow glenoid cavity of the scapula, which is further deepened by a rim of cartilage. One tendon of the biceps muscle passes through the joint, grooving the humerus deeply, and being attached to the upper edge of the glenoid cavity. The joint is surrounded by a loose ?brous capsule, strengthened at certain places by ligamentous bands. The main strength of the joint comes from the powerful muscles that unite the upper arm with the scapula, clavicle and ribs.

Shoulder-blade or scapula. A ?at bone, about as large as the ?at hand and ?ngers, placed on the upper and back part of the With the arm hanging by the side, the scapula extends from the second to the seventh rib, but, as the arm is raised and lowered, it slides freely over the back of the chest. On the rear surface of the bone is a strong process, the spine of the scapula. This arches upwards and forwards into the acromion process. The latter forms the bony prominence on the top of the shoulder, where it unites in a joint with the outer end of the clavicle.... shoulder

Shunt

Passage of blood through a channel that is not its normal one. This may occur as a result of a congenital deformity (see SEPTAL DEFECT) or of surgery – for example, a porto-caval shunt in which the main portal vein is joined up to the inferior vena cava.... shunt

Siamese Twins

See CONJOINED TWINS; MULTIPLE BIRTHS.... siamese twins

Side-effect

An effect, other than the intended one, produced by a preventive, diagnostic or therapeutic procedure or regimen.... side-effect

Siderosis

Chronic FIBROSIS of the LUNGS occurring in iron-workers and due to the inhalation of ?ne iron particles. The term is also applied to the condition in which there is an excessive deposit of iron in the tissues of the body.... siderosis

Sids

See SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS).... sids

Sigmoidoscopy

Examination of the RECTUM and sigmoid COLON (see also INTESTINE) with an endoscopic viewing device called a sigmoidoscope (see also ENDOSCOPE). The procedure is done to investigate rectal bleeding or persistent diarrhoea, with the aim of detecting or excluding cancer of the rectum and COLITIS. Sigmoidoscopy, which nowadays is performed with a ?exible instrument, can usually be performed on an outpatient basis.... sigmoidoscopy

Sign

An indication of the existence of something; any objective evidence of a disease.... sign

Silicosis

The most important industrial hazard in those industries in which SILICA is encountered: in other words, the pottery industry, the sandstone industry, sandblasting, metal-grinding, the tin-mining industry, and anthracite coal-mines. It is a speci?c form of PNEUMOCONIOSIS caused by the inhalation of free silica. Among pottery workers the condition has for long been known as potter’s asthma, whilst in the cutlery industry it was known as grinder’s rot. For the production of silicosis, the particles of silica must measure 0·5–5 micrometres in diameter, and they must be inhaled into the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs, where they produce FIBROSIS. This diminishes the e?ciency of the lungs, resulting in slowly progressive shortness of breath. The main danger of silicosis, however, is that it is liable to be complicated by TUBERCULOSIS.

The incidence of silicosis is steadily being reduced by various measures which diminish the risk of inhaling silica dust. These include adequate ventilation to draw o? the dust; the suppression of dust by the use of water; the wearing of respirators where the risk is particularly great and it is not possible to reduce the amount of dust – for example, in sand-blasting; and periodic medical examination of work-people exposed to risk. Fewer than 100 new cases a year are diagnosed now in the United Kingdom. (See also OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH, MEDICINE AND DISEASES.)... silicosis

Simvastatin

One of the STATINS – a group of LIPID-lowering drugs which are e?ective – in combination with a low CHOLESTEROL diet – in reducing the incidence of heart attacks (see HEART, DISEASES OF – Coronary thrombosis).... simvastatin

Sinoatrial Node

This is the natural pacemaker of the HEART, and comprises a collection of specialised muscle cells in the wall of the upper chamber (atrium) of the heart. The cells initiate electrical impulses at a rate of up to 100 a minute. These impulses stimulate the muscles of the heart to contract. The rate is altered by the effects of certain hormones and various impulses from the nervous system. Damage or disease of the node affects the regular beating of the heart. (See also CARDIAC PACEMAKER.)... sinoatrial node

Sinus

A term applied to narrow cavities of various kinds, occurring naturally in the body, or resulting from disease. Thus it is applied to the air-containing cavities which are found in the frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal and maxillary bones of the SKULL, and which communicate with the NOSE. The function of these paranasal sinuses, as they are known, is doubtful, but they do lighten the skull and add resonance to the voice. They enlarge considerably around puberty and in this way are a factor in the alteration of the size and shape of the face. The term is also used in connection with the wide spaces through which the blood circulates in the membranes (MENINGES) of the BRAIN. Cavities which are produced when an ABSCESS has burst, but remain unhealed, are also known as sinuses (see also FISTULA).... sinus

Skeleton

The comprehensive term applied to the hard structures that support or protect the softer tissues of the body. Many animals are possessed of an exoskeleton, consisting of super?cial plates of bone, horn, or the like; but in humans the skeleton is entirely an endoskeleton, covered everywhere by soft parts and consisting mainly of bones, but in places also of cartilage. The chief positions in which cartilage is found in place of bone are the larynx and the front of the chest. (For details of the skeleton, see BONE.)... skeleton

Slapped Cheek Syndrome

See ERYTHEMA – Erythema infectiosum.... slapped cheek syndrome

Sling

A hanging bandage for the support of injured or diseased parts. Slings are generally applied for support of the upper limb, in which case the limb is suspended from the neck. The lower limb may also be supported in a sling from an iron cage placed upon the bed on which the patient lies, the object usually being to aid the circulation, and so quicken the healing of ulcers on the leg.... sling

Skull

This is the collection of 22 ?at and irregularly shaped bones which protect the brain and form the face (see BONE).

Arrangement of the bones In childhood, the bones are independent, gradually fusing together by sutures, and in old age fusing completely so that the cranium forms a solid bony case. At the time of birth the growth of several bones of the infant’s head has not been quite completed, so that six soft spots, or fontanellas, present; here the brain is covered only by skin and membranes, and the pulsations of its blood vessels may be seen. One of these spots, the anterior fontanelle, does not close completely until the child is 18 months to 2••• years old.

Parts of the skull The cranium, enclosing the brain, consists of eight bones, while the face, which forms a bony framework for the eyes, nose and mouth, consists of 14 bones. These two parts can be detached.

Shape of the skull The development of large central hemispheres of the brain in humans has in?uenced the skull shape. Unlike in other mammals, the cranium extends above as well as behind the face which therefore looks forwards. The skull’s proportions change with age: the cranium in children is larger in comparison with the face – one-eighth of the whole head – than is the case in adults, where sizes are about the same. Old age reduces the size of the face because of the loss of teeth and absorption of their bony sockets. Women’s skulls tend to be lighter and smoother with less obvious protuberances than those in men.... skull

Sleep

Sleep is a state which alternates with wakefulness, and in which awareness and responsiveness to the environment are reduced. It is not, however, uniform and can be divided into two main states di?erentiated according to electrical recordings of brain activity (EEG), of the muscles (EMG), and of the eye movements (EOG).

Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep This is subdivided into four stages, of which stage 1 is the lightest and stage 4 the deepest. The activity of the cerebral cortex (see BRAIN) is diminished and the body’s functions are mainly regulated by brain-stem activity. The metabolic rate is reduced; in keeping with this the temperature falls, respiration is reduced, cardiac output, heart rate, and blood pressure fall, and activity of the sympathetic nervous system is reduced. NREM sleep normally occurs at the onset of sleep except in neonates. During adult life, the duration – particularly of stages 3 and 4 – of NREM sleep becomes less, and very little of this deep sleep occurs after the age of 60 years.

NREM sleep has been thought to have several functions, such as energy conservation and growth. Growth hormone is produced in bursts during stages 3 and 4, and more cell division occurs during this type of sleep than during wakefulness. A controversial proposal has been that processing of information acquired during wakefulness occurs during NREM sleep.... sleep

Slough

Slough (pronounced ‘slu?’) is dead tissue separated by natural processes from the living body. The term is applied to hard external parts which the lower animals cast o? naturally in the course of growth, like the skin of snakes or the shell of crabs. In humans, however, the process is generally associated with disease, and is then known as GANGRENE. Sloughs may be of very small size, as in the case of the core of a boil, or they may include a whole limb; but in general a slough involves a limited area of skin or of the underlying tissues. The process of separation of a slough is described under gangrene.... slough

Smegma

A thick, cheesy secretion formed by the SEBACEOUS GLANDS of the glans penis (see PENIS). A bacillus, closely resembling the tubercle bacillus morphologically, develops readily in this secretion.... smegma

Snellen Chart

The most commonly used chart for testing the acuity of distant VISION. The chart comprises rows of capital letters, with the letters in each row being smaller than those in the one above. The top line of large letters can be seen by a normally sighted person standing 60 metres away. The subject under test sits 6 metres from the screen and, if he or she can read the 6-metre line of letters, his or her visual acuity is normal at 6/6.... snellen chart

Snow Blindness

Damage caused to the cornea of an unprotected EYE by the re?ection of the sun’s rays from snow. ULTRAVIOLET RAYS (UVR) are the damaging agent and people going out in snow and sunlight should wear protective goggles. The condition is painful but resolves if the eyes are covered with pads for a day or two. Prolonged exposure may seriously damage the cornea and impair vision.... snow blindness

Snoring

This is usually attributed to vibrations of the soft PALATE, but there is evidence that the main fault lies in the edge of the posterior pillars of the FAUCES which vibrate noisily. Mouth-breathing is necessary for snoring, but not all mouth-breathers snore. The principal cause is blockage of the nose, such as occurs during the course of the common cold or chronic nasal CATARRH; such blockage also occurs in some cases of deviation of the nasal SEPTUM or nasal polypi (see NOSE, DISORDERS OF). In children, mouth-breathing, with resulting snoring, is often due to enlarged TONSILS and adenoids. A further cause of snoring is loss of tone in the soft palate and surrounding tissues due to smoking, overwork, fatigue, obesity, and general poor health. One in eight people are said to snore regularly. The intensity, or loudness, of snoring is in the range of 40–69 decibels. (Pneumatic drills register between 70 and 90 decibels.) Bouts of snoring sometimes alternate with SLEEP APNOEAS.

Treatment therefore consists of the removal of any of these causes of mouth-breathing that may be present. Should this not succeed in preventing snoring, then measures should be taken to prevent the sufferer from sleeping lying on his or her back, as this is a habit strongly conducive to snoring. Simple measures include sleeping with several pillows, so that the head is raised quite considerably when asleep; alternatively, a small pillow may be put under the nape of the neck. If all these measures fail it may be worth trying the traditional method of sewing a hairbrush, or some other hard object such as a stone, into the back of the snorer’s pyjamas. Thus, if they turn on their back, they are quickly awakened. (See also STERTOR.)... snoring

Sodium

A metal, the salts of which are white, crystalline, and very soluble. The ?uids of the body contain naturally a considerable quantity of sodium chloride.

Sodium carbonate, commonly known as soda or washing soda, has a powerful softening action upon the tissues.

Sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda, is used as an antacid (see ANTACIDS) in relieving indigestion associated with increased acidity of the gastric secretion.

The citrate and the acetate of sodium are used as DIURETICS.... sodium

Sodium Valproate

A drug of ?rst choice for the treatment of several forms of EPILEPSY, including primary generalised epilepsy, generalised absences and myoclonic seizures; it may also be tried in atypical absence, atonic and tonic seizures. Usually taken orally, the drug has shown promising initial results from controlled trials in partial epilepsy. It probably has similar e?cacy to CARBAMAZEPINE and PHENYTOIN SODIUM.

Sodium valproate has widespread metabolic effects and may have dose-related side-effects. There has been concern over severe hepatic or pancreatic toxicity, but such adverse effects are rare. Other adverse effects include digestive upsets, drowsiness, muscle incoordination and skin rashes. Rare reports have been given of behavioural disturbances, with occasional aggression. Initiation and withdrawal of treatment should always be slow. Patients should reduce their alcohol intake; any other drugs they are taking that are metabolised by the liver should be carefully monitored.... sodium valproate

Solar Plexus

A large network of sympathetic nerves and ganglia situated in the abdomen behind the stomach, where it surrounds the coeliac artery. Branches of the VAGUS nerve – the most important part of the PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – lead into the solar plexus, which in turn distributes branches to the stomach, intestines and several other abdominal organs. A severe blow in the solar plexus may cause temporary unconsciousness.... solar plexus

Somatotype

The physical build of a person. Attempts have been made to link body build with personality type, but with no great success. One approach is to classify people as endomorphs (heavy physique and sociable personality); mesomorphs (strong, muscular build with well-developed bones linked with a physically adventurous temperament); and ectomorphs (thin and lightly built with an introspective nature).... somatotype

Somnambulism

Sleep-walking. (See SLEEP.)... somnambulism

Soporific

Inducing sleep... soporific

Sore

Sore is a popular term for ULCER.... sore

Sore Throat

A raw sensation at the back of the throat. A common symptom, the cause is usually PHARYNGITIS, sometimes TONSILLITIS. It is often the presenting symptom of colds, INFLUENZA, LARYNGITIS and infectious MONONUCLEOSIS. Sore throats caused by streptococcal infection (see STREPTOCOCCUS) should be treated with antibiotics, as should other bacteria-initiated sore throats; otherwise, symptomatic treatment with analgesics and antiseptic gargles is suf?cient for this usually self-limiting condition.... sore throat

Spasmolytic

Helping to relieve cramps and other muscle contractions... spasmolytic

Specificity

A high rate of detection of “true negatives”, for example, the fraction of subjects who actually received bad care who are classified as recipients of bad care. For medical screening tests, the proportion of truly non-diseased persons who are so identified by the screening test. It is a measure of the probability of correctly identifying a non-diseased person with a screening test (synonymous with ‘true negative rate’).... specificity

Spasm

An involuntary, and, in severe cases, painful contraction of a muscle or of a hollow organ with a muscular wall. Spasm may be due to affections in the muscle where the spasm takes place, or it may originate in some disturbance of that part of the nervous system which controls the spasmodically acting muscles. Spasms of a general nature are usually spoken of as CONVULSIONS; spasms of a painful nature are known as cramp (see under MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF) when they affect the muscles of the limbs, and as COLIC when they are situated in the stomach, intestines, ureters or bile duct, or other organs of the abdomen. Spasm of the heart is called ANGINA PECTORIS, and is both a serious and an agonising condition. When the spasm is a prolonged ?rm contraction, it is spoken of as tonic spasm; when it consists of a series of twitches or quick alternate contractions and relaxations, it is known as clonic spasm. Spasm is a symptom of many diseases.... spasm

Speculum

An instrument designed to aid the examination of the various openings on the surface of the body. Many specula are provided with small electric lamps so placed as to light up the cavity of the mouth, ear, nose, rectum or vagina.... speculum

Speech Therapy

The treatment of speech and communication disorders.... speech therapy

Spermatic Cord

This comprises the VAS DEFERENS, nerves and blood vessels, and it runs from the cavity of the ABDOMEN to the TESTICLE in the SCROTUM.... spermatic cord

Sphygmomanometer

The traditional device for measuring blood pressure in clinical practice, devised by Riva-Rocci and Korotko? about a century ago. Measurement depends on accurate transmission and interpretation of the pulse wave to an artery. The sphygmomanometer is of two types, mercury and aneroid. The former is more accurate. Both have some features in common – an in?ation-de?ation system, an occluding bladder encased in a cu?, and the use of AUSCULTATION with a STETHOSCOPE. The mercury sphygmomanometer consists of a pneumatic armlet which is connected via a rubber tube with an air-pressure pump and a measuring gauge comprising a glass column containing mercury. The armlet is bound around the upper arm and pumped up su?ciently to obliterate the pulse felt at the wrist or heard by auscultation of the artery at the bend of the elbow. The pressure, measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), registered at this point on the gauge is regarded as the pressure of the blood at each heartbeat (ventricular contraction). This is called the systolic pressure. The cu? is then slowly de?ated by releasing the valve on the air pump and the pressure at which the sound heard in the artery suddenly changes its character marks the diastolic pressure. Aneroid sphygmomanometers register pressure through an intricate bellows and lever system which is more susceptible than the mercury type to the bumps and jolts of everyday use which reduce its inaccuracy.

While mercury sphygmomanometers are simple, accurate and easily serviced, there is concern about possible mercury toxicity for users, those servicing the devices and the environment. Use of them has already been banned in some European hospitals. Although it may be a few years before they are widely replaced, automated blood-pressure-measuring devices will increasingly be in routine use. A wide variety of ambulatory blood-pressuremeasuring devices are already available and may be ?tted in general practice or hospital settings, where the patient is advised on the technique. Blood-pressure readings can be taken half-hourly – or more often, if required – with little disturbance of the patient’s daily activities or sleep. (See also BLOOD PRESSURE; HYPERTENSION.)... sphygmomanometer

Spikenard

Aralia racemosa. N.O. Araliaceae.

Synonym: Indian Spikenard, Pettymorrel, Spignet.

Habitat: U.s.a

Features ? Rhizome is about one inch in diameter, oblique, with concave stem scars. Root is a similar thickness at the base, wrinkled, light brown. Fracture short and whitish. Taste and odour aromatic.

Part used ? Root, rhizome.

Action: Alterative, diaphoretic.

The strong alterative properties are made considerable use of in rheumatic and general uric acid disorders, as well as various skin diseases. Decoction of 1/2 ounce to 1 1/2 pints (reduced to 1 pint) is taken in tablespoonful doses four times daily.... spikenard

Spirochaete

An order of bacteria which has a spiral form. (See MICROBIOLOGY.)... spirochaete

Spironolactone

One of the group of substances known as spirolactones. These are steroids similar to ALDOSTERONE in structure which competitively act as inhibitors of it; they can thus antagonise the action of aldosterone in the renal tubules. As there is evidence that there is an increased output of aldosterone in oedematous conditions (see OEDEMA) – such as congestive heart failure, which accentuates the oedema – spironolactone is used, along with other DIURETICS.... spironolactone

Splenectomy

Removal of the SPLEEN. This operation may be necessary if the spleen has been severely injured, or in the treatment of the severe form of acholuric JAUNDICE or autoimmune thrombocytopenic PURPURA.... splenectomy

Spondylitis

Another name for ARTHRITIS of the spine (see SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF).... spondylitis

Spondylolisthesis

See SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.... spondylolisthesis

Spinal Cord

This is the lower portion of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM which is situated within the SPINAL COLUMN. Above, it forms the direct continuation of the medulla oblongata, this part of the BRAIN changing its name to spinal cord at the foramen magnum, the large opening in the base of the skull through which it passes into the spinal canal. Below, the spinal cord extends to about the upper border of the second lumbar vertebra, where it tapers o? into a ?ne thread, known as the ?lum terminale, that is attached to the coccyx at the lower end of the spine. The spinal cord is thus considerably shorter than the spinal column, being only 37– 45 cm (15–18 inches) in length, and weighing around 30 grams.

In its course from the base of the skull to the lumbar region, the cord gives o? 31 nerves on each side, each of which arises by an anterior and a posterior root that join before the nerve emerges from the spinal canal. The openings for the nerves formed by notches on the ring of each vertebra have been mentioned under the entry for spinal column. To reach these openings, the upper nerves pass almost directly outwards, whilst lower down their obliquity increases, until below the point where the cord ends there is a sheaf of nerves, known as the cauda equina, running downwards to leave the spinal canal at their appropriate openings.

The cord is a cylinder, about the thickness of the little ?nger. It has two slightly enlarged portions, one in the lower part of the neck, the other at the last dorsal vertebra; and from these thickenings arise the nerves that pass to the upper and lower limbs. The upper four cervical nerves unite to produce the cervical plexus. From this the muscles and skin of the neck are mainly supplied, and the phrenic nerve, which runs down through the lower part of the neck and the chest to innervate the diaphragm, is given o?. The brachial plexus is formed by the union of the lower four cervical and ?rst dorsal nerves. In addition to nerves to some of the muscles in the shoulder region, and others to the skin about the shoulder and inner side of the arm, the plexus gives o? large nerves that proceed down the arm.

The thoracic or dorsal nerves, with the exception of the ?rst, do not form a plexus, but each runs around the chest along the lower margin of the rib to which it corresponds, whilst the lower six extend on to the abdomen.

The lumbar plexus is formed by the upper four lumbar nerves, and its branches are distributed to the lower part of the abdomen, and front and inner side of the thigh.

The sacral plexus is formed by parts of the fourth and ?fth lumbar nerves, and the upper three and part of the fourth sacral nerves. Much of the plexus is collected into the sciatic nerves, the largest in the body, which go to the legs.

The sympathetic system is joined by a pair of small branches given o? from each spinal nerve, close to the spine. This system consists of two parts, ?rst, a pair of cords running down on the side and front of the spine, and containing on each side three ganglia in the neck, and beneath this a ganglion opposite each vertebra. From these two ganglionated cords numerous branches are given o?, and these unite to form the second part – namely, plexuses connected with various internal organs, and provided with numerous large and irregularly placed ganglia. The chief of these plexuses are the cardiac plexus, the solar or epigastric plexus, the diaphragmatic, suprarenal, renal, spermatic, or ovarian, aortic, hypogastric and pelvic plexuses.

The spinal cord, like the brain, is surrounded by three membranes: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater, from without inwards. The arrangement of the dura and arachnoid is much looser in the case of the cord than their application to the brain. The dura especially forms a wide tube which is separated from the cord by ?uid and from the vertebral canal by blood vessels and fat, this arrangement protecting the cord from pressure in any ordinary movements of the spine.

In section the spinal cord consists partly of grey, but mainly of white, matter. It di?ers from the upper parts of the brain in that the white matter (largely) in the cord is arranged on the surface, surrounding a mass of grey matter (largely neurons – see NEURON(E)), while in the brain the grey matter is super?cial. The arrangement of grey matter, as seen in a section across the cord, resembles the letter H. Each half of the cord possesses an anterior and a posterior horn, the masses of the two sides being joined by a wide posterior grey commissure. In the middle of this commissure lies the central canal of the cord, a small tube which is the continuation of the ventricles in the brain. The horns of grey matter reach almost to the surface of the cord, and from their ends arise the roots of the nerves that leave the cord. The white matter is divided almost completely into two halves by a posterior septum and anterior ?ssure and is further split into anterior, lateral and posterior columns.

Functions The cord is, in part, a receiver and originator of nerve impulses, and in part a conductor of such impulses along ?bres which pass through it to and from the brain. The cord contains centres able to receive sensory impressions and initiate motor instructions. These control blood-vessel diameters, eye-pupil size, sweating and breathing. The brain exerts an overall controlling in?uence and, before any incoming sensation can affect consciousness, it is usually ‘?ltered’ through the brain.

Many of these centres act autonomously. Other cells of the cord are capable of originating movements in response to impulses brought direct to them through sensory nerves, such activity being known as REFLEX ACTION. (For a fuller description of the activities of the spinal cord, see NEURON(E) – Re?ex action.)

The posterior column of the cord consists of the fasciculus gracilis and the fasciculus cuneatus, both conveying sensory impressions upwards. The lateral column contains the ventral and the dorsal spino-cerebellar tracts passing to the cerebellum, the crossed pyramidal tract of motor ?bres carrying outgoing impulses downwards together with the rubro-spinal, the spino-thalamic, the spino-tectal, and the postero-lateral tracts. And, ?nally, the anterior column contains the direct pyramidal tract of motor ?bres and an anterior mixed zone. The pyramidal tracts have the best-known course. Starting from cells near the central sulcus on the brain, the motor nerve-?bres run down through the internal capsule, pons, and medulla, in the lower part of which many of those coming from the right side of the brain cross to the left side of the spinal cord, and vice versa. Thence the ?bres run down in the crossed pyramidal tract to end beside nerve-cells in the anterior horn of the cord. From these nerve-cells other ?bres pass outwards to form the nerves that go direct to the muscles. Thus the motor nerve path from brain to muscle is divided into two sections of neurons, of which the upper exerts a controlling in?uence upon the lower, while the lower is concerned in maintaining the muscle in a state of health and good nutrition, and in directly calling it into action. (See also NERVE; NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... spinal cord

Sprue

A disease occurring most commonly in patients in or from the tropics, and characterised by diarrhoea with large, fatty stools; ANAEMIA; sore tongue; and weight loss. Its manifestations resemble those of non-tropical sprue, or gluten enteropathy, and COELIAC DISEASE.

Causes Tropical sprue is thought to be due to an inborn error of metabolism, characterised primarily by an inability to absorb fats from the intestines. Its epidemiological pattern suggests that an infection such as DYSENTERY may be the precipitating factor. Subsequently there is interference with the absorption of carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, leading to anaemia and HYPOCALCAEMIA.

Symptoms Of gradual or rapid onset, there is initial weakness, soreness of the tongue, dif?culty swallowing, indigestion, diarrhoea and poor appetite. Anaemia is typically macrocytic, and mild HYPOGLYCAEMIA may occur. Untreated, the patient steadily loses weight and, unless appropriate treatment is started early, death may be expected because of exhaustion and some intercurrent infection.

Treatment This consists of bed rest, a high-protein diet (initially skimmed milk), and treatment of the anaemia and any other de?ciencies present. Minimum fat should be given to sufferers, who should also take folic acid and cyanocobalamin for the anaemia; large vitamin-B-complex supplements (such as Marmite®) are helpful. Vitamins A and D, together with calcium supplements, help to raise the concentration of calcium in the blood. A long convalescence is often required, which may lead to marked depression, and patients should be sent home to a temperate climate.

Non-tropical sprue is the result of GLUTEN hypersensitivty and is treated with a gluten-free diet.... sprue

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Malignant tumour of squamous epithelium of skin, which generally spreads and metastasises.... squamous cell carcinoma

Stage

Estimate of the extent of spread of a cancer; usually expressed in as a number, often with subdivisions. The prognosis of a particular cancer varies with the staging.... stage

Sports Medicine

The ?eld of medicine concerned with physical ?tness and the diagnosis and treatment of both acute and chronic sports injuries sustained during training and competition. Acute injuries are extremely common in contact sports, and their initial treatment is similar to that of those sustained in other ways, such as falls and road traf?c incidents. Tears of the muscles (see MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF), CONNECTIVE TISSUE and LIGAMENTS which are partial (sprains) are initially treated with rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE) of the affected part. Complete tears (rupture) of ligaments (see diagrams) or muscles, or fractures (see BONE, DISORDERS OF – Bone fractures) require more prolonged immobilisation, often in plaster, or surgical intervention may be considered. The rehabilitation of injured athletes requires special expertise

– an early graded return to activity gives the best long-term results, but doing too much too soon runs the risk of exacerbating the original injury.

Chronic (overuse) injuries affecting the bones (see BONE), tendons (see TENDON) or BURSAE of the JOINTS are common in many sports. Examples include chronic INFLAMMATION of the common extensor tendon where it

attaches to the later EPICONDYLE of the humerus – common in throwers and racquet sportspeople – and stress fractures of the TIBIA or METATARSAL BONES of the foot in runners. After an initial period of rest, management often involves coaching that enables the athlete to perform the repetitive movement in a less injury-susceptible manner.

Exercise physiology is the science of measuring athletic performance and physical ?tness for exercise. This knowledge is applied to devising and supervising training regimens based on scienti?c principles. Physical ?tness depends upon the rate at which the body can deliver oxygen to the muscles, known as the VO2max, which is technically di?cult to measure. The PULSE rate during and after a bout of exercise serves as a good proxy of this measurement.

Regulation of sport Sports medicine’s role is to minimise hazards for participants by, for example, framing rule-changes which forbid collapsing the scrum, which has reduced the risk of neck injury in rugby; and in the detection of the use of drugs taken to enhance athletic performance. Such attempts to gain an edge in competition undermine the sporting ideal and are banned by leading sports regulatory bodies. The Olympic Movement Anti-Doping Code lists prohibited substances and methods that could be used to enhance performance. These include some prohibited in certain circumstances as well as those completely banned. The latter include:

stimulants such as AMPHETAMINES, bromantan, ca?eine, carphedon, COCAINE, EPHEDRINE and certain beta-2 agonists.

NARCOTICS such as DIAMORPHINE (heroin), MORPHINE, METHADONE HYDROCHLORIDE and PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE.

ANABOLIC STEROIDS such as methandione, NANDROLONE, stanazol, TESTOSTERONE, clenbuterol, androstenedone and certain beta-2 agonists.

peptide HORMONES, mimetics and analogues such as GROWTH HORMONE, CORTICOTROPHIN, CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIC HORMONE, pituitary and synthetic GONADOTROPHINS, ERYTHROPOIETIN and INSULIN. (The list produced above is not comprehen

sive: full details are available from the governing bodies of relevant sports.) Among banned methods are blood doping (pre-competition administration of an athlete’s own previously provided and stored blood), administration of arti?cial oxygen carriers or plasma expanders. Also forbidden is any pharmacological, chemical or physical manipulation to affect the results of authorised testing.

Drug use can be detected by analysis of the URINE, but testing only at the time of competition is unlikely to detect drug use designed to enhance early-season training; hence random testing of competitive athletes is also used.

The increasing professionalism and competitiveness (among amateurs and juveniles as well as professionals) in sports sometimes results in pressures on participants to get ?t quickly after injury or illness. This can lead to

players returning to their activity before they are properly ?t – sometimes by using physical or pharmaceutical aids. This practice can adversely affect their long-term physical capabilities and perhaps their general health.... sports medicine

Squill

Urginea scilla. N.O. Liliaceae.

Synonym: Scilla.

Habitat: Grown near the sea coast in Sicily and Malta.

Features ? A large bulbous plant, Scilla is imported in the form of dried, curved segments of the white, bulbous root, which are tough, dirty white in colour, and approximate two inches long by a quarter-inch wide. The fracture is short, taste acrid. The powdered bulb is very hydroscopic, and should consequently be kept airtight. An Indian variety is used throughout the East, and has similar properties to the above.

Part used ? Bulb.

Action: Expectorant, emetic.

As an expectorant for coughs and all bronchial affections. Is used generally to allay irritation of mucous surfaces. Dose, 2 to 10 grains of the powdered bulb. Large doses produce emesis.... squill

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount by which each value deviates from the mean; equal to the square root of the variance, i.e. the square root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean. It is the most commonly used measure of dispersion of statistical data.... standard deviation

Squint

Squint, or strabismus, is a condition in which the visual axes of each EYE are not directed simultaneously at the same ?xation point (i.e. each eye is not pointing at the same object at the same time). Squints may be: (a) Paralytic, where one or more of the muscles, or their nerve supply, is damaged; this type usually results in double vision. (b) Non-paralytic, where the muscles and nerves are normal. It is usually found in children. This type of squint can either result in poor vision, or occasionally may result from poor vision.

Squints may be convergent (where one eye ‘turns in’) or divergent (one eye ‘turns out’). Vertical squints can also occur but are less common. All squints should be seen by an eye specialist as soon as possible. Some squints can be corrected by exercises or spectacles; others require surgery.... squint

Stammering

A disruption of the forward ?ow of speech. The individual knows what he or she wants to say, but temporarily loses the ability to execute linguistically formulated speech. Stammering is characterised by a silent or audible involuntary repetition/prolongation of an utterance, be it a sound, syllable or word. Sometimes it is accompanied by accessory behaviours, or speech-related struggle. Usually there are indications or the report of an accompanying emotional state, involving excitement, tension, fear or embarrassment.

Idiopathic stammering begins at some time between the onset of speech and puberty, mostly between 2–5 years of age. Acquired stammering at a later age due to brain damage is rare. The prevalence of stammering (the percentage of the population actually stammering at any point in time) is approximately 0·9 per cent. Three times as many boys as girls stammer. About 70 per cent of stammering children recover with little or no therapy. Stammerers have not been shown to demonstrate di?erences in personality from non-stammerers; there are, however, indications that at least some stammerers show minimal di?erences from ?uent speakers in cerebral processing of verbal material.

There is a genetic predisposition towards stammering. The risk of stammering among ?rst-degree relatives of stammerers is more than three times the population risk. In 77 per cent of identical twins, either both stammer or both are ?uent. Only 33 per cent of non-identical twins agree in this way. As there are identical twins who di?er for stammering, environmental factors must be important for some stammerers. There are relatively large numbers of stammerers in highly competitive societies, where status and prestige are important and high standards of speech competence are valued.

Di?erent treatments have been demonstrated to produce considerable bene?t, their basic outline being similar. A long period of time is spent in training stammerers to speak in a di?erent way (?uency-shaping techniques). This may include slowing down the rate of speech, gentle onset of utterance, continuous ?ow with correct juncturing, etc. When the targets have been achieved within the clinic, a series of planned speech assignments outside the clinic is undertaken. In these assignments, and initially in everyday situations, the ?uency-enchancing techniques have to be used conscientiously. Gradually speech is shaped towards normality requiring less and less e?ort. Therapy may also include some work on attitude change (i.e. helping the client to see him or herself as a ?uent speaker) and possibly general communicative skills training.

For information about organisations concerned with stammering, see Appendix 2.... stammering

Stapedectomy

An operation on the middle EAR to remove the STAPES and replace it with an arti?cial alternative. The procedure is aimed at treating DEAFNESS caused by otosclerosis in which the stapes becomes ?xed by an overgrowth of bone, preventing it from transmitting sound. Stapedectomy improves hearing in around 90 per cent of those people who have the operation. (See EAR, DISEASES OF.)... stapedectomy

Stapes

The innermost of the small trio of bones in the middle EAR. It is stirrup-shaped, articulates with the incus, and is linked to the oval window of the inner ear.... stapes

Starch

A substance belonging to that group of carbohydrate known as the amyloses. It is the form in which utilisable CARBOHYDRATE is stored in granules within the seeds and roots of many plants.

Starch is converted into sugar when treated with heat in presence of a dilute acid. It is changed largely into dextrin when exposed to a considerable degree of dry heat, as in toasting bread; and a similar change into dextrin and malt-sugar takes place under the action of various enzymes (see ENZYME) such as the PTYALIN of the SALIVA. Starch forms a chief constituent of the carbohydrate foods (see DIET); and in the process of digestion, the above-mentioned change takes place to prepare it for absorption. It is also slowly broken down in the process of cooking.

Starch is used as a constituent of dusting powders for application to chafed or irritable areas of the skin.... starch

Starvation

A condition that results from a lack of food for a long time. The person suffers weight loss and changes in the body’s METABOLISM, with production of potentially harmful chemicals called ketones (see KETONE) and ACETONE. Sometimes starvation may occur as a result of an eating disorder (see EATING DISORDERS – Anorexia nervosa). In cases of slow starvation, the vitality of the tissues is reduced and they become more liable to tuberculosis and other diseases. (See also FASTING.)... starvation

Status Asthmaticus

Repeated attacks of ASTHMA, with no respite between the spasms, usually lasting for more than 24 hours. The patient is seriously distressed and, untreated, the condition may lead to death from respiratory failure and exhaustion. Continuous or very frequent use of nebulised bronchodilators, intravenous corticosteroid treatment, and other skilled medical care are urgently required.... status asthmaticus

Status Epilepticus

Repeated epileptic ?ts (see EPILEPSY) with no return to consciousness between them. Breathing stops between each ?t and the body is deprived of oxygen which causes damage to the brain. Urgent medical attention is required to control the condition, or the patient may suffer permanent brain damage.... status epilepticus

Steatorrhoea

Any condition characterised by the passing of stools (FAECES) containing an excess of FAT. (See MALABSORPTION SYNDROME.)... steatorrhoea

Stenosis

An unnatural narrowing in any passage or ori?ce of the body. The word is especially used in connection with the four openings of the HEART at which the valves are situated. (See HEART, DISEASES OF.)... stenosis

Stent

A surgical device used to assist the healing of an operative anastamosis – a joining-up of two structures. A splint is left inside the lumen of a duct and this drains the contents.... stent

Stem Cell

Stem CELLS develop a few days after an egg (ovum) is fertilised by a spermatozoon and starts developing to form an EMBRYO. These master cells are crucial to the development of a normal embryo. They contain a specialised ENZYME that gives them the facility to divide inde?nitely, developing into the many di?erent specialised cells that comprise the various tissues in the body – for example, skin, blood, muscle, glands or nerves.

In a highly signi?cant advance in research, a scienti?c team in the United States obtained stem cells from newly formed human embryos

– donated by women who had become pregnant after successful in vitro fertilisation – and successfully cultivated these cells in the laboratory. This achievement opened the way to replicating in the laboratory, the various specialised cells that develop naturally in the body. UK government legislation constrains the use of human embryos in research (see ETHICS) and the ethical aspects of taking this stem-cell culture technique forwards will have to be resolved. Nevertheless, this discovery points the biological way to the use of genetic engineering in selecting di?erentiated specialised cells from which replacement tissues could be grown for use as transplants to rectify absent or damaged tissues in the human body.

Research into potential use of stem cells has raised expectations that in the long term they may prove to be an e?ective regenerative treatment for a wide range of disorders including PARKINSONISM, ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE, type-2 diabetes (see under DIABETES MELLITUS), myocardial infarction (see HEART, DISEASES OF), severe burns, osteoporosis (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF) and the regeneration of blood to replace the need for BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT. Recent research has shown that adult stem cells may also be stimulated to produce new cell lines. If successful, this would eliminate the need to use embryos and thus resolve existing ethical dilemmas over the use of stem cells.... stem cell

Sterility

The state of (1) being free of infectious agents or (2) permanent INFERTILITY.... sterility

Sternum

The scienti?c name for the breastbone. This is a long, ?at, bony plate that comprises the central part of the chest. Made up of three parts: an upper triangular piece (manubrium); a middle part (the body); and at the bottom end the small, ?exible xiphoid process. The two clavicles articulate to the manubrium. Seven pairs of costal cartilages link the sternum to the ribs. The sternum is very strong and a powerful blow is needed to fracture it: such an injury may damage the underlying heart and lungs.... sternum

Stillbirth

A stillborn child is ‘any child which has issued forth from its mother after the 24th week of pregnancy and which did not at any time after being completely expelled from its mother, breathe or show any other sign of life’. In the United Kingdom in 2002 the number of stillbirths and deaths at under one week of age (PERINATAL MORTALITY) was 5.6 per 1,000 live births.... stillbirth

Stitch

A popular name for a sharp pain in the side. It is generally due to cramp (see MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF) following unusually hard exertion, but care must be taken that this trivial condition is not taken for PLEURISY or for a fractured rib. The word is also used to mean the repair of skin following surgery or any other trauma.... stitch

Stoma

A stoma refers to an opening constructed when the bowel has to be brought to the skin surface to convey gastrointestinal contents to the exterior. It is derived from the Greek word meaning mouth. In the United Kingdom there are about 100,000 patients with a COLOSTOMY, 10,000 with an ILEOSTOMY and some 2,000 with a urostomy, in which the ureters (see URETER) are brought to the skin surface. They may be undertaken because of malignancy of the colon or rectum (see INTESTINE) or as a result of in?ammatory bowel diseases such as CROHN’S DISEASE. Urostomies usually take the form of an isolated loop of ilium into which the ureters have been implanted and which in its turn is either brought to the skin’s surface or converted into an arti?cial bladder. This is undertaken because of bladder cancer or because of neurological diseases of the bladder. The stomas drain into appliances such as disposable plastic bags. Most of the modern appliances collect the e?uent of the stoma without any leak or odour.

Patients with stomas often ?nd explanatory booklets helpful: Living with your Colostomy and Understanding Colostomy are examples. They are published by the British Colostomy Association.... stoma

Stomach

This is a distensible, sac-like organ with an average adult capacity of 1·5 litres situated in the upper abdomen. It is positioned between the OESOPHAGUS and DUODENUM, lying just beneath the DIAPHRAGM to the right of the SPLEEN and partly under the LIVER. The stomach is a part of the gastrointestinal tract with its walls formed of layers of longitudinal and circular muscles and lined by glandular cells that secrete gastric juice. It is well supplied with blood vessels as well as nerves from the autonomic system which enter via the phrenic nerve. The exit of the stomach is guarded by a ring of muscle called the pyloric sphincter which controls the passage of food into the duodenum.

Function As well as the stomach’s prime role in physically and physiologically breaking down the food delivered via the oesophagus, it also acts as a storage organ – a function that enables people to eat three or four times a day instead of every 30 minutes or so as their metabolic needs would otherwise demand. Gastric secretion is stimulated by the sight and smell of food and its subsequent arrival in the stomach. The secretions, which contain mucus and hydrochloric acid (the latter produced by parietal cells), sterilise the food; pepsin, a digestive ENZYME in the gastric juices, breaks down the protein in food. The juices also contain intrinsic factor, vital for the absorption of vitamin B12 when the chyle – as the stomach contents are called – reaches the intestine. This chyle is of creamy consistency and is the end product of enzymic action and rhythmic contractions of the stomach’s muscles every 30 seconds or so. Food remains in the stomach for varying lengths of time depending upon its quantity and nature. At regular intervals a bolus of chyle is forced into the duodenum by contractions of the stomach muscles coordinated with relaxation of the pyloric sphincter.... stomach

Strabismus

See SQUINT.... strabismus

Strain

Stretching or tearing of muscle ?bres caused by subjecting them to sudden pulling. Bleeding into the muscle causes pain and swelling and sometimes muscle spasm. Application of ice packs and strapping, coupled with a day or two’s rest and analgesics, are usually su?cient to remedy most strains. Sometimes antiin?ammatory drugs or physiotherapy may be required.... strain

Strangulation

The constriction of a passage or tube in the body that blocks the blood ?ow and disturbs the working of the affected organ. It is usually caused by compression or twisting. Strangulation customarily occurs when part of the INTESTINE herniates either inside the abdomen or outside as in an inguinal HERNIA. If a section of the intestine twists, this may strangulate and is known as a VOLVULUS.

Strangulation of a person’s neck, either with a ligature or with the hands, obstructs the jugular veins in the neck, preventing the normal out?ow of blood from the brain and head. The TRACHEA is also compressed, cutting o? the supply of air to the lungs. The combination of these effects leads to HYPOXIA and damage to the brain. If not quickly relieved, unconsciousness and death follow. Strangulation may be deliberate or accidental – the latter being a particular hazard for children, for example, when playing with a rope. Removal of the constriction, arti?cial respiration, and medical attention are urgently necessary.... strangulation

Streptokinase

An ENZYME produced by certain streptococci (see STREPTOCOCCUS). It acts as a PLASMINOGEN activator, and hence enhances FIBRINOLYSIS. The most important use of streptokinase is in the treatment of myocardial infarction (see HEART, DISEASES OF) in the ?rst 12 hours after the initial diagnosis. Subsequently, use of this thrombolytic drug should be under hospital supervision. It is given intravenously, in hospital by infusion. It may be given as an infusion to treat severe THROMBOSIS or EMBOLISM, particularly when they occur in a limb, and in deep venous thrombosis. Being antigenic and very expensive it is rarely used for more than two days, and is followed by anticoagulation therapy. The chief risk is haemorrhage, so an anti?brinolytic such as aminocaproic acid should always be available.... streptokinase

Streptomycin

Streptomycin is an antibacterial substance obtained from the soil mould, Streptomyces griseus, ?rst isolated in 1944 and the ?rst antibiotic to be e?ective against the tubercle bacillus. It was once routinely used to treat TUBERCULOSIS; because of side-effects and the development of other drugs, it is now rarely used except for in cases of resistant tuberculosis.

One of the AMINOGLYCOSIDES, streptomycin has two disadvantages. The most important of these is the tendency of organisms to become resistant to it. This means that the administration of this antibiotic must be carefully supervised to ensure that correct dosage is being used. The other disadvantage is that streptomycin produces toxic effects, especially disturbance of the vestibular and hearing apparatus. This may result in DEAFNESS, VERTIGO, and TINNITUS. Whilst in many cases these toxic manifestations disappear when the antibiotic is withdrawn, they may be permanent. For this reason therefore streptomycin must always be used with special care.... streptomycin

Stress

Any factor or event that threatens a person’s health or adversely affects his or her normal functioning. Injury, disease or worry are common examples; others include internal con?icts, emotive life events – such as the death of a close relative or friend, the birth of a baby, separation or divorce – pressures at work or a hostile environment such as war or famine. Some individuals seem to be more prone than others to develop medical problems related to stress.

Stress prompts the body to raise its output of HORMONES such as ADRENALINE and CORTISOL, causing changes in blood pressure, heart rate and metabolism. These are physiological responses intended to improve a person’s physical and mental performance – the ‘?ght or ?ight’ reaction to fear. Stress may, however, disrupt the ability to cope. Constant or recurrent exposure to stress may produce symptoms such as anxiety, depression, headaches, indigestion, diarrhoea, palpitations and general malaise (see POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)). Treatment can be di?cult and prolonged; counselling can help as can ANXIOLYTICS or ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS – but a change in job or lifestyle may be necessary in some circumstances.... stress

Stricture

A narrowing in any of the natural passages of the body, such as the GULLET, the bowel, or the URETHRA. It may be due to the development of some growth in the wall of the passage affected, or to pressure upon it by such a growth in some neighbouring organ, but in the majority of cases a stricture is the result of previous ulceration on the inner surface of the passage, followed by contraction of the scar. (See INTESTINE, DISEASES OF; URETHRA, DISEASES OF.)... stricture

Stridor

A noise associated with inspiration due to narrowing of the upper airway, in particular the LARYNX.... stridor

Stroma

The name applied to the tissue which forms the framework and covering of an organ.... stroma

Stupor

See UNCONSCIOUSNESS.... stupor

Stuttering

See STAMMERING.... stuttering

Stye

See under EYE, DISORDERS OF.... stye

Styptic

Having the power to arrest bleeding... styptic

Stroke

Stroke, or cerebrovascular accident (CVA), is sudden damage to BRAIN tissue caused either by a lack of blood supply or rupture of a blood vessel (see ISCHAEMIC STROKE). The affected brain cells die and the parts of the body they control or receive sensory messages from cease to function.

Causes Blood supply to the brain may be interrupted by arteries furring up with ATHEROSCLEROSIS (which is accelerated by HYPERTENSION and DIABETES MELLITUS, both of which are associated with a higher incidence of strokes) or being occluded by blood clots arising from distant organs such as infected heart valves or larger clots in the heart (see BLOOD CLOT; THROMBOSIS). Hearts with an irregular rhythm are especially prone to develop clots. Patients with thick or viscous blood, clotting disorders or those with in?amed arteries – for example, in SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) – are particularly in danger of having strokes. Bleeding into the brain arises from areas of weakened blood vessels, many of which may be congenital.

Symptoms Minor episodes due to temporary lack of blood supply and oxygen (called TRANSIENT ISCHAEMIC ATTACKS OR EPISODES (TIA, TIE)) are manifested by short-lived weakness or numbness in an arm or leg and may precede a major stroke. Strokes cause sudden weakness or complete paralysis of the muscles controlled by the part of the brain affected, as well as sensory changes (e.g. numbness or tingling). In the worst cases these symptoms and signs may be accompanied by loss of consciousness. If the stroke affects the area of the brain controlling the larynx and throat, the patient may suffer slurring or loss of speech with di?culty in initiating swallowing. When the face is involved, the mouth may droop and the patient dribble. Strokes caused by haemorrhage may be preceded by headaches. Rarely, CVAs are complicated by epileptic ?ts (see EPILEPSY). If, on the other hand, numerous small clots develop in the brain rather than one major event, this may manifest itself as a gradual deterioration in the patient’s mental function, leading to DEMENTIA.

Investigations Tests on the heart or COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY or ultrasonic scans (see ULTRASOUND) on arteries in the neck may indicate the original sites of distantly arising clots. Blood tests may show increased thickness or tendency to clotting, and the diagnosis of general medical conditions can explain the presence of in?amed arteries which are prone to block. Special brain X-rays show the position and size of the damaged brain tissue and can usually distinguish between a clot or infarct and a rupture of and haemorrhage from a blood vessel in the brain.

Management It is better to prevent a stroke than try to cure it. The control of a person’s diabetes or high blood pressure will reduce the risk of a stroke. Treatment with ANTICOAGULANTS prevents the formation of clots; regular small doses of aspirin stop platelets clumping together to form plugs in blood vessels. Both treatments reduce the likelihood of minor transient ischaemic episodes proceeding to a major stroke.

Once the latter has occurred, there is no e?ective treatment to reduce the damage to brain tissue. Function will return to the affected part of the body only if and when the brain recovers and messages are again sent down the appropriate nerves. Simple movements are more likely to recover than delicate ones, and sophisticated functions have the worst outlook. Thus, movement of the thigh may improve more easily than ?ne movements of ?ngers, and any speech impairment is more likely to be permanent. A rehabilitation team can help to compensate for any disabilities the subject may have. Physiotherapists maintain muscle tone and joint ?exibility, whilst waiting for power to return; occupational therapists advise about functional problems and supply equipment to help patients overcome their disabilities; and speech therapists help with diffculties in swallowing, improve the clarity of remaining speech or o?er alternative methods of communication. District nurses or home helps can provide support to those caring for victims of stroke at home. Advice about strokes may be obtained from the Stroke Association.... stroke

Strongyloidiasis

This infection is caused by nematode worms of the genus Strongyloides spp. – the great majority being from S. stercoralis. This helminth is present throughout most tropical and subtropical countries; a single case report has been made in England – about an individual who had not been exposed to such an environment. Larvae usually penetrate intact skin, especially the feet (as with hookworm infection). Unlike hookworm infection, eggs mature and hatch in the lower gastrointestinal tract; thus larvae can immediately re-enter the circulation in the colo-rectum or perianal region, setting up an auto-infection cycle. Therefore, infection can continue for the remaining lifespan of the individual. Severe malnutrition may be a predisposing factor to infection, as was the case in prisoners of war in south-east Asia during World War II.

Whilst an infected patient is frequently asymptomatic, heavy infection can cause jejunal mucosal abnormalities, and an absorptive defect, with weight loss. During the migratory phase an itchy linear rash (larva currens) may be present on the lower abdomen, buttocks, and groins; this gives rise to recurrent transient itching. In an immunosuppressed individual, the ‘hyperinfection syndrome’ may ensue; migratory larvae invade all organs and tissues, including the lungs and brain. Associated with this widespread infection, the patient may develop an Enterobacteriacae spp. SEPTICAEMIA; this, together with S. stercoralis larvae, produces a MENINGOENCEPHALITIS. There is no evidence that this syndrome is more common in patients with HIV infection.

Diagnosis consists of visualisation of S. stercoralis (larvae or adults) in a jejunal biopsy-section or aspirate. Larvae may also be demonstrable in a faecal sample, especially following culture. Eosinophilia may be present in peripheral blood, during the invasive stage of infection. Chemotherapy consists of albendazole. The formerly used benzimidazole compound, thiabendazole, is now rarely prescribed in an uncomplicated infection due to unpleasant side-effects; even so, in the ‘hyperinfection syndrome’ it probably remains the more e?ective of the two compounds.... strongyloidiasis

Subarachnoid Haemorrhage

A haemorrhage into the subarachnoid space in the BRAIN. It is usually the result of rupture of an ANEURYSM on the CIRCLE OF WILLIS. Head injury or intense physical exercise occasionally cause subarachnoid haemorrhage; the diagnosis is con?rmed by CT scan or by identifying blood in the CEREBROSPINAL FLUID at LUMBAR PUNCTURE. Cerebral ANGIOGRAPHY will usually pinpoint the site of bleeding. Treatment is bed rest, life-support measures and procedures to reduce blood pressure; sometimes surgery is carried out but not usually until several weeks after the acute episode. About 30 per cent of patients recover fully, whilst some have residual disabilities such as EPILEPSY, mental deterioration or paralysis. About 50 per cent of those affected die.... subarachnoid haemorrhage

Sublimation

The conversion of a solid substance into a vapour and its recondensation. The term is also used in a mental sense for the process of converting instinctive sexual desires to new aims and objects devoid of sexual signi?cance.... sublimation

Subluxation

A partial dislocation of a joint; the term is sometimes applied to a sprain.... subluxation

Subphrenic Abscess

An ABSCESS that develops under the DIAPHRAGM, usually on the right side of the abdomen between the liver and the diaphragm. The cause may be an organ that has perforated – for instance, a peptic ulcer in the stomach or intestine. An abscess may also occur after an abdominal operation, usually when the bowel or stomach has been operated on. Antibiotics and sometimes surgery are the method of treatment.... subphrenic abscess

Substrate

A compound on which an ENZYME acts: for instance, ribonucleic acid (RNA) is the substrate for ribonuclease (an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of ribonucleic acid, a cellular compound involved in the synthesis of PROTEIN).... substrate

Subconscious

A state of being partially conscious, or the condition in which mental processes occur and outside objects and events are perceived with the mind nearly or quite unconscious of them. Such subconscious impressions or events may be forgotten at the time but may nevertheless exert a continued in?uence over the conscious mind, or may at a subsequent time come fully into consciousness. Much importance is attached to the in?uence of painful or unpleasant experiences which, although forgotten, continue to in?uence the mind; these may be a factor in the development of anxiety states. This injurious in?uence may be reduced when the subconscious impressions come fully into consciousness and are then remembered and clearly seen in their relative importance.... subconscious

Suction

The use of a reduction in pressure to clear away ?uids or other material through a tube. Suction is used to remove blood from the site of a surgical operation; it is commonly necessary to remove secretions from the airways of newly born babies to help them breathe.... suction

Sudorific

Acting to increase perspiration... sudorific

Suffocation

See ASPHYXIA; CHOKING.... suffocation

Sugar

(American) A sweetheart... sugar

Suicide

Self-destruction as an intentional act. Attempted suicide is when death does not take place, despite an attempt by the person concerned to kill him or herself; parasuicide is the term describing an attempt at suicide that is really an act to draw attention to the perceived problems of the individual involved.

Societies vary in the degree to which they tolerate individuals acting intentionally to cause their own death. Apart from among some native peoples, particularly the Innuit, suicide is generally viewed pejoratively in modern societies. Major religious movements, including Catholicism, Judaism and Islam, have traditionally regarded suicide as a sin. Nevertheless, it is a growing phenomenon, particularly among the young, and so has become a serious public health problem. It is estimated that suicide among young people has tripled – at least – during the past 45 years. Worldwide, suicide is the second major cause of death (after tuberculosis) for women between the ages of 15 and 44, and the fourth major killer of men in the same age-group (after tra?c accidents, tuberculosis and violence). The risk of suicide rises sharply in old age. Globally, there are estimated to be between ten and 25 suicide attempts for each completed suicide.

In the United Kingdom, suicide accounts for 20 per cent of all deaths of young people. Around 6,000 suicides are reported annually in the UK, of which approximately 75 per cent are by men. In the late 1990s the suicide rate in England, Wales and Northern Ireland fell, but increased in Scotland and the Republic of Ireland. Attempted suicide became signi?cantly more common, particularly among people under the age of 25: among adolescents in the UK, for example, it is estimated that there are about 19,000 suicide attempts annually. Follow-up studies of teenagers who attempt suicide by an overdose show that up to 11 per cent will succeed in killing themselves over the following few years. In young people, factors linked to suicide and attempted suicide include alcohol or drug abuse, unemployment, physical or sexual abuse, and the fact of being in custody. (In the mid-1990s, 20 per cent of all prison suicides were by people under 21.)

Apart from the young, those at highest risk of dying by suicide include health professionals, pharmacists, vets and farmers. Self-poisoning (see POISONS) is the common method used by health professionals for whom high stress levels, together with relatively easy access to means, are important factors. The World Health Organisation has outlined six basic steps for the prevention of suicide, focusing particularly on reducing the availability of common methods. Although suicide is not a criminal o?ence in the UK, assisting suicide is a crime carrying a potential sentence of 14 years’ imprisonment. There are several dilemmas faced by health professionals if they believe that a patient is considering suicide: one is that the provision of information to the patient may make them an accessory (see below). A dilemma after suicide is the common demand from insurers for medical information, although, ethically, the duty of con?dentiality extends beyond the patient’s death (see ETHICS). (Legally, some disclosure is permitted to those with a claim arising from the patient’s death.) Life-insurance contracts generally render invalid any claim by the heirs on the policy of an individual who commits suicide, so that disclosure by a doctor often creates tensions with the relatives. Non-disclosure of relevant medical information, however, may result in a fraudulent insurance claim being made.

Physician-assisted suicide Although controversial, a special legal exemption applies to doctors in a few countries who assist terminally ill patients to kill themselves. Oregon in the United States legalised physician-assisted suicide in 1997, where it still occurs; assisted suicide was brie?y legal in the Australian Northern Territory in 1996 but the legislation was repealed. (It is also practised, but not legally authorised, in the Netherlands and Switzerland.)

In the UK there have been unsuccessful parliamentary attempts to legalise assisted suicide, such as the 1997 Doctor Assisted Dying Bill. In law, a distinction is made between killing people with their consent (classi?ed as murder) and assisting them to commit suicide (a statutory o?ence under the Suicide Act 1961). The distinction is between acting as a perpetrator and as an accessory. Doctors may be judged to have aided and abetted a suicide if they knowingly provide the means – or even if they simply provide advice about the toxicity of medication and tell patients the lethal dosage. Some argue that the distinction between EUTHANASIA and physician-assisted suicide has no moral or practical relevance, particularly if patients are too disabled to act themselves. In theory, patients retain ultimate control in cases of assisted suicide, whereas control rests with the doctor in euthanasia. Surveys of health professionals appear to indicate a feeling by some that less responsibility or culpability attaches to assisting suicide than to euthanasia. In a recent UK court case (2002), a judge declared that a mentally alert woman on a permanent life-support regime in hospital had a right to ask for the support system to be switched o?. (See also MENTAL ILLNESS.)... suicide

Sulfasalazine

A chemical combination of sulphapyridine and 5-aminosalycilic acid. It is used to treat ULCERATIVE COLITIS (valuable as oral therapy for mild symptomatic disease; also available as suppositories for rectal disease) and RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS. The salicylate part is now available alone in drugs such as mesalazine and olsalazine. Several reports of blood dyscrasias from patients taking these drugs have prompted the COMMITTEE ON SAFETY OF MEDICINES (CSM) to recommend that patients with unexplained blood disorders should stop treatment and be given an immediate blood count.... sulfasalazine

Sulphur

Chemical combinations of this substance were once applied topically because of their antimicrobial activity; they are no longer used.... sulphur

Sumatriptan

A drug used in the treatment of MIGRAINE attacks. Given by subcutaneous injection, it provides quick relief of pain, acting on the same receptors as 5-hydroxytryptamine – a neurotransmitter and vasoconstrictor agent. It may also be taken orally, but sumatriptan should not be used within 24 hours of treatment with ERGOTAMINE, the standard antimigraine treatment.... sumatriptan

Sunburn

See PHOTODERMATOSES.... sunburn

Supination

Supination means the turning of the forearm and hand so that the palm faces upwards.... supination

Suppository

A drug preparation in solid, bullet-like form, which is inserted into the RECTUM (or the VAGINA, when it is called a pessary). This method of using drugs may be chosen for various reasons. For example, the suppository, as in the case of glycerin suppositories, may be used to produce an aperient action. Other suppositories, such as those of MORPHINE, are used to reduce pain and check the action of the bowels. Suppositories are useful when the patient is unable to take oral medication and when no suitable preparation is available for injection.... suppository

Suppuration

The process of PUS formation. When pus forms on a raw surface the process is called ulceration, whilst a deep-seated collection of pus is known as an ABSCESS. (See also INFLAMMATION; PHAGOCYTOSIS; ULCER; WOUNDS.)... suppuration

Suprarenal Glands

See ADRENAL GLANDS.... suprarenal glands

Supraventricular Tachycardia

An unusually fast but regular beating of the HEART occurring for periods that may last several hours or days. In most people with this abnormality the heart rate is between 140 and 180 beats a minute; rarely, the rate may rise as high as 250–300 beats. The condition occurs when abnormal electrical impulses that arise in the upper chambers (atria) of the heart override the normal control centre – the sinoatrial node – for the heartbeat. Symptoms usually include breathlessness, palpitations, pain in the chest and fainting. An ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG) is taken to help make the diagnosis. An acute episode can sometimes be stopped by VALSAVA’S MANOEUVRE or by drinking cold water. Anti-arrhythmic drugs (see ARRHYTHMIA) such as adenosine and digoxin are used to treat recurrent attacks. Occasionally, a severe attack may need to be treated with an electric shock to the heart: this is known as DEFIBRILLATION.... supraventricular tachycardia

Surfactant

A surface-active agent lining the alveoli (see ALVEOLUS) of the LUNGS, which plays an essential part in RESPIRATION by preventing the alveoli from collapsing at the end of expiration. Absence, or lack, of surfactant is one of the factors responsible for HYALINE MEMBRANE DISEASE, and it is now being used in the treatment of this condition by means of instillation into the trachea.... surfactant

Surgery

That branch of medicine involved in the treatment of injuries, deformities or individual diseases by operation or manipulation. It incorporates: general surgery; specialised techniques such as CRYOSURGERY, MICROSURGERY, MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY (MIS), or minimal access (keyhole) surgery, and stereotactic sugery (see STEREOTAXIS); and surgery associated with the main specialties, especially cardiothoracic surgery, gastroenterology, GYNAECOLOGY, NEUROLOGY, OBSTETRICS, ONCOLOGY, OPHTHALMOLOGY, ORTHOPAEDICS, TRANSPLANTATION surgery, RECONSTRUCTIVE (PLASTIC) SURGERY, and UROLOGY. Remotely controlled surgery using televisual and robotic techniques is also being developed.

It takes up to 15 years to train a surgeon from the time at which he or she enters medical school; after graduating as a doctor a surgeon has to pass a comprehensive two-stage examination to become a fellow of one of the ?ve recognised colleges of surgeons in the UK and Ireland.

Surgery is carried out in specially designed operating theatres. Whereas it used to necessitate days and sometimes weeks of inpatient hospital care, many patients are now treated as day patients, often under local anaesthesia, being admitted in the morning and discharged later in the day.

More complex surgery, such as transplantation and neurosurgery, usually necessitates patients being nursed post-operatively in high-dependency units (see INTENSIVE THERAPY UNIT (ITU)) before being transferred to ordinary recovery wards. Successful surgery requires close co-operation between surgeons, physicians and radiologists as well as anaesthetists (see ANAESTHESIA), whose sophisticated techniques enable surgeons to undertake long and complex operations that were unthinkable 30 or more years ago. Surgical treatment of cancers is usually done in collaboration with oncologists. Successful surgery is also dependent on the skills of supporting sta? comprising nurses and operating-theatre technicians and the availability of up-to-date facilities.... surgery

Susceptibility

A reduced ability to combat an illness, usually an infection. The patient may be in poor general health, or immunisation or disease may have affected his or her defence mechanisms. For example, a person with AIDS is particularly susceptible to infection.... susceptibility

Swab

A term applied to a small piece of gauze, lint or similar material used for wiping out the mouth of a patient or for drying out a wound. The term is also applied to a tuft of sterilised cotton-wool wrapped round a wire and enclosed in a sterile glass tube used for obtaining a sample – for example, from the throat or from wounds – for bacteriological examination.... swab

Suture

A word used in both an anatomical and a surgical sense. (1) Anatomically, suture is a type of immovable joint, found particularly in the SKULL, including the coronal suture (between the frontal and parietal bones); the lamboidal suture (between the parietal and occipital bones); and the sagittal suture (between the two parietal bones). (2) Surgically the word refers either to the technique of closing a wound, or to the material used. Stitching methods have been developed for gastrointestinal, neurological, dermatological and other forms of surgery, and include laser surgery and removable clips or staples. The material used is generally divided into mono?lament, twisted or braided. Absorbable sutures – used for internal stitching

– include catgut, Vicryl® and Dexon®. Nonabsorbable sutures include silk, nylon and prolene. The type used and time of suture-removal depend upon the site and general state of the patient. Those patients on steroids who have a malignant or infective disorder heal slowly, and their sutures may need to stay in for 14 days or more instead of the usual 5–8 days.... suture

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. It consists of scattered collections of grey matter known as ganglia, united by an irregular network of nerve-?bres; those portions where the ganglia are placed most closely and where the network of ?bres is especially dense being known as plexuses. The chief part of the sympathetic system consists of two ganglionated cords that run through the neck, chest, and abdomen, lying close in front of the spine. In conjunction with the other part of the autonomic nervous system – the parasympathetic – this part controls many of the body’s involuntary activities involving glands, organs and other tissues. (For further details, see NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... sympathetic nervous system

Symphysis

An anatomical description of a joint in which two bones are connected by strong ?brous cartilage. One example is the joint between the two pubic bones in the front of the pelvis; another, the joint between the upper and middle parts of the breastbone.... symphysis

Syndactyly

A congenital condition in which two or more ?ngers or toes are fused together to a varying extent. The condition is popularly known as WEBBED FINGERS (or toes).... syndactyly

Synapse

The term applied to the anatomical relation of one NEURON(E) (nerve cell) with another which is e?ected at various points by contact of their branching processes. The two neurons do not come directly into contact, but the release of a chemical NEUROTRANSMITTER by one neuronal AXON is followed by this chemical travelling across the synapse and ?ring o? the signal along another nerve. A signal can be sent across a synapse in one direction only, from presynaptic or postsynaptic membranes. Synapses are divided into excitatory and inhibitory types. When a neurotransmitter travels across an excitatory synapse it usually provokes the receptor neuron into initiating an electrical impulse. Inhibitory synapses cool down the excitation of the adjacent neurons. Drugs that in?uence the NERVOUS SYSTEM usually do so by affecting the release or modi?cation of the neurotransmitters passing across the synapse.... synapse

Syncope

Another word for fainting – a loss of consciousness due to a fall in BLOOD PRESSURE. This may result because the cardiac output has become reduced, or because the peripheral resistance provided by the arterioles has decreased. The simple faint or vaso-vagal attack is a result of a failure to maintain an adequate venous return of blood to the heart. This is likely to occur after prolonged periods of standing, particularly if one is standing still or if the climatic conditions are hot. It can also result from an unpleasant or painful experience. Pallor, sweating and a slow pulse are characteristic. Recovery is immediate when the venous return is restored by lying ?at.

Syncope can also result when the venous return to the heart is impaired as a result of a rise in intrathoracic pressure. This may happen after prolonged vigorous coughing – the so-called COUGH SYNCOPE – or when elderly men with prostatic hypertrophy strain to empty their bladder. This is known as micturition syncope. Syncope is particularly likely to occur when the arterial blood pressure is unusually low. This may result from overtreatment of HYPERTENSION with drugs or it may be the result of diseases, such as ADDISON’S DISEASE, which are associated with low blood pressures. It is important that syncope be distinguished from EPILEPSY.... syncope

Synovectomy

Surgical removal of the synovium (see SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE) to treat troublesome SYNOVITIS. The operation is not normally done until other treatments have failed.... synovectomy

Synovitis

In?ammation of the membrane lining a joint (see JOINTS). It is usually painful and accompanied by e?usion of ?uid within the synovial sac of the joint. It is found in RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS, various injuries and in?ammations of joints, and in the chronic form in TUBERCULOSIS. Treatment of synovitis is with rest, splinting, ANALGESICS and NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS). Infection should be treated with ANTIBIOTICS. If the joint fails to respond, surgery (SYNOVECTOMY) may be needed. (See also JOINTS, DISEASES OF.)... synovitis

Synovium

See SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE.... synovium

Syringe

An instrument for injecting ?uid into, or withdrawing ?uid from, a body cavity, tissue or blood. Syringes come in di?erent sizes and some are specially designed for use in a particular site – for example, for withdrawing CEREBROSPINAL FLUID. The basic design is the same: a calibrated barrel with a plunger at one end, while the other end has a nozzle to which a hollow needle can be attached. Most syringes are disposable, plastic, presterilised and packed in sealed containers. Injections can be given under the skin, into muscle, into a vein or into the cerebrospinal ?uid. The term hypodermic, though literally meaning under the skin, is now used to describe most syringes.... syringe

System

A network of interdependent components that work together to attain the goals of the complex whole.... system

Syringomyelia

A rare disease affecting the SPINAL CORD, in which irregular cavities form, surrounded by an excessive amount of the connective tissue of the central nervous system. These cavities encroach upon the nerve-tracts in the cord, producing especially loss of the sense of pain or of that for heat and cold in parts of the limbs, although the sensation of touch is retained. Another occasional symptom is wasting of certain muscles in the limbs. Changes affecting outlying parts like the ?ngers are also found. Because of their insensitiveness to pain, these are often burnt or injured; troublesome ulcers, or loss of parts of the ?ngers, may result. The condition of the spinal cord is probably present at birth, although the symptoms do not usually appear until adulthood. The disease is slowly progressive, although sudden exacerbations may occur after a cough, a sneeze, or sudden straining. Treatment is supportive for this progressive disorder.... syringomyelia

Systole

The contraction of the HEART. It alternates with the resting phase, known as DIASTOLE. The two occupy, respectively, about one-third and two-thirds of the cycle of heart action.... systole

Ventricular Septal Defect

An inherited defect of the HEART. The septum (partition) separating the two ventricles is pierced by a hole which, if large, results in blood being diverted to the LUNGS at a greater pressure than normal. This may lead to irreversible PULMONARY HYPERTENSION, which early surgical intervention (repair of the septal defect) should prevent. A quarter of patients with VSD have other cardiac defects. Half of the defects seal themselves spontaneously.... ventricular septal defect

Toxic Shock Syndrome

First described in 1978, this disorder is characterised by high fever, diarrhoea, SHOCK and a rash. It is frequently associated with the use of tampons (see TAMPON), but has occasionally been reported in men. The syndrome may also be linked to the use of contraceptives such as the diaphragm, cap and sponge (see under CONTRACEPTION), and skin wounds or infections may also be a cause. The disease is due to a staphylococcal toxin (see STAPHYLOCOCCUS; TOXINS). Treatment consists of supportive measures to combat shock and eradication of the staphylococcus by ANTIBIOTICS. The design of tampons has been improved. Recurrence of the disorder has been reported and women who have had an episode should stop using tampons and vaginal contraceptives.... toxic shock syndrome

Travel Sickness

Sickness induced by any form of transport, whether by sea, air, motor-car or train. (See also MOTION (TRAVEL) SICKNESS.)

Traveller’s diarrhoea is an all-toocommon a?iction of the traveller, which basks in a multiplicity of names: for example, Aden gut, Aztec two-step, Basra belly, Delhi belly, Gippy tummy, Hong Kong dog, Montezuma’s revenge, Tokyo trots, turista. It is caused by a variety of micro-organisms, usually E. coli. Some people seem to be more prone to it than others, although for no good cause. Obvious preventive measures include the avoidance of salads, unpeeled fruit and ice cream, and never drinking unboiled or unbottled water. If diarrhoea occurs, co-phenotrope and loperamide are often used to reduce the frequency of bowel movements in adults. Prophylactic antibacterial drugs are not advisable.... travel sickness

Tuberous Sclerosis

Also called epiloia: a rare inherited disease transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait. EPILEPSY in childhood is often the ?rst manifestation (see INFANTILE SPASMS), although ovoid hypopigmented macules (‘ash leaf patches’) in the skin may be detected in infancy. Later an ACNE-like eruption of the face (adenoma sebaceum), ?brous outgrowths around the nails and ?brous plaques on the lower back (shagreen patch) can all occur. Half of those affected have learning diffculties and behaviour problems, and autistic symptoms may occur (see AUTISM).

Characteristic white streaks appear on the optic fundi (see EYE). Molecular genetic testing can identify up to 90 per cent of individuals with a tuberin gene. Genetic counselling of families is helpful. Relatives of those with this condition can obtain help and guidance from the Tuberous Sclerosis Association of Great Britain.... tuberous sclerosis

Morning Sickness

See: PREGNANCY.

MOTH REPELLENT. Sew into small linen bags any of the following: Cinnamon, Sandalwood chips, Camphor, Cloves. Add: sprinkle of Cedarwood for greater potency. MOTHER SEIGEL’S SYRUP. See: SHAKERS, The. ... morning sickness

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE)

Scrapie. Notifiable disease. Fatal disease in the nervous system of cattle, unknown before 1985. Microscopic holes appear in the brain giving a spongiform appearance, but with little inflammation. Can spread from one animal to another: sheep, goats, deer, mules, mink, hamsters, mice, pigs and monkeys. Cause: not a virus. Animals itch and scrape themselves against trees or posts for relief. May spread from animals to humans, with brain infection after the character of polio.

Symptoms. (Human). Speech impairment, short-term-memory-loss, difficulty in controlling body movements. Zinc deficiency.

Treatment. Hospitalisation.

Suggested treatment for human infection, unproven.

Tinctures. Echinacea 5; Black Cohosh 3; Yarrow 2; Senna leaf 1.2-3 teaspoons in water (or cup hot Yarrow tea) 3-4 times daily. For headache: Gelsemium.

Supplement: Zinc.

To be treated by a general medical practitioner or hospital specialist. ... bovine spongiform encephalopathy

Cold Sore

See: HERPES SIMPLEX.

COLI BACILLUS. Infections. Freshly-grated Horseradish root steeped in cup cold water for 2 hours.

Remove root. 1 cupful freely, as tolerated. Papaya fruit.

COLIC. Spasm of the bowels, particularly the colon. Severe pain under the navel with nausea, vomiting.

Patient writhes from side to side. Cause may be wind, acid bile, worms, constipation, food; aluminium, lead or other metal poisoning, strangulated hernia, appendicitis, adhesions.

Differential diagnosis: gallstones, menstrual difficulties, kidney stone.

Alternatives. Teas, any one. Roman Chamomile, Catmint, Fennel, Lovage, Caraway, Betony, Avens, Wormwood, Holy Thistle, Peppermint leaves, Aniseed, Tormentil.

Decoction, any one. Angelica root, Boldo, Calamus, Cardamom, Condurango, Coriander, Cramp bark, Ginger root, Liquorice, Wild Yam.

Tablets/capsules. Dandelion, Capsicum, Valerian, Wild Yam, Cramp bark, Blue Flag root.

Powders. Alternatives. (1) Calamus 2; Marshmallow root 1. Add pinch Cayenne. (2) Turkey Rhubarb plus pinch of Cayenne. (3) Wild Yam plus pinch of Cayenne. Dose: 500mg (one-third teaspoon or two 00 capsules) every 2 hours.

Tinctures. Formulae. Alternatives: (1) Angelica root 1; Wild Yam 1; Ginger half. Mix. (2) Dandelion 2; Wild Yam 1; few drops Tincture Capsicum. Mix. (3) Wild Yam 1; Galangal root half; Ginger half. Mix. Dose: 1 teaspoon in hot water every 2 hours.

Traditional German combination. Ginger, Gentian, Turkey Rhubarb.

Topical. Apply hot bran, oats, hops or Slippery Elm poultice, or Castor oil packs to abdomen. Aromatherapy. Any one oil: Aniseed, Fennel, Mint, Garlic, Bergamot. Adult: 6 drops to 2 teaspoons Almond oil: child, 2 drops in 1 teaspoon Almond oil, for abdominal massage.

Enema. 1oz Catmint, Boneset or Chamomile in 2 pints boiling water. Strain, inject warm.

Diet. 3-day fast, with fruit juices and herb teas.

See: RENAL COLIC, COLIC OF PREGNANCY, CHILDREN. Gripe water. ... cold sore

Cushing’s Syndrome

A glandular disorder occurring mostly in females, aged 30 to 50.

Causes: a tumour on the adrenal glands or excessive medication with large doses of corticosteroid drugs to make up for adrenal insufficiency. There is diminished resistance to infection. (Echinacea)

Symptoms. Fat plethoric ‘moon’ face. Limbs thin, trunk obese. Skin easily bruises (Arnica). Fatigue, weakness, pink streaks on skin. Cessation of menstruation. Loss of sex drive in men. High blood pressure and sugar in the urine are common. Bone softening leads to pain. Acne (Agnus Castus). Excess body hair. Personality change.

Treatment. Adrenal stimulants may obviate surgery or irradiation to the adrenal glands: they include Ginseng, Liquorice, Sarsaparilla, Holy Thistle (Hyde), Samphire (Hyde).

Men. Tinctures. Formula. Ginseng 3; Sarsaparilla 2; Liquorice 1. One to two teaspoons in water thrice daily.

Women. Tinctures. Formula. Agnus Castus 2; Helonias 2; Pulsatilla 1. One to two teaspoons in water thrice daily.

Good responses have been observed from Pulsatilla and Black Cohosh. ... cushing’s syndrome

Down’s Syndrome

Mongolism. Trisomy 21. Not a disease but a defect in mental and physical development. In the normal human being there are 46 chromosomes; in Down’s there are 47 – one extra No 21 chromosome. The syndrome increases with the age of the mother after the age of 35. Over the age of 40 the chances of a mother having such a child are 1-2 per cent. Children with the defect have low levels of zinc.

Cases of Down’s have followed use of nonoxynol-9 (vaginal contraceptive device) such as the polyurethane sponge. The sponge. when left in situ for a long time, may cause Down’s to follow.

Certain physical characteristics are present. The most important feature is impaired mental development. Almost all are coeliacs.

Symptoms. Low IQ, short fingers, small flat head, flattened nose, low-set ears. May be subject to umbilical hernia, and heart disease. No treatment can cure, but certain herb teas rich in minerals (Alfalfa, Red Clover) together with Kelp (either in tablet or powder form) may help children, with possible improvements in IQ. Vitamin supplements – A, D, Thiamine, Riboflavin, B6, B12, C and E improve a child’s physical and mental health – as do also the minerals: Magnesium, Calcium, Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Iron and Iodine.

Children with Down’s syndrome run an increased risk of coeliac disease, due to disturbed immunity. A substantial evidence is held in America that links a low level of Selenium in the mother. Unnecessary X- rays should be avoided. Ensure fitness before conception by gentle exercise and nutrients: Folic Acid, Selenium and Zinc.

Children with the condition are noted for their happy disposition and warmth of feeling towards others. ... down’s syndrome

Kaposi’s Sarcoma

Vascular tumour. Begins with small reddish-purple plaques and skin nodules on the legs and feet. May remain benign for many years. Usually associated with AIDS, but the classical form may also be seen in renal transplant and elderly male patients receiving cortisone preparations. The tumours may appear anywhere in the body, especially around eyes and nose, giving a bruised appearance.

Diagnosis is difficult to the inexperienced practitioner. Referral to a dermatologist for skin biopsy. Homosexuals are at risk from semen ejaculated into a foreign environment. The blood abnormality extends to the lymph system for which Lymphatics such as Echinacea, Saw Palmetto and Poke root are indicated. See: AIDS.

Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital specialist. ... kaposi’s sarcoma

Lymphatic System

Lymph is the same fluid which oozes from a cut when bleeding stops. It surrounds every living cell. Lymph conveys to the blood the final products of digestion of food. It also receives from the blood waste products of metabolism. This is a two-way traffic.

Lymph fluid, loaded with waste, excess protein, etc, is sucked into the lymph tubes to be filtered by the spleen and the lymph nodes. The tubes are filled with countless one-way valves referred to collectively as the lymphatic pump, which propels the flow of lymph forwards. Lymph ultimately is collected in the main thoracic duct rising upwards in front of the spine to enter the bloodstream at the base of the neck.

A number of disorders may arise when the fluid becomes over-burdened by toxaemia, poor drainage and enlarged nodes (glands). Such un-eliminated wastes form cellulite – unwanted tissue formation and swelling. Thus, the soil may be prepared for various chronic illnesses from glandular disorders to arthritis. If the lymph is circulating freely it is almost impossible to become sick.

This system is capable of ingesting foreign particles and building up an immunity against future infection. Some herbal Lymphatics are also antimicrobials, natural alternatives to conventional antibiotics.

Treatment. Clivers is particularly relative to glandular swellings of neck and axillae.

For active inflammation: Echinacea, Goldenseal, Ginseng (Panax).

Alternatives. Teas: Clivers, Red Clover, Agnus Castus herb, Bladderwrack, Violet leaves, Marigold petals.

Decoctions: Blue Flag, Echinacea, Fenugreek seeds, Saw Palmetto.

Tablets/capsules. Agnus Castus, Echinacea, Bladderwrack, Red Clover, Thuja, Poke root, Fenugreek. Formula No 1. Echinacea 2; Clivers 1; Burdock 1; Poke root half. Dose: Liquid Extracts: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: two 5ml teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.

Formula No 2. Equal parts: Blue Flag root, Poke root, Senna. Dose: as above.

Topical. Poultices: Slippery Elm, Fenugreek seeds, Marshmallow. Horsechestnut (Aesculus) ointment. ... lymphatic system

Marfan’s Syndrome

A collagen disease in infants (hereditary) with lax joints permitting easy dislocation and strain.

Features: long fingers and arm span, high palate, kyphosis, etc.

Symptoms. Backache, pain in joints, dislocations.

Alternatives. Alfalfa, Fenugreek, Irish Moss, Kelp, Horsetail, Marshmallow, Bamboo gum.

Teas. Alfalfa, Comfrey leaves, Horsetail, Plantain, Silverweed. Any one: 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 10-15 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.

Decoction. Fenugreek seeds 2; Horsetail 1; Bladderwrack 1; Liquorice half. Prepare: 3 heaped teaspoons to 1 pint (500ml) water gently simmered 10 to 20 minutes. 1 wineglass thrice daily. Fenugreek seeds decoction.

Diet. High protein, oily fish.

Supplements. Calcium, Dolomite, Zinc. ... marfan’s syndrome

Motion Sickness

Nausea and vomiting caused by lack of air and restricted vision upsetting the balance of the inner ear.

Cup of Chamomile, Balm, or Meadowsweet tea. Liquorice helpful, but most popular is Ginger taken in the form of Ginger wine, or powdered root (quarter to half a teaspoon). Chrystalised Ginger from sweetshop is one of the safest and cheapest: 2-3 pieces sucked or chewed half hour before journey and at intervals thereafter.

Avoid tobacco which reduces oxygen count. Potter’s Ginger root capsules.

Peppermint. Before travelling, glass water with 2 drops.

Aromatherapy. Inhalant. 2-3 drops Peppermint oil on tissue.

Diet. No alcohol or fatty foods. Accept Papaya fruit, Lemons or Lemon juice, Honey, Acidophilus. Supplements. Alternatives to the above. Seven days before journey: B-complex, magnesium 200mg, calcium 400mg. ... motion sickness

Air-sickness

This condition is very similar to sea-sickness. (See MOTION (TRAVEL) SICKNESS.)... air-sickness

Anabolic Steroids

The nitrogen-retaining e?ect of ANDROGEN, a steroid hormone, is responsible for the larger muscle mass of the male. This is called an anabolic e?ect. Attempts have been made to separate the anabolic effects of hormones from their virilising effects (see VIRILISATION), but these have been only partially successful. Thus, anabolic steroids have the property of protein-building so that when taken, they lead to an increase in muscle bulk and strength. All the anabolic steroids have some androgenic activity but they cause less virilisation than androgens in women. Androgenic side-effects may result from any of these anabolic compounds, especially if they are given for prolonged periods: for this reason they should all be used with caution in women, and are contraindicated in men with prostatic carcinoma. Jaundice due to stasis of bile in the intrahepatic canaliculi is a hazard, and the depression of pituitary gonadotrophin production is a possible complication.

Anabolic steroids have been used to stimulate protein anabolism in debilitating illness, and to promote growth in children with pituitary dwar?sm and other disorders associated with interference of growth. Stimulation of protein anabolism may also be of value in acute renal failure, and the retention of nitrogen and calcium is of probable bene?t to patients with OSTEOPOROSIS and to patients receiving corticosteroid therapy. Anabolic steroids may stimulate bone-marrow function in hypoplastic ANAEMIA.

They have been widely abused by athletes and body-builders aiming to improve their strength, stamina, speed or body size. However, there are considerable doubts over their e?cacy, with little experimental evidence that they work. Dangerous adverse effects include precocious myocardial infarction (see HEART, DISEASES OF – Coronary thrombosis), DIABETES MELLITUS, liver disease, precocious carcinoma of the prostate, acne, and severe psychiatric disorders. Anabolic steroids should not be used by athletes, who face bans from o?cial competitions if they take them.

The anabolic steroids in therapeutic use include nandrolone and stanozolol.... anabolic steroids

Arcus Senilis

See under EYE, DISORDERS OF.... arcus senilis

Assisted Suicide

The act of intentionally killing oneself with the assistance of another who provides the knowledge, means or both.... assisted suicide

Barium Sulphate

A radio-opaque white powder used in X-ray examinations of the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. The barium sulphate may be swallowed to enable the oesophagus, stomach and small and large intestines to be assessed for disorders such as ulceration, tumours, DIVERTICULAR DISEASE and polyps. It may also be inserted into the RECTUM or descending COLON to investigate for possible disease. These procedures are usually done after endoscopy examinations have been carried out.... barium sulphate

Bee Stings

See BITES AND STINGS.... bee stings

Bicarbonate Of Soda

Also known as baking soda. Bicarbonate of soda is an alkali, sometimes used as a home remedy for indigestion or for soothing insect bites.... bicarbonate of soda

Breath Sounds

The transmitted sounds of breathing, heard when a stethoscope is applied to the chest. Normal breath sounds are described as vesicular. Abnormal sounds may be heard when there is increased ?uid in the lungs or ?brosis (crepitation or crackles), when there is bronchospasm (rhonchi or wheezes), or when the lung is airless (consolidated – bronchial breathing). Breath sounds are absent in people with pleural e?usion, pneumothorax, or after pneumonectomy.... breath sounds

Caput Succedaneum

Usually shortened by obstetricians to ‘caput’, this is the temporary swelling which is sometimes found on the head of the newborn infant. It is due to OEDEMA in and around the scalp, caused by pressure on the head as the child is born. It is of no signi?cance and quickly disappears spontaneously.... caput succedaneum

Cardiovascular System

This refers to the whole circulatory system: the heart, the systemic circulation (the arteries and veins of the body) and the pulmonary circulation (the arteries and veins of the lungs). Blood circulates throughout the cardiovascular system bringing oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other waste products.... cardiovascular system

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

A condition characterised by attacks of pain and tingling in the ?rst three or four ?ngers of one or both hands. The attacks usually occur at night. Carpal tunnel syndrome is caused by pressure on the median nerve as it passes under the strong ligament that lies across the front of the wrist. The condition may respond to use of a night splint on the hand; otherwise a corticosteroid injection under the ligament may help. If not, pressure is relieved by surgical division of the compressing ligament.... carpal tunnel syndrome

Cavernous Sinus

A channel for venous blood placed either side of the sphenoid bone at the base of the SKULL behind the eye sockets. Blood drains into it from the eye, the nose, the brain and part of the cheek, and leaves via the internal jugular and facial veins. Sometimes the sinus becomes blocked by a blood clot (thrombus), usually a complication of a nearby bacterial infection. A potentially serious condition, it should be treated with thrombolysis and antibiotics.... cavernous sinus

Cervical Smear

This screening test detects abnormal changes in the cells of the cervix (see CERVIX UTERI), enabling an affected woman to have early treatment. The National Health Service has arrangements to check women regularly. A woman’s ?rst test should be within six months of her ?rst experience of intercourse and thereafter at three-yearly intervals for the rest of her life. The test is simple, with some cells being scraped o? the cervix with a spatula and the tissue then being examined microscopically.... cervical smear

Compression Syndrome

See MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF.... compression syndrome

Cross-sectional Study

A study that measures the prevalence of health outcomes or determinants of health, or both and other variables of interest in a population at a point in time or over a short period.... cross-sectional study

Day Surgery

Surgery done in a clinic or a hospital without an overnight stay either before or after the operation. Improvements in surgery – especially the introduction of MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY (MIS) – as well as more e?ective methods of ANAESTHESIA have simpli?ed many procedures and reduced the physical and mental stress on patients. Patients undergoing day surgery should be accompanied home by a friend or relative. Occasionally a patient may develop complications that require a post-operative stay in hospital.... day surgery

Death, Sudden

If deaths from accidents are excluded, this term means the unexpected death of an apparently healthy person. CARDIAC ARREST is the most common cause of sudden death. Older people (35 years or above) who suffer cardiac arrest commonly have coronary artery disease (see HEART, DISEASES OF) with restriction or stoppage of blood supply to part of the heart which causes INFARCTION (heart attack). Irregularity of the heartbeat (cardiac ARRHYTHMIA) is another cause. MYOCARDITIS, PNEUMONIA and STROKE can also result in sudden death, as can ASTHMA, anaphylactic shock (see ANAPHYLAXIS), ruptured aortic ANEURYSM and SUICIDE, the incidence of which is rising, especially among young people, and is over 4,000 a year in the UK.

Sudden death sometimes occurs in infants, usually in the ?rst year of life: this is called SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) or, colloquially, cot death, the possible causes of which are an ongoing subject for research and debate.

When a person dies unexpectedly the event must be reported to a CORONER, who has the power to decide whether an AUTOPSY is necessary.... death, sudden

Dioctyl Sodium Sulphosuccinate

See DOCUSATE SODIUM.... dioctyl sodium sulphosuccinate

Disseminated Sclerosis

See MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS).... disseminated sclerosis

Docusate Sodium

A faecal-softening agent used to treat constipation in old people. It can be given orally or as a rectal suppository.... docusate sodium

Dreams

See SLEEP.... dreams

Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate

See ESR.... erythrocyte sedimentation rate

Fetal Blood Sampling

A procedure performed during a mother’s labour in which a blood sample is taken from a vein in the scalp of the FETUS. This enables tests to be performed that indicate whether the fetus is, for example, suffering from a shortage of oxygen (HYPOXIA). If so, the obstetrician will usually accelerate the baby’s birth.... fetal blood sampling

Frontal Sinus

One of the airspaces that form the paranasal sinuses (see SINUS) within some of the frontal bones of the skull. These sinuses are lined with mucous membrane and open into the nasal cavity.... frontal sinus

Gall-stones

See under GALL-BLADDER, DISEASES OF.... gall-stones

General Dental Services

See DENTAL SURGEON.... general dental services

Glasgow Coma Scale

A method developed by two doctors in Glasgow that is used to assess the depth of COMA or unconsciousness suffered by an individual. The scale is split into three groups – eye opening, motor response, and verbal response – with the level of activity within each group given a score. A person’s total score is the sum of the numbers scored in each group, and this provides a reasonably objective assessment of the patient’s coma state – particularly useful when monitoring people who have suffered a head injury. (See also PERSISTENT VEGETATIVE STATE (PVS).)... glasgow coma scale

Genetic Screening

A screening procedure that tests whether a person has a genetic make-up that is linked with a particular disease. If so, the person may either develop the disease or pass it on to his or her o?spring. When an individual has been found to carry a genetically linked disease, he or she should receive genetic counselling from an expert in inherited diseases.

Genetic screening is proving to be a controversial subject. Arguments are developing over whether the results of such screenings should be made available to employers and insurance companies – a move that could have adverse consequences for some individuals with potentially harmful genetic make-ups. (See GENES; GENETIC DISORDERS.)... genetic screening

Golden Seal

Hydrastis canadensis. N.O. Ranunculaceae.

Synonym: Orange Root, Yellow Root.

Habitat: This valuable plant appears, according to Coffin, to have been first discovered and used by the aborigines of North America. It is indigenous to that part of the world.

Features ? Golden Seal is found growing to a height of one to two feet in rich, moist and shady soils. The leaves are alternate, the lower one stalked, the upper one sessile. Both are unequally toothed, and have from three to seven acute lobes. White and red single terminal flowers bloom in April. The root is short, knotty with the bases of stems, and covered with many rootlets. The taste is very bitter, and the scent strong and unpleasant.

Part used ? Golden Seal was so named by the followers of Thomson, who first used the root about 1845, since when it has figured prominently in herbal practice.

Action: Tonic, alterative, and laxative.

Golden Seal has proved itself to be a very valuable remedy in digestive disorders and in debilitated conditions of mucous membranes. Its use is indicated in various gastric complaints, and it may be taken with advantage by most dyspeptics in doses of 10 grains of the powdered root.

Hydrastis is also given in conjunction with Lime flowers and Valerian to reduce blood pressure.... golden seal

Haemolytic Uraemic Syndrome

A disease of children resulting in acute RENAL failure. A febrile illness of the gastrointestinal or respiratory tracts is followed by intravascular COAGULATION of blood which results in HAEMOLYSIS, ANAEMIA, THROMBOCYTOPAENIA and renal failure (resulting from ?brin deposition in renal arterioles and glomerular capillaries).

The death rate is 2–10 per cent and the majority of patients survive without renal failure. The longer the period of OLIGURIA, the greater the risk of chronic renal failure.

Treatment is supportive, with replacement of blood and clotting factors, control of HYPERTENSION, and careful observation of ?uid balance.... haemolytic uraemic syndrome

Haemopoietic Stem Cell

This is the basic cell from which all types of blood cells originate. Its appearance is believed to be similar to that of a LYMPHOCYTE.... haemopoietic stem cell

Heart Surgery

Open-heart surgery permits the treatment of many previously inoperable conditions that were potentially fatal, or which made the patient chronically disabled. CORONARY ARTERY VEIN BYPASS GRAFTING (CAVBG), used to remedy obstruction of the arteries supplying the heart muscle, was ?rst carried out in the mid1960s and is now widely practised. Constricted heart valves today are routinely dilated by techniques of MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY (MIS), such as ANGIOPLASTY and laser treatment, and faulty valves can be replaced with mechanical alternatives (see VALVULOPLASTY).

Heart transplant Replacement of a person’s unhealthy heart with a normal heart from a healthy donor. The donor’s heart needs to be removed immediately after death and kept chilled in saline before rapid transport to the recipient. Heart transplants are technically demanding operations used to treat patients with progressive untreatable heart disease but whose other body systems are in good shape. They usually have advanced coronary artery disease and damaged heart muscle (CARDIOMYOPATHY). Apart from the technical diffculties of the operation, preventing rejection of the transplanted heart by the recipient’s immune system requires complex drug treatment. But once the patient has passed the immediate postoperative phase, the chances of ?ve-year survival is as high as 80 per cent in some cardiac centres. A key di?culty in doing heart transplants is a serious shortage of donor organs.... heart surgery

Hellp Syndrome

A type of severe PRE-ECLAMPSIA (a disorder affecting some pregnant women) that affects various systems in the body. HAEMOLYSIS, raised concentration of the enzymes in the LIVER, and a low blood platelet count are among the characteristics (and explain the name HELLP); patients are acutely ill and immediate termination of pregnancy is necessary. (See also PREGNANCY AND LABOUR.)... hellp syndrome

Hla System

The major histocompatibility complex, or human leucocyte antigen (HLA) region, consists of genetically determined antigens, situated on chromosome 6. Found in most tissues, though to a di?ering extent, the four gene loci are known as A, B, C, D, while the individual alleles at each locus are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. The number of possible combinations is thus enormous, and the chance of two unrelated people being identical for HLA is very low.

HLA incompatibility causes the immune response, or rejection reaction, that occurs with unmatched tissue grafts. Strong associations between HLA and susceptibility to certain diseases – notably the AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERS such as rheumatoid arthritis, insulin-dependent diabetes, and thyrotoxicosis – have been described. Certain HLA antigens occur together more frequently than would be expected by chance (linkage disequilibrium), and may have a protective e?ect, conferring resistance to a disease. (See IMMUNITY.)... hla system

Insulin Shock

A disorder in which the body produces excess INSULIN, which then reduces the amount of glucose in the blood (HYPOGLYCAEMIA). Treatment is with glucose or GLUCAGON. Untreated, the patient goes into a COMA and dies.... insulin shock

Intervention Study

Comparison of outcomes between two or more groups of patients who have been intentionally given di?erent treatments or preventative measures, for example, diets. The subjects in the trial should be randomly allocated to the groups, with patients in one group – called controls – receiving no active treatment. If possible, neither patients nor doctors participating in a study should know which patients are receiving what treatment (double blind study/trial). Furthermore, groups should exchange treatments after a prearranged time (crossover study/trial). (See CLINICAL TRIALS; RANDOMISED CONTROLLED TRIAL.)... intervention study

Indian Senna

Cassia senna

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Svarnapatri;

Hin: Sanay, Sana Ka Patt;

Ben: Sonamukhi;

Mal: Sunnamukki, Chonnamukki, Nilavaka;

Tam: Nilavirai, Nilavakai;

Tel: Netatangedu

Importance: Indian Senna or Tinnevelly senna is a shrub very highly esteemed in India for its medicinal value. The leaves are useful in constipation, abdominal disorders, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, splenomegaly, hepatopathy, jaundice, helminthiasis, dyspepsia, cough, bronchitis, typhoid fever, anaemia, tumours and vitiated conditions of pitta and vata (Warrier et al,1994). It is used in Ayurvedic preparations; “Pancha Sakara Churna”, “Shat Sakara Churna” and “Madhu Yastyadi Churna” used for constipation. Its use is widespread in Unani system and some of the important products of this system containing senna are “Itrifal Mulayyin”, “Jawarish Ood Mulayyin”, “Hab Shabyar”, “Sufuf Mulliyin”, “Sharbat Ahmad Shahi”, etc. used as a mild laxative (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution: The plant is of Mediterranean origin. It is found in Somalia, Saudi Arabia, parts of Pakistan and Kutch area of Gujarat. It is largely cultivated in Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.

Botany: The genus Cassia, belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae, comprises of a number of species, namely,

C. senna Linn. syn. C. angustifolia Vahl.

C. absus Linn.

C. alata Linn.

C. auriculata Linn.

C. burmanni Wight. syn. C. obovata (Linn.) Collad.

C. glauca Lam.

C. javanica Linn.

C. mimosoides Linn.

C. obtusifolia Linn. syn. C. tora Linn.

C. occidentalis Linn.

C. pumila Lam.

C. slamea Lam.

C. acutifolia Delile.

C. sophera Linn.

C. senna is a shrub or undershrub, 60-75cm in height with pale subterete or obtusely angled erect or spreading branches. Leaves are paripinnate. Leaflets are 5-8 in number, ovate-lanceolate and glabrous. Flowers are yellowish, many and arranged in axillary racemes. Fruits are flat legumes, greenish brown to dark brown and nearly smooth (Chopra et al,1980, Warrier et al,1994).

In commerce, the leaves and pods obtained from C. senna are known as “ Tinnevelly Senna” and those from C. acutifolia Delile. as “Alexandrian Senna”. The leaves of C. acutifolia are narrower than C. senna, otherwise both resemble to a large extent (Thakur et al, 1989). All the true Sennas have the portions of their leaves unequally divided. In some kinds the lower part of one side is reduced to little more than a line in breadth, while the other is from a quarter to half an inch in breadth. The drug known under the name of East Indian Senna is nearly free from adulteration; and as its properties appear identical with those of the Alexandrian and the price being less, it probably will supersede it in general practice. Its size and shape readily identify it (Graves, 1996).

Agrotechnology: The plant requires a mild subtropical climate with warm winters which are free from frost for its growth. Semiarid areas with adequate irrigation facilities are ideal for cultivation. Areas having high rainfall, humidity and poor drainage are not suitable. Light or medium loamy soils with adequate drainage and pH varying from 7.0-8.2 are preferable. In South India both summer and winter crops are possible. The plant is propagated by seeds. The seed rate required is 15-20kg/ha. Seeds are sown in October-November (winter rainfed crop) or in February-March (irrigated crop). Higher seed rate is required for unirrigated crop. Seeds are sown in lines 30cm apart. Application of 5-10t of FYM/ha before planting or raising a green manure crop is beneficial. About 40kg N and 25-50kg P2O5/ha applied as basal dressing and 40kg N/ha applied in 2 split dozes as top dressing gave better yield. While the rainfed crop is grown without irrigation, the irrigated crop requires 5-8 light irrigations during the entire growing season. The crop requires 2-3 weedings and hoeings in order to keep it free from weeds. Alternaria alternata causes leaf spot and dieback but the disease is not serious. In North India, the plant is attacked by the larvae of butterfly Catopsilia pyranthe which can be controlled by planting the crop in March-April instead of June-July. Under irrigated conditions, the first crop is obtained after 90 days of planting. The leaves are stripped by hand when they are fully green, thick and bluish-green in colour. The second crop is taken 4 weeks after the first harvest and the third 4-6 weeks after the second one. The last harvest of leaves is done when the entire crop is harvested along with the pods. Yield under irrigated conditions is nearly1.4t of leaves and 150kg pods/ha and under unirrigated conditions is 500-600kg leaves and 80-100kg pods/ha. The leaves are dried in thin layers under shade so as to retain the green colour and the pods are hung for 10-12 days to get dried. The leaves and pods are cleaned, graded and marketed (Husain et al, 1993).

Properties and Activity: Leaves contain glucose, fructose, sucrose and pinnitol. Mucilage consists of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid. Leaves also contain sennoside-C(8,8’- diglucoside of rhein-aloe-emodin-dianthrone). Pods contain sennosides A and B, glycoside of anthraquinones rhein and chrysophanic acid. Seeds contain -sitosterol (Husain et al, 1992). Leaves and pods also contain 0.33% -sterol and flavonols-kaempferol, kaempferin, and iso-rhamnetin. Sennoside content of C. acutifolia is higher ranging from 2.5% to 4.5% as compared to C. angustifolia ranging from 1.5 % to 2.5%.

The purgative activity of Senna is attributed to its sennosides. The pods cause lesser griping than the leaves. Leaf and pod is laxative. The leaves are astringent, bitter, sweet, acrid, thermogenic, cathartic, depurative, liver tonic, anthelmintic, cholagogue, expectorant and febrifuge.... indian senna

Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is the most signi?cant therapeutic advance in male INFERTILITY treatment in the past 30 years. The technique is used when in vitro fertilisation (IVF – see under ASSISTED CONCEPTION) is not possible because the man has very few, motile, normal sperm (see SPERMATOZOON), or when previous attempts at IVF have not produced a fertilised EMBRYO. ICSI requires a single sperm which is injected directly into the cytoplasm of an egg previously retrieved from the woman. Once fertilised, the embryo is transferred to her UTERUS. For men with no sperm in the semen, it may be possible to retrieve sperm by needle aspiration of the EPIDIDYMIS under local anaesthetic (see ANAESTHESIA). Other techniques involve microsurgical retrieval from the epididymis or TESTICLE under a general anaesthetic. Potential complications include scrotal pain, bruising, HAEMATOMA formation and infection. ICSI and surgical sperm-retrieval require extensive training and expertise and is currently available in only a few selected

infertility units. Safety concerns relate to a higher-than-expected rate of abnormalities in the SEX CHROMOSOMES after ICSI, and also the potential risk of transmitting paternal genetic defects in the Y chromosome to sons born after ICSI.... intracytoplasmic sperm injection

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (ibs)

A disorder of the intestinal tract that affects its motility and causes abdominal distension and irregular defaecation. Traditional, but now discarded, names have been spastic or irritable colon. The disease affects around 20 per cent of the general population but in most it is no more than a minor nuisance. The causes are not fully understood, but it is generally believed that symptoms develop in response to psychological factors, changed gastrointestinal motility, or altered visceral sensation. About 50 per cent of patients meet criteria for a psychiatric diagnosis. Anxiety, depression, neurosis, panic attacks, acute disease are among possible triggering factors. Some patients have diarrhoea, others are constipated, and some alternate between the two. Many have increased sensitivity to distension of the intestine. Dietary factors such as intolerance to dairy products and wheat are apparent in certain patients.

Common features of IBS include:

abdominal distension.

altered bowel habit.

colicky lower abdominal pain, eased by defaecation.

mucous discharge from rectum.

feelings of incomplete defaecation.

Investigations usually produce normal results. Positive diagnosis in people under 40 is usually straightforward. In older patients, however, barium ENEMA, X-rays and COLONOSCOPY should be done to exclude colorectal cancer.

Reassurance is the initial and often e?ective treatment. If this fails, treatment should be directed at the major symptoms. Several months of the antidepressant amitriptyline (see ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS) may bene?t patients with intractable symptoms, given at a dose lower than that used to treat depression. The majority of patients follow a relapsing/remitting course, with episodes provoked by stressful events in their daily lives. (See also INTESTINE, DISEASES OF.)... irritable bowel syndrome (ibs)

Kaposi’s Sarcoma

A cancer or tumour of the blood and/or lymphatic vessel walls. It usually appears as blue-violet to brownish skin blotches or lumps. Before the appearance of AIDS, it was rare in the developed world. AIDSassociated Kaposi’s sarcoma is much more aggressive than the earlier form of the disease and is associated with Human Herpes Virus 8.... kaposi’s sarcoma

Kidney Stone

Small, hard stone that may form in the kidneys and cause intense pain... kidney stone

Liver Spots

A misnomer applied to the brown MACULES often seen on the backs of the hands of those chronically exposed to sunlight (see LENTIGO). They have no connection with any liver disorder.... liver spots

Locked-in Syndrome

This describes a condition in which a patient is awake and retains the power of sense perception, but is unable to communicate except by limited eye movements because the motor nervous system is paralysed. Several diseases can cause this syndrome, which results from interruption of some of the nerve tracts between the mid brain and the pons (see BRAIN). Sometimes the syndrome is caused by severe damage to muscles or the nerves enervating them. Locked-in syndrome may sometimes be confused with a PERSISTENT VEGETATIVE STATE (PVS).... locked-in syndrome

Malabsorption Syndrome

This term includes a multiplicity of diseases, all of which are characterised by faulty absorption from the INTESTINE of essential foodstu?s such as fat, vitamins and mineral salts. Among the conditions in this syndrome are COELIAC DISEASE, SPRUE, CYSTIC FIBROSIS and pancreatitis (see PANCREAS, DISORDERS OF). Surgical removal of the small intestine also causes the syndrome. Symptoms include ANAEMIA, diarrhoea, OEDEMA, vitamin de?ciencies, weight loss and, in severe cases, MALNUTRITION.... malabsorption syndrome

Mendelson Syndrome

Inhalation of regurgitated stomach contents, usually as a complication of general ANAESTHESIA. It may cause death from ANOXIA or result in extensive lung damage.... mendelson syndrome

Methyl Salicylate

Also called oil of Wintergreen, the liquid has analgesic (see ANALGESICS) and counter-irritant properties. Rubbed into the skin, the oil helps to relieve pain in LUMBAGO, SCIATICA and ‘rheumatic conditions’.... methyl salicylate

Minimum Standard

A level of quality that all health plans and providers are required to meet in order to offer services to clients/consumers.... minimum standard

Mitral Stenosis

Narrowing of the opening between the left ATRIUM and left VENTRICLE of the HEART as a result of rigidity of, and adhesion between, the cusps of the MITRAL VALVE. It is due, almost invariably, to the infection RHEUMATIC FEVER. The atrium has to work harder to force blood through the narrowed channel. The effects are similar to those of MITRAL INCOMPETENCE. Shortness of breath and palpitations and irregular beating (?brillation) of the atrium are common consequences in adults. Drug treatment with DIGOXIN and DIURETICS helps, but surgery to dilate or replace the faulty valve may be necessary.... mitral stenosis

Mongolian Blue Spots

Irregularly shaped areas of bluish-black pigmentation found occasionally on the buttocks, lower back or upper arms in newborn infants of African, Chinese and Japanese parentage, and sometimes in the babies of black-haired Europeans. They measure from one to several centimetres in diameter, and usually disappear in a few months. They are commonly mistaken for bruises.... mongolian blue spots

Needle-stick Injury

Accidental perforation of the skin by an injection needle, commonly of the hand or ?nger and usually by a nurse or doctor administering a therapeutic injection. The term also refers to accidental injuries from injection needles discarded by drug abusers. Dangerous infections such as viral HEPATITIS or HIV may be acquired from needle-stick injuries, and there are strict procedures about the disposal of used syringes and needles in medical settings.... needle-stick injury

Oral Surgery

A branch of surgery that treats deformities, injuries or diseases of the TEETH and JAW, as well as other areas of the face and mouth. Surgeons doing this work are usually quali?ed dentists who have done further training in oral and maxillofacial surgery.... oral surgery

Oriental Sore

This term is a synonym for cutaneous LEISHMANIASIS; others include: Cochin, Delhi, Kandahar, Lahore, Madagascar, Natal, Old World tropical, tropical sore, etc. As with many of the local names for this infection, it is now rarely used.... oriental sore

Osteogenic Sarcoma

See OSTEOSARCOMA.... osteogenic sarcoma

Pet Scanning

Positron-emission tomography is a NUCLEAR MEDICINE diagnostic technique that works by identifying positrons – positively charged electrons – given o? by substances labelled with radioactive varieties of elements. The result is three-dimensional images that identify metabolic and chemical activities of tissues, especially brain tissues. The images provide information about tissue and organ functions, and can be collated with structural images using COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The equipment is very expensive and available only in selected hospitals in the United Kingdom. The technique is especially valuable in the assessment of neurological disorders.... pet scanning

Parasympathetic Nervous System

That part of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM which is connected with the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD through certain nerve centres in the midbrain, medulla, and lower end of the cord. The nerves from these centres are carried in the third, seventh, ninth and tenth cranial nerves and the second, third and fourth sacral nerves. The action of the parasympathetic system is usually antagonistic to that of the sympathetic system. Thus it inhibits the action of the HEART and augments the action of the INTESTINE; whereas the sympathetic augments the action of the heart and inhibits that of the intestine. (See diagram of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems under NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... parasympathetic nervous system

Plummer-vinson Syndrome

Hypochromic ANAEMIA and di?culty in swallowing due to an oesophageal web.... plummer-vinson syndrome

Portal System

A vein or collection of veins which ?nish at both ends in a bed of capillary blood vessels. An important example is the hepatic portal system, comprising the portal vein and its tributaries. Blood from the stomach, pancreas, spleen and intestines drains into the veins that join up to comprise the portal vein into the liver, where it branches into sinusoids.... portal system

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Characterised by scanty (or absent) MENSTRUATION, INFERTILITY, hirsutism (excessive hairiness) and OBESITY and the sufferers often have multiple cysts in their OVARIES.

The condition is caused by an imbalance between LUTEINISING HORMONE (LH) and FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH); this imbalance stops OVULATION and varies the TESTOSTERONE output of the ovaries. The treatment may be with CLOMIPHENE; with a PROGESTOGEN drug; with LUTEINISING HORMONE-RELEASING HORMONE (LHRH); or with oral contraceptives (see under CONTRACEPTION – Non-barrier methods). The treatment chosen depends on the severity of the disease and whether the woman wants to conceive. Rarely a section of ovarian tissue is surgically removed.... polycystic ovary syndrome

Post-viral Fatigue Syndrome

See MYALGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS (ME).... post-viral fatigue syndrome

Pressure Sores

See ULCER – Decubitus ulcer.... pressure sores

Puerperal Sepsis

An infection, once called puerperal fever, that starts in the genital tract within ten days after childbirth, miscarriage or abortion (see PREGNANCY AND LABOUR). Once a scourge of childbirth, with many women dying from the infection, the past 50 years have seen a dramatic decline in its incidence in developed countries, with only 1–3 per cent of women having babies now being affected. This decline is due to much better maternity care and the advent of ANTIBIOTICS. Infection usually starts in the VAGINA and is caused by the bacteria that normally live in it: they can cause harm because of the mother’s lowered resistance, or when part of the PLACENTA has been retained in the genital tract. The infection usually spreads to the UTERUS and sometimes to the FALLOPIAN TUBES. Sometimes bacteria may enter the vagina from other parts of the body.

Fever, an o?ensive-smelling post-partum vaginal discharge (lochia) and pain in the lower abdomen are the main features. Untreated, the women may develop SALPINGITIS, PERITONITIS and septicaemia. Antibiotics are used to treat the infection and any retained placental tissue must be removed.... puerperal sepsis

Radical Surgery

An operation to remove a cancer, plus adjacent tissue and lymph nodes.... radical surgery

Representative Sample

The term “representative”, as it is commonly used, is undefined in the statistical or mathematical sense; it means simply that the sample resembles the population in some way. The use of probability sampling will not ensure that any single sample will be “representative” of the population in all possible aspects. A common fallacy lies in the unwarranted assumption that, if the sample resembles the population closely on those factors that have been checked, it is “totally representative” and no differences exist between the sample and the universal or reference population.... representative sample

Reproductive System

A collective term for all the organs involved in sexual reproduction. In the female these are the OVARIES, FALLOPIAN TUBES, UTERUS, VAGINA and VULVA. In the male these are the testes (see TESTICLE), VAS DEFERENS, SEMINAL VESICLES, URETHRA and PENIS.... reproductive system

Respiratory Distress Syndrome

This may occur in adults as ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (ARDS), or in newborn children, when it is also known as HYALINE MEMBRANE DISEASE. The adult syndrome consists of PULMONARY OEDEMA of non-cardiac origin. The process begins when tissue damage stimulates the autonomic nervous system, releases vasoactive substances, precipitates complement activation, and produces abnormalities of the clotting cascade – the serial process that leads to clotting of the blood (see COAGULATION). The activation of complement causes white cells to lodge in the pulmonary capillaries where they release substances which damage the pulmonary endothelium.

Respiratory distress syndrome is a complication of SHOCK, systemic SEPSIS and viral respiratory infections. It was ?rst described in 1967, and – despite advances with assisted ventilation

– remains a serious disease with a mortality of more than 50 per cent. The maintenance of adequate circulating blood volume, peripheral PERFUSION, acid-base balance and arterial oxygenation is important, and assisted ventilation should be instituted early.

In newborns the mechanism is diferent, being provoked by an inability of the lungs to manufacture SURFACTANT.... respiratory distress syndrome

Restless Legs Syndrome

A condition in which the patient experiences unpleasant sensations, and occasionally involuntary movements, in the legs when at rest, especially at night. No pathological changes have been identi?ed. It is sometimes indicative of iron-de?ciency ANAEMIA, but in many cases the cause remains a mystery and the variety of cures o?ered are a testimony to this. Some anti-epileptic drugs are said to help (see EPILEPSY).... restless legs syndrome

Risus Sardonicus

The term used for describing the facial appearance when the muscles of the forehead and the face go into spasm in TETANUS, giving the e?ect of a sardonic grin.... risus sardonicus

Saccharine

A sweetening agent that is 400 times as sweet as cane sugar, but with no energy content. Apart from its rather bitter aftertaste, it has practically no e?ect on the tissues, and escapes from the body unchanged. Destroyed by heat, saccharine is not used in cooking, but is an important component of all diabetic and low-calorie diets.... saccharine

Saccharomyces

Another name for YEAST.... saccharomyces

Sacral Vertebrae

The ?ve fused vertebrae that link the thoracic spine and the coccyx and form the sacrum (see SPINAL COLUMN).... sacral vertebrae

Sacroiliac Joint

One of a pair of joints between each side of the SACRUM and each ILIUM. Strong ligaments between the ilium and the sacrum stabilise the joint, permitting little movement. Childbirth or strenuous sporting activities may strain the joint, causing pain in the lower part of the back and buttocks. Such strains may take a long time to mend; PHYSIOTHERAPY is the treatment. The joint(s) may become in?amed (see SACROILEITIS).... sacroiliac joint

Sadism

The term applied to a form of sexual perversion, in which satisfaction is derived from the in?iction of cruelty upon another person. The condition is commoner in men than in women and is sometimes linked with MASOCHISM (a wish to be hurt or abused).... sadism

Safety

A judgment of the acceptability of risk (a measure of the probability of an adverse outcome and its severity) associated with a given situation or setting.... safety

Saffron

(English) Resembling the yellow flower

Saffrone, Saffronn, Saffronne, Safron, Safronn, Safronne, Saffronah, Safrona, Safronah, Safrone, Safronna, Safronnah, Saffrona... saffron

Sage

(English) Wise one; type of spice Saige, Sayge, Saege, Sagia, Saig, Sayg, Saeg... sage

Sagittal

The term applied to a structure or section running from front to back in the body.... sagittal

Salaam Attacks

See INFANTILE SPASMS.... salaam attacks

Salk Vaccine

A vaccine obtained by treating the POLIOMYELITIS virus with formalin. This prevents the virus from causing the disease but allows it to stimulate the production of ANTIBODIES. Salk vaccine is given by injection and protects the recipient against the disease. (See also IMMUNISATION.)... salk vaccine

Salmonella

A widespread genus of gram-negative motile-rod bacteria, some of them can cause moderate GI infections, while several can produce metabolites in food that cause serious toxic reaction when the food is eaten... salmonella

Salmonella Infections

See FOOD POISONING; ENTERIC FEVER; DYSENTERY.... salmonella infections

Salpingography

Radiography (see X-RAYS) of one or both FALLOPIAN TUBES after radio-opaque material has been injected into them via the UTERUS.... salpingography

Salt

The substance produced by the replacement of the acidic hydrogen of an acid by a metal or basic radical. It is also a synonym for common salt or sodium chloride. Sodium chloride is a vital constituent of cells, and a proper balance between it and other salts in the cells and body tissues is important for their viability.... salt

Sandalwood

Protection, Healing, Exorcism, Spirituality... sandalwood

Sandfly Fever

This is a short, sharp fever occurring in many parts of the tropics and subtropics, including most of the Mediterranean littoral. It is due to a virus, called phlebovirus, conveyed by the bite of a small hairy midge or sandfly (Phlebotomus papatasi). The incubation period is 3–7 days.

Symptoms There are headache, feverishness, general sensations like those of INFLUENZA, flushed face and bloodshot eyes, but no signs of CATARRH. The fever passes off in three days, but the patient may take some time to convalesce.

Treatment As there is no specific remedy, PROPHYLAXIS is important. This consists of the spraying of rooms with an insecticide such as GAMMEXANE; the application of insect repellents such as dimethyl phthalate to the exposed parts of the body (e.g. ankles, wrists and face), particularly at sunset; and the use of sandfly nets at night. Once the infection is acquired, treatment consists of rest in bed, light diet and aspirin and codeine.... sandfly fever

Sanguineous

This term means containing blood. ... sanguineous

Sanitary Protection

Disposable sanitary towels or tampons (see TAMPON) used to protect clothing from bloodstains during MENSTRUATION. They are available in different absorbencies to meet women’s individual needs.... sanitary protection

Saprophyte

An organism which lives usually upon decaying and dead matter and produces its decomposition.... saprophyte

Sarcoptes

Mites which infest humans and animals. Sarcoptes scabei hominis causes human SCABIES. Other species infest dogs (sarcoptic mange), cats and birds.... sarcoptes

Sarsaparilla

Love, Money... sarsaparilla

Savory, Summer

Mental Powers ... savory, summer

Scabicide

A drug that eliminates the mites which cause SCABIES.... scabicide

Scale

A set of numbers or other symbols used to designate characteristics of a variable that is used in measurement. A system for measuring equal portions.... scale

Scalp

The soft covering of the SKULL on the top of the head. It consists of ?ve layers, which from the surface inwards are as follows: the skin, from which grows hair; next a subcutaneous layer of fat; thirdly, a tough ?brous membrane known as the epicranium; fourthly, a loose layer of connective tissue attaching the epicranium to the deepest layer, and permitting the free movement of the scalp; and, ?nally, another ?brous layer clinging closely to the skull, and known as the pericranium.... scalp

Scanning Speech

A speech disorder in which articulated syllables are wrongly spaced and each is given the same vocal emphasis. The condition occurs as a result of disease in the cerebellum (see BRAIN) or its connecting nerves. (See also VOICE AND SPEECH.)... scanning speech

Scanning Techniques

Ways of producing images of body organs that record, process and analyse sound waves, radio waves or X-RAYS passing through or generated by the body’s tissues. ULTRASOUND scanning using high-frequency, inaudible sound waves directed at the area of the body being studied is the most generally used scanning procedure. Sound waves are re?ected more powerfully by some structures than others, and a pattern of those re?ections is detected and shown on a screen. Other screening methods include COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET SCANNING) and RADIONUCLIDE scanning, which measures the di?erential uptake of radioactive materials in the body’s tissues.... scanning techniques

Scaphoid Bone

The outside bone on the thumb side of the HAND in the row of carpal (wrist) bones nearest to the forearm. Fracture of the scaphoid is a common wrist injury that usually occurs when someone falls on to their outstretched hand. The fracture may not be diagnosed at ?rst (even an X-ray may not be abnormal). Pain in and permanent damage to the wrist can occur.... scaphoid bone

Scatter Diagram

A graph in which each dot represents paired values for two continuous variables, with the X axis representing one variable and the Y axis representing the other; used to display the relationship between two variables; also called a scattergram.... scatter diagram

Schizogony

An asexual phase in the life-cycle of a sporozoan (see SPOROZOA) that occurs in red blood cells or liver cells.... schizogony

Scolex

The anterior organ of a tapeworm used for attachment to host tissues. Also known as the holdfast.... scolex

Scorbutic

This is an adjective characterising SCURVY; typically swollen, spongy gums that bleed easily, and spontaneous haemorrhages and bruising anywhere in the body.... scorbutic

Screening

The use of procedures and measures to identify and differentiate apparently well persons who have a disease or condition or a high risk thereof from those who probably do not have the disease or condition.... screening

Screening Test

The screening of apparently healthy people to identify those who may have treatable diseases. Cervical smears are done when screening women to detect if they have cancer or precancer of the neck of the womb (cervix). Newborn babies are screened for hip dislocation. Screening tests are not designed to diagnose individual persons, but rather to divide a population into a large number at low risk and a small number at high risk of a condition. This allows clinicians to concentrate on a sub-section of the population. All screening tests produce false negative and false positive results, a problem often misunderstood by those at the receiving end. Factors to be assessed when planning screening procedures include the severity, frequency and distribution of the disease, and the availability and e?ectiveness of treatment. Convenience, safety, sensitivity and cost should also be assessed. In the United Kingdom the government has supported the extension of screening procedures for breast cancer, cervical cancer, hypertension and diabetes. (See PREVENTIVE MEDICINE.)... screening test

Scrub Typhus

A febrile illness caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi, transmitted through the larval stage of several species of infected trombiculid mites, often called chiggers. The endemic region is a roughly triangular area bounded by Japan in the north, Pakistan in the west and with Queensland, Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands in the South.... scrub typhus

Scrum-pox

A popular name for a contagious condition of the face affecting rugby football players. It is most likely to occur in forwards as a result of face-to-face contact with individuals with the infection in the opposing side of the scrum. Other possible sources of infection are changing rooms and communal baths. The condition may take the form of IMPETIGO or HERPES SIMPLEX.... scrum-pox

Seasonal Affective Disorder Syndrome

Known colloquially as SADS, this is a disorder in which an affected individual’s mood changes with the seasons. He or she is commonly depressed in winter, picking up again in the spring. The diagnosis is controversial and its prevalence is not known. The mood-change is probably related to light, with MELATONIN playing a key role. (See also MENTAL ILLNESS.)... seasonal affective disorder syndrome

Sebaceous Gland

Oil secreting glands, mostly clustered around hair follicles. The oil, sebum, is released into the oil glands from the disintegrated cytoplasm of shedding holocrine cells that line the alveolar surfaces. The nature of the secretion is a direct reflection of the state of the body’s lipid metabolism.... sebaceous gland

Sebaceous Glands

The minute glands situated alongside hairs and opening into the follicles of the latter a short distance below the point at which the hairs emerge on the surface. These glands secrete an oily material, and are especially large upon the nose, where their openings form pits that are easily visible. In the mouth the glands open directly on the mucosal surface. (See also SKIN.)... sebaceous glands

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

The physical characteristics that develop during PUBERTY as the body matures sexually. Girls’ breasts and genitals increase in size, and, like boys, they grow pubic hair. Boys also grow facial hair, their voice breaks and their genitals grow to adult size.... secondary sexual characteristics

Section

(1) A thin slice of a tissue specimen taken for examination under a microscope.

(2) The act of cutting in surgery; for example, an abdominal section is done to explore the abdomen.

(3) The issuing of an order under the United Kingdom’s Mental Health Act to admit someone compulsorily to a psychiatric hospital.... section

Sedimentation Rate

See ESR.... sedimentation rate

Seizure

Also called a FIT, this is a sudden burst of uncontrolled electrical activity in the BRAIN. A seizure may be generalised or partial: in the former, abnormal electrical activity may affect the whole brain, resulting in unconsciousness and characteristic of EPILEPSY; in partial seizures, abnormal electrical activity occurs in one part of the brain. HALLUCINATIONS may occur and localised symptoms include muscular twitching or a tingling sensation in a small area of the face, arm, leg or trunk. Di?erent neurological or medical disorders may cause seizures: for example, STROKE, brain tumour, head injury, infection or metabolic disturbance (see METABOLISM; METABOLIC DISORDERS). People dependent on alcohol may suffer seizures if they stop drinking. Treatment is of the underlying condition coupled with antiepileptic drgus such as CARBAMAZEPINE, lamotrigine, SODIUM VALPROATE or PHENYTOIN SODIUM.... seizure

Selenium Sulphide

This is used as a shampoo in the treatment of dandru? and seborrhoeic DERMATITIS of the scalp. In view of its potential toxicity it should only be used under medical supervision. It must never be applied to in?amed areas of the scalp, and it must not be allowed to get into the eyes as it may cause conjunctivitis or keratitis. It is also used in the treatment of tinea versicolor (see RINGWORM).... selenium sulphide

Sella Turcica

The deep hollow on the upper surface of the sphenoid bone in which the PITUITARY GLAND is enclosed.... sella turcica

Sensory

Description applied to the part of the nervous system dedicated to bringing information on sensations affecting the body to the brain. The opposite of sensory nerves is motor nerves; these carry instructions for action to the voluntary muscles in the body.... sensory

Sequestrum

A fragment of dead bone cast o? from the living bone in the process of NECROSIS. (See also BONE, DISORDERS OF.) A sequestrum often remains in contact with, and partly enveloped by, newly formed bone, so that a SINUS is produced; a constant discharge goes on until the dead bone is removed.... sequestrum

Serotype

A classi?cation of a substance according to its serological activity. This is done in the context of the antigens (see ANTIGEN) that it contains, or the ANTIBODIES it may provoke. Microorganisms of the same species may be classi?ed according to the di?erent antigens that they produce.... serotype

Serous

... serous

Serous Membranes

Membranes that line many internal organs and cavities, secreting a thin, lymph-like fluid, that lubricates and slowly circulates.... serous membranes

Serpiginous

A term describing a creeping or extending skin lesion such as an ULCER.... serpiginous

Sexual Dysfunction

Inadequate sexual response may be due to a lack of sexual desire (LIBIDO) or to an inadequate performance; or it may be that there is a lack of satisfaction or ORGASM. Lack of sexual desire may be due to any generalised illness or endocrine disorder, or to the taking of drugs that antagonise endocrine function (see ENDOCRINE GLANDS). Disorders of performance in men can occur during arousal, penetration and EJACULATION. In the female, DYSPAREUNIA and VAGINISMUS are the main disorders of performance. DIABETES MELLITUS can cause a neuropathy which results in loss of erection. IMPOTENCE can follow nerve damage from operations on the PROSTATE GLAND and lower bowel, and can be the result of neurological diseases affecting the autonomic system (see NERVOUS SYSTEM). Disorders of satisfaction include, in men, impotence, emission without forceful ejaculation and pleasureless ejaculation. In women such disorders range from the absence of the congestive genital response to absence of orgasm. Erectile dysfunction in men can sometimes be treated with SILDENAFIL CITRATE (Viagra®), a drug that recent research suggests may also be helpful to women with reduced libido and/or inability to achieve orgasm.

Sexual dysfunction may be due to physical or psychiatric disease, or it may be the result of the administration of drugs. The main group of drugs likely to cause sexual problems are the ANTICONVULSANTS, the ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS, and drugs such as metoclopramide that induce HYPERPROLACTINAEMIA. The benzodiazepine TRANQUILLISERS can reduce libido and cause failure of erection. Tricyclic ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS may cause failure of erection and clomipramine may delay or abolish ejaculation by blockade of alpha-adrenergic receptors. The MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS (MAOIS) often inhibit ejaculation. The PHENOTHIAZINES reduce sexual desire and arousal and may cause di?culty in maintaining an erection. The antihypertensive drug, methyldopa, causes impotence in over 20 per cent of patients on large doses. The beta-adrenoceptorblockers and the DIURETICS can also cause impotence. The main psychiatric causes of sexual dysfunction include stress, depression and guilt.... sexual dysfunction

Shigella

The name given to a group of rod-shaped, gram-negative bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN) that are the cause of bacillary DYSENTERY.... shigella

Shin Splints

See MEDIAL TIBIAL SYNDROME.... shin splints

Shock Therapy

See ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY (ECT).... shock therapy

Short Stature

See DWARFISM.... short stature

Sialogogue

An agent that increases the flow of saliva... sialogogue

Sialorrhoea

Also called ptyalism, this is the excessive production of SALIVA. It occurs in various nervous disorders, such as PARKINSONISM; poisoning by MERCURY or mushrooms; or RABIES infection.... sialorrhoea

Sibling

A brother or sister. Sibling rivalry is the term... sibling

Side

(Anatolian) Resembling a pomegranate, symbolizing abundance... side

Side Effects

Unwanted effects of a drug or treatment.... side effects

Sida Rhombifolia

Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, in moist places.

English: Common Bala.

Ayurvedic: Mahaabalaa, Mahaa- samangaa, Sahadevaa, Kshetrabalaa.

Unani: Bariyaara (red-flowered var.).

Siddha/Tamil: Athi Bala-chedi, Chitrmutti, Tennacham.

Action: Plant—used as a supporting drug in pulmonary tuberculosis, nervous diseases and rheumatism. Leaves—applied to swelling as paste. Stem-mucilage—demulcent and emollient. Used internally in skin diseases and as a diuretic and febrifuge.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the root in deficient spermatogensis and oedema.

Alkaloids, ephedrine, si-ephedrine and cryptolepine, are reported from aerial parts. The root contains 0.054% alkaloids, beta-phenethylamine, N- methyl-beta-phenethylamine, vasici- nol, vasicinone, vasicine, choline and betaine. These alkaloids are also present in the aerial parts.

Alcoholic extract of the root exhibited antibacterial and antipyretic activities.

Proteins, linoleic, malvlic and ster- culic acids have been reported from seeds.

Dosage: Root—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... sida rhombifolia

Sidero

(Greek) In mythology, stepmother of Pelias and Neleus Siderro, Sydero, Sideriyo... sidero

Sight

See VISION.... sight

Simmonds’ Disease

A rare condition in which wasting of the skin and the bones, IMPOTENCE, and loss of hair (ALOPECIA) occur as a result of destruction of the PITUITARY GLAND.... simmonds’ disease

Sinus Tachycardia

A regular heart rate of 100 or more beats a minute, caused by increased electrical activity in the SINOATRIAL NODE (see also HEART). This level of tachycardia is normal during and just after exercise, and may also be caused by stress or anxiety. If tachycardia persists when the person is resting, it may be due to underlying disease such as thyrotoxicosis (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF) and investigation is advisable.... sinus tachycardia

Sinusoid

A small blood vessel like an enlarged capillary (see CAPILLARIES) occurring, for example, in the LIVER, which contains a large number of them. The sinusoids in the liver are drained by the hepatic veins.... sinusoid

Skeletal Muscle

Muscle under a person’s voluntary control (see MUSCLE; VOLUNTARY MUSCLE).... skeletal muscle

Skin

The membrane which envelops the outer surface of the body, meeting at the body’s various ori?ces, with the mucous membrane lining the internal cavities.

Structure

CORIUM The foundation layer. It overlies the subcutaneous fat and varies in thickness from 0·5–3.0 mm. Many nerves run through the corium: these have key roles in the sensations of touch, pain and temperature (see NEURON(E)). Blood vessels nourish the skin and are primarily responsible for regulating the body temperature. Hairs are bedded in the corium, piercing the epidermis (see below) to cover the skin in varying amounts in di?erent parts of the body. The sweat glands are also in the corium and their ducts lead to the surface. The ?brous tissue of the corium comprises interlocking white ?brous elastic bundles. The corium contains many folds, especially over joints and on the palms of hands and soles of feet with the epidermis following the contours. These are permanent throughout life and provide unique ?ngerprinting identi?cation. HAIR Each one has a root and shaft, and its varying tone originates from pigment scattered throughout it. Bundles of smooth muscle (arrectores pilorum) are attached to the root and on contraction cause the hair to stand vertical. GLANDS These occur in great numbers in the skin. SEBACEOUS GLANDS secrete a fatty substance and sweat glands a clear watery ?uid (see PERSPIRATION). The former are made up of a bunch of small sacs producing fatty material that reaches the surface via the hair follicle. Around three million sweat or sudoriparous glands occur all over the body surface; sited below the sebaceous glands they are unconnected to the hairs. EPIDERMIS This forms the outer layer of skin and is the cellular layer covering the body surface: it has no blood vessels and its thickness varies from 1 mm on the palms and soles to 0·1 mm on the face. Its outer, impervious, horny layer comprises several thicknesses of ?at cells (pierced only by hairs and sweat-gland openings) that are constantly rubbed o? as small white scales; they are replaced by growing cells from below. The next, clear layer forms a type of membrane below which the granular stratum cells are changing from their origins as keratinocytes in the germinative zone, where ?ne sensory nerves also terminate. The basal layer of the germinative zone contains melanocytes which produce the pigment MELANIN, the cause of skin tanning.

Nail A modi?cation of skin, being analagous to the horny layer, but its cells are harder and more adherent. Under the horny nail is the nail bed, comprising the well-vascularised corium (see above) and the germinative zone. Growth occurs at the nail root at a rate of around 0·5 mm a week – a rate that increases in later years of life.

Skin functions By its ability to control sweating and open or close dermal blood vessels, the skin plays a crucial role in maintaining a constant body temperature. Its toughness protects the body from mechanical injury. The epidermis is a two-way barrier: it prevents the entry of noxious chemicals and microbes, and prevents the loss of body contents, especially water, electrolytes and proteins. It restricts electrical conductivity and to a limited extent protects against ultraviolet radiation.

The Langerhans’ cells in the epidermis are the outposts of the immune system (see IMMUNITY), just as the sensory nerves in the skin are the outposts of the nervous system. Skin has a social function in its ability to signal emotions such as fear or anger. Lastly it has a role in the synthesis of vitamin D.... skin

Slipped Disc

The popular name for a PROLAPSED INTERVERTEBRAL DISC. (See also SPINAL COLUMN; SCIATICA.)... slipped disc

Slow Virus

See prion.... slow virus

Slippery Elm

Ulmus fulva. N.O. Urticaceae.

Synonym: Moose Elm, Red Elm.

Habitat; North America, particularly Canada.

Features ? The dried inner bark of Ulmus fulva is one of the most valued articles in herbal medicine. It is tough and fibrous, becoming soft and mucilaginous when moistened. It is this mucilaginous quality which originated the popular name of Slippery Elm. The inner bark has a slight pinkish or rusty tint, is faintly striated longitudinally, has a strong characteristic odour, and the distinctive "slimy" taste.

Action: Emollient, demulcent, pectoral.

The finely powdered bark, prepared as an ordinary gruel, has shown remarkable results as a demulcent in catarrhal affections of the whole digestive and urinary tracts, and in all diseases involving inflammation of the mucous membranes. Both bronchitis and gastritis yield to its soothing

and healing properties, and as a nutrient in general debility it is probably unrivalled.

A teaspoonful of the powder to 1 pint of boiling water makes the food or gruel. The powder should be first thoroughly mixed with an equal quantity of brown sugar and the boiling water added in small quantities, say four to the pint, mixing each time until a smooth result is obtained.

Slippery Elm bark coarsely powdered makes one of the best possible poultices for boils, carbuncles, chilblains, and skin eruptions generally. It soothes the part, disperses inflammation, draws out impurities, and heals rapidly.... slippery elm

Small-cell Carcinoma

See OAT CELL.... small-cell carcinoma

Smell

The sense of smell is picked up in what is known as the olfactory areas of the NOSE. Each of these is about 3 square centimetres in area and contains 50 million olfactory, or smelling, cells. They lie, one on either side, at the highest part of each nasal cavity. This is why we have to sni? if we want to smell anything carefully, as in ordinary quiet breathing only a few eddies of the air we breathe in reaches an olfactory area. From these olfactory cells the olfactory nerves (one on each side) run up to the olfactory bulbs underneath the frontal lobe of the BRAIN, and here the impulse is translated into what we describe as smell.... smell

Smoking

See TOBACCO.... smoking

Smooth Muscle

Muscle under the ‘involuntary’ control of the autonomic nervous system (see MUSCLE; NERVOUS SYSTEM).... smooth muscle

Snakeroot

Luck Money... snakeroot

Sneezing

A sudden expulsion of air through the NOSE, designed to expel irritating materials from the upper air passages. In sneezing, a powerful expiratory e?ort is made; the vocal cords (see VOICE AND SPEECH; LARYNX) are kept shut until the pressure in the chest has risen high; and air is then suddenly allowed to escape upwards, being directed into the back of the nose by the soft PALATE. One sneeze projects 10,000 to 100,000 droplets a distance of up to 10 metres at a rate of over 60 kilometres an hour. As such droplets may contain micro-organisms, it is clear what an important part sneezing plays in transmitting infections such as the COMMON COLD. Alhough usually transitory, sneezing may persist for days on end – up to 204 days have been recorded.

Sneezing may be caused by the presence of irritating particles in the nose, such as snu?, or the pollen of grasses and ?owers. It is also an early symptom of colds, INFLUENZA, MEASLES, and HAY FEVER, being then accompanied or followed by running at the nose (RHINITIS).... sneezing

Social Medicine

See PUBLIC HEALTH.... social medicine

Social Services

Services provided by government to improve the social welfare of those who need them.... social services

Sodium Aurothiomalate

A gold compound given by deep intramuscular injection in the treatment of RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS in children and adults. Known as a second-line or disease-modifying antirheumatoid drug, its therapeutic e?ect may take up to six months to achieve a full response. If this fails to happen, the drug should be stopped. If the patient responds, treatment may be continued at increasingly long intervals (up to four weeks) for as long as ?ve years. Gold treatment is particularly useful for palindromic arthritis in which the disease comes and goes.... sodium aurothiomalate

Sodium Chloride

The chemical name for common salt (see SODIUM).... sodium chloride

Sodium Hypochlorite

A disinfectant by virtue of the fact that it gives o? chlorine. For domestic use – as, for example, for sterilising baby feeding bottles – it is available in a variety of proprietary preparations.... sodium hypochlorite

Soma

(Indian) An exalted woman; one who gives praise... soma

Somatostatin

Also known as the growth-hormone-releaseinhibiting factor, this is a hormone secreted by the HYPOTHALAMUS and some non-nervous tissues (including the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas). It stops the pituitary-releasing somatotrophin – GROWTH HORMONE. Somatostatin and growth-hormone-releasing hormone are controlled by complicated neural mechanisms linked to exercise, sleep patterns, stress, NEUROTRANSMITTERS and blood GLUCOSE.... somatostatin

Solomon's Seal

Polygonatum officinalis. N.O. Liliaceae.

Habitat: Rocky woods in high situations.

Features ? Stem from twelve to eighteen inches high, with alternate sessile leaves. White flowers in May and June, usually solitary, stalks axillary ; black berries. Rhizome cylindrical, about half an inch diameter, transverse ridges, slightly flattened above, circular stem scars at intervals. Fracture short, yellowish, waxy. Taste mucilaginous, sweet then acrid.

Part used ? Rhizome.

Action: Astringent, demulcent.

Lung complaints, when combined with other remedies. Also in leucorrhea. Powdered root used as poultice for inflammations.

Infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint boiling water—wineglass doses.... solomon's seal

Sotalol

See BETA-ADRENOCEPTOR-BLOCKING DRUGS.... sotalol

Sound

A rod with a curve at one end used to explore body cavities such as the bladder, or to dilate strictures in the urethra or other channels in the body. (See URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF.)... sound

Space Medicine

A medical specialty dealing with the physiological, PSYCHOLOGICAL and pathological consequences of space ?ight in which the body has to cope with unusual variations in gravitational forces, including weightlessness, a constricted environment, prolonged close contact with work colleagues in very demanding technical circumstances, and sustained periods of emotional pressure including fear. Enormous progress has been made in providing astronauts with as normal an environment as possible, and they have to undergo prolonged physical and mental training before embarking on space travel.... space medicine

Spanish Fly

A popular term for cantharides, which is used as a blistering agent.... spanish fly

Spatula

A ?at, knife-like instrument used for spreading plasters and ointments, and also for depressing the tongue when the throat is being examined.... spatula

Specialist

A health professional who is specially trained in a certain branch of his/her profession related to specific services or procedures.... specialist

Species

A fairly well-defined, interbreeding group of plants or animals. The lowest taxonomic grouping of closelyrelated varieties - below a Genus. See Taxonomy .... species

Speech Disorders

These may be of physical or psychological origin – or a combination of both. Di?culties may arise at various stages of development: due to problems during pregnancy; at birth; caused by childhood illnesses; or as a result of delayed development. Congenital defects such as CLEFT PALATE or lip may make speech unintelligible until major surgery is performed, thus discouraging talking and delaying development. Recurrent ear infections may make hearing dif?cult; the child’s experience of speech is thus limited, with similar results. Childhood DYSPHASIA occurs if the language-development area of the BRAIN develops abnormally; specialist education and SPEECH THERAPY may then be required.

Dumbness is the inability to pronounce the sounds that make up words. DEAFNESS is the most important cause, being due to a congenital brain defect, or acquired brain disease, such as tertiary SYPHILIS. When hearing is normal or only mildly impaired, dumbness may be due to a structural defect such as tongue-tie or enlarged tonsils and adenoids, or to ine?cient voice control, resulting in lisping or lalling. Increased tension is a common cause of STAMMERING; speech disorders may occasionally be of psychological origin.

Normal speech may be lost in adulthood as a result of a STROKE or head injury. Excessive use of the voice may be an occupational hazard; and throat cancer may require a LARYNGECTOMY, with subsequent help in communication. Severe psychiatric disturbance may be accompanied by impaired social and communication skills. (See also VOICE AND SPEECH.)

Treatment The underlying cause of the problem should be diagnosed as early as possible; psychological and other specialist investigations should be carried out as required, and any physical defect should be repaired. People who are deaf and unable to speak should start training in lip-reading as soon as possible, and special educational methods aimed at acquiring a modulated voice should similarly be started in early childhood – provided by the local authority, and continued as required. Various types of speech therapy or PSYCHOTHERAPY may be appropriate, alone or in conjunction with other treatments, and often the ?nal result may be highly satisfying, with a good command of language and speech being obtained.

Help and advice may be obtained from AFASIC (Unlocking Speech and Language).... speech disorders

Spermatogenesis

The production of mature sperm (see SPERMATOZOON) in the testis (see TESTICLE). The sperm cells originate from the outermost layer of the seminiferous tubules in the testis: these multiply throughout reproductive life and are transformed into mature spermatozoa, a process that takes up to 80 days.... spermatogenesis

Spermatorrhoea

The passage of SEMEN without erection of the PENIS or ORGASM.... spermatorrhoea

Spermatozoa

See SPERMATOZOON.... spermatozoa

Spermicide

Contraceptive preparations that kill sperm. They may be in the form of gels, pessaries, cream or foam and should be used with a barrier contraceptive such as a diaphragm or a condom. (See CONTRACEPTION.)... spermicide

Sphygmograph

An instrument for recording the PULSE.... sphygmograph

Spica

(Latin) One of the brightest stars Spicah, Spicka, Spika, Spicca, Spyca, Spycka, Spyka... spica

Spicule

A male accessory reproductive organ in nematodes helping to attach the male to the female during copulation. There may be one or two or it may be absent in some nematodes.... spicule

Spinal Anaesthesia

See under ANAESTHESIA.... spinal anaesthesia

Spermatozoon

(Plural: spermatozoa.) This is the male sex or germ cell which unites with the OVUM to form the EMBRYO or fetus. It is a highly mobile cell approximately 4 micrometres in length – much smaller than an ovum, which is about 35 micrometres in diameter. Each millilitre of SEMEN contains on average about 100 million spermatozoa, and the average volume of semen discharged during ejaculation in sexual intercourse is 2–4 ml. (Some recent research suggests that male fertility is falling because of a reduction in the production of viable spermatozoa – possibly due to environmental factors, including the discharge of hormones used for agricultural purposes and for human hormonal contraception.)

Once ejaculated during intercourse the spermatozoon travels at a rate of 1·5–3 millimetres a minute and remains mobile for several days after insemination, but quickly loses its potency for fertilisation. As it takes only about 70 minutes to reach the ovarian end of the uterine tube, it is assumed that there must be factors other than its own mobility, such as contraction of the muscle of the womb and uterine tube, that speed it on its way.... spermatozoon

Spirillum

A form of micro-organism of wavy or spiral shape. (See MICROBIOLOGY.)... spirillum

Spirometer

A device to test how the lung is working (see also PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS) to assess the effects of lung disease or the progress of treatment – a procedure called spirometry. The spirometer records the total volume of air breathed out – the forced vital capacity. The machine also records the volume of air breathed out in one second – the forced expiratory volume. In diseases such as ASTHMA, in which the airways are obstructed, the ratio of the forced expiratory volume to the forced vital capacity is reduced. (See RESPIRATION.)... spirometer

Splanchnic

Anything belonging to the internal organs of the body, as distinguished from its framework.... splanchnic

Spinal Column

Also known as the spine, this forms an important part of the skeleton, acting both as the rigid pillar which supports the upper parts of the body and as a protection to the SPINAL CORD and nerves arising from it. The spinal column is built up of a number of bones placed one upon another, which, in consequence of having a slight degree of turning-movement, are known as the vertebrae. The possession of a spinal cord supported by a vertebral column distinguishes the higher animals from the lower types, and is why they are called vertebrates. Of the vertebrates, humans alone stand absolutely erect, and this erect carriage of the body gives to the skull and vertebral column certain distinctive characters.

The human backbone is about 70 cm (28

inches) in length, and varies little in full-grown people; di?erences in height depend mainly upon the length of the lower limbs. The number of vertebrae is 33 in children, although in adult life ?ve of these fuse together to form the sacrum, and the lowest four unite in the coccyx, so that the number of separate bones is reduced to 26. Of these there are seven in the neck, known as cervical vertebrae; 12 with ribs attached, in the region of the thorax known as thoracic or dorsal vertebrae; ?ve in the loins, called lumbar vertebrae; ?ve fused to form the sacrum; and four joined in the coccyx. These numbers are expressed in a formula thus: C7, D12, L5, S5, Coc4=33.

Although the vertebrae in each of these regions have distinguishing features, all the vertebrae are constructed on the same general plan. Each has a thick, rounded, bony part in front, known as the body, and these bodies form the main thickness of the column. Behind the body of each is a ring of bone, the neural ring, these rings placed one above another forming the bony canal which lodges the spinal cord. From each side of the ring a short process of bone known as the transverse process stands out, and from the back of the ring a larger process, the spinous process, projects. These processes give attachment to the strong ligaments and muscles which unite, support, and bend the column. The spines can be seen or felt beneath the skin of the back lying in the centre of a groove between the muscular masses of the two sides, and they give to the column its name of the spinal column. One of these spines, that of the seventh cervical vertebra, is especially large and forms a distinct bony prominence, where the neck joins the back. Between the bodies of the vertebrae lies a series of thick discs of ?brocartilage known as intervertebral discs. Each disc consists of an outer portion, known as the annulus ?brosus, and an inner core, known as the nucleus pulposus. These 23 discs provide the upper part of the spine with pliability and resilience.

The ?rst and second cervical vertebrae are specially modi?ed. The ?rst vertebra, known as the atlas, is devoid of a body, but has a specially large and strong ring with two hollows upon which the skull rests, thus allowing forward and backward movements (nodding). The second vertebra, known as the axis, has a pivot on its body which ?ts into the ?rst vertebra and thus allows free rotation of the head from side to side. The spinal column has four natural curves (see diagram) which help to cushion the shocks of walking and running.

The neural rings of the vertebrae form a canal, which is wide in the neck, smaller and almost round in the dorsal region, and wide again in the lumbar vertebrae. Down the canal runs the spinal cord, and the nerves leaving the cord do so through openings between the vertebrae which are produced by notches on the upper and lower margins of each ring. The intervertebral foramina formed by these notches are so large in comparison with the nerves passing through them that there is no chance of pressure upon the latter, except in very serious injuries which dislocate and fracture the spine.... spinal column

Spondylosis

See SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.... spondylosis

Spongiform Encephalopathy

A disease of the neurological system caused by a PRION. Spongy degeneration of the BRAIN occurs with progressive DEMENTIA. Known examples of the disorder in humans are CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (CJD) and KURU. Among animals, scrapie in sheep and BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE) are caused by slow viruses. The latter has occurred as an outbreak in cattle over the past decade or so, probably as a result of cattle being fed processed o?al from infected animals. Some people have developed a form of CJD from eating infected beef.... spongiform encephalopathy

Sporadic

The term applied to cases of disease occurring here and there, as opposed to EPIDEMIC outbreaks.... sporadic

Spore

Part of the lifecycle of certain BACTERIA when the vegetative cell is encapsulated and metabolism falls to a low level. The spore is resistant to changes in the environment and, when these are unfavourable, the spore remains dormant; when they improve, it starts to grow. Certain dangerous bacteria, such as CLOSTRIDIUM, produce resistant ubiquitous spores, so sterilisation procedures need to be very e?ective.... spore

Sporozoa

The name of a group of parasitic PROTOZOA which includes the parasitic Plasmodium that causes MALARIA. The life-cycles of sporozoa are complex, often with sexual and asexual stages.... sporozoa

Sporozoites

The final stage of development of Plasmodium in the mosquito; this is the infective form of the malarial parasite; occurring either in a mature oocyst before its rupture or in the salivary gland of a mosquito.... sporozoites

Spotted Fever

See MENINGITIS; EPIDEMIC; TYPHUS FEVER.... spotted fever

Sputum

The mucous secretions from the mouth, throat or back of the nose. Sputum is also expectorated by coughing from the lower air passages. Its production may be increased by respiratory-tract allergy (ASTHMA) or by breathing-in irritants such as tobacco smoke, smoke from a ?re, or fumes from chemical materials. Sputum is normally white, but infection will turn it to yellow or green, and blood from the lungs may produce pink frothy sputum. Treatment is to deal with the underlying disorder. Production of large quantities of sputum – for instance, in BRONCHIECTASIS – may require physiotherapy and postural drainage. (See also EXPECTORATION.)... sputum

Ssris

See SELECTIVE SEROTONIN-REUPTAKE INHIBITORS (SSRIS).... ssris

Staghorn Calculus

A branched renal stone formed in the image of the collecting system of the kidney (see KIDNEYS). It ?lls the calyces and pelvis and is commonly associated with an infection of the urine, particularly Proteus vulgaris. The calculus may lead to pyonephrosis and an ABSCESS of the kidney.... staghorn calculus

Standard Population

A population in which the age and sex composition is known precisely, as a result of a census. A standard population is used as a comparison group in the procedure for standardizing mortality rates.... standard population

Stanozolol

See ANABOLIC STEROIDS.... stanozolol

Staphylococcus

Staphylococcus is a genus of gram-positive bacterium (see GRAM’S STAIN; BACTERIA) which under the microscope appears in small masses like bunches of grapes. It is one of the most common infectious micro-organisms and is found, for example, in the PUS discharged from BOILS (FURUNCULOSIS). (See also MICROBIOLOGY.)... staphylococcus

Star Anise

See Anís de estrella.... star anise

Statins

A group of LIPID-lowering drugs used to treat primary hypercholesterolaemia – a condition in which the concentrations of LIPOPROTEINS in the blood plasma are raised, increasing the likelihood of affected individuals developing coronary heart disease. Statins act by competitively inhibiting an ENZYME called 3-hydroxy-3methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase. This enzyme plays a part in the synthesis of CHOLESTEROL, particularly in the LIVER. Statins are more e?ective than other classes of drugs in lowering body concentrations of LDL-cholesterol but less e?ective than ?brates in reducing triglyceride concentration. Their use results in signi?cant reductions in heart attacks (myocardial infarctions) and other adverse cardiovascular events, such as STROKE. Recent research shows that drugs which reduce lipid concentrations may prevent as many as one-third of myocardial infarctions and deaths from coronary disease. Statins are valuable in preventing coronary events in patients at increased risk of those conditions. They should be used in conjunction with other preventive measures such as low-fat diets, reduction in alcohol consumption, taking exercise and stopping smoking. Among statin drugs available are atorvastatin, cerivastatin sodium, ?uvastatin, pracastatin sodium and simvasatin. (See HEART, DISEASES OF; HYPERLIPIDAEMIA.)... statins

Steatoma

A fatty, cystic tumour.... steatoma

Stereognosis

The faculty of recognising the solidity of objects, and thus their nature, by handling them.... stereognosis

Sterculia

Sterculia foetida

Description: Sterculias are tall trees, rising in some instances to 30 meters. Their leaves are either undivided or palmately lobed. Their flowers are red or purple. The fruit of all sterculias is similar in aspect, with a red, segmented seedpod containing many edible black seeds.

Habitat and Distribution: There are over 100 species of sterculias distributed through all warm or tropical climates. They are mainly forest trees.

Edible Parts: The large, red pods produce a number of edible seeds. The seeds of all sterculias are edible and have a pleasant taste similar to cocoa. You can eat them like nuts, either raw or roasted.

CAUTION

Avoid eating large quantities. The seeds may have a laxative effect.... sterculia

Steroid

The group name for compounds that resemble CHOLESTEROL chemically. The group includes the sex hormones, the hormones of the adrenal cortex, and bile acids. They have a powerful in?uence on the normal functioning of the body, and natural and synthetic steroids are used in the treatment of many disorders. (See CORTICOSTEROIDS; ENDOCRINE GLANDS.)... steroid

Stertor

Stertor is a form of noisy breathing, similar to SNORING, and usually due to ?apping of the soft PALATE. Whereas ordinary snoring results from sleeping with the mouth open, stertor is the result of paralysis of the soft palate: this may be the result of a stroke, su?ocation, concussion, drunkenness, or poisoning by OPIUM or chloroform. In severe cases of paralysis, the tongue may loll back against the back of the throat, resulting in a very loud sound. In such cases breathing may be rapidly relieved by pulling the lower jaw forwards, pulling the tongue out of the mouth, or turning the person on to one side.... stertor

Stethoscope

An instrument used for listening to the sounds produced by the action of the lungs, heart, and other internal organs. (See AUSCULTATION.)... stethoscope

Stigma

Any spot or impression upon the SKIN. The term, stigmas of degeneration, is applied to physical defects that are found in people with learning disabilities (see LEARNING DISABILITY).... stigma

Stilboestrol

A synthetic oestrogen (see OESTROGENS). Its physiological actions are closely similar to those of the natural ovarian hormone, and it has the great merit of being active when taken by mouth. The drug may help patients suffering from cancer of the PROSTATE GLAND, inducing in some cases regression of the primary tumour and of secondary deposits in bone.... stilboestrol

Stilet

A stilet, or stilette, is the delicate probe or the wire used to clear a catheter (see CATHETERS) or hollow needle.... stilet

Stiffness

A condition which may be due to a change in the joints, ligaments, tendons, or muscles, or to the in?uence of the nervous system over the muscles of the part affected. Sti?ness is associated with various forms of arthritis or muscular disorders and with the effects of injuries to joints, tendons and muscles. Sti?ness of the neck muscles resulting in bending the head backwards, and of the hamstring muscles, causing di?culty in straightening the lower limbs, is a sign of MENINGITIS. Sti?ness or spasticity also occurs in certain diseases of the central nervous system.

Treatment is of the underlying disease or injury. Mild sti?ness can be treated symptomatically with local warmth and ANALGESICS. PHYSIOTHERAPY is helpful in relieving sti?ness as a result of muscle or joint injuries.... stiffness

Stings

See BITES AND STINGS.... stings

Stokes-adams Syndrome

A term applied to a condition in which slowness of the PULSE is associated with attacks of unconsciousness, and which is due to ARRHYTHMIA of the cardiac muscle or even complete heart block. Usually the heart returns to normal rhythm after a short period, but patients who suffer from the condition are commonly provided with a PACEMAKER to maintain normal cardiac function (see also CARDIAC PACEMAKER).... stokes-adams syndrome

Stomachic

Aiding the stomach and digestion... stomachic

Stone

See URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF; GALLBLADDER, DISEASES OF.... stone

Strapping

The application of strips of adhesive plaster, one overlapping the other, so as to cover and exert pressure on an area of the body. This treatment is used in cases of injury or disease when it is desired to keep a part at rest: for example, strapping may be applied to the chest in cases of pleurisy and fracture of the ribs. Also, it is often used to prevent the movement of joints which are sprained or otherwise injured.... strapping

Strawberry

Fragaria species

Description: Strawberry is a small plant with a three-leaved growth pattern. It has small, white flowers usually produced during the spring. Its fruit is red and fleshy.

Habitat and Distribution: Strawberries are found in the North Temperate Zone and also in the high mountains of the southern Western Hemisphere. Strawberries prefer open, sunny areas. They are commonly planted.

Edible Parts: The fruit is edible fresh, cooked, or dried. Strawberries are a good source of vitamin C. You can also eat the plant’s leaves or dry them and make a tea with them.... strawberry

Strep Throat

An infection of the throat with STREPTOCOCCUS bacteria: it is most common in children and symptoms range from minor discomfort to sore throat, fever, general malaise and enlarged LYMPH nodes in the neck. If symptoms are severe the infection may lead to SCARLET FEVER. PENICILLIN is the treatment of choice.... strep throat

Streptococcus

Streptococcus is a variety of gram-positive bacterium (see GRAM’S STAIN; BACTERIA) which under the microscope has much the appearance of a string of beads. Most species are saprophytic (see SAPROPHYTE); a few are PATHOGENIC and these include haemolytic types which can destroy red blood cells in a culture of blood agar. This o?ers a method of classifying the varying streptococcal strains. Alphahaeomolytic streptococci are usually associated with bacterial ENDOCARDITIS. SCARLET FEVER is caused by a ?-haeomolytic streptococcus called S. pyogenes. S. pneumoniae, also called PNEUMOCOCCUS, causes respiratory-tract infections, including PNEUMONIA. S. pyogenes may on its own, or with other bacteria, cause severe NECROTISING FASCIITIS or CELLULITIS in which oedema and death of subcutaneous tissues occur. The infection can spread very rapidly and, unless urgently treated with ANTIBIOTICS and sometimes surgery, death may quickly result. This spread is related to the ability of S. pyogenes to produce toxic substances called exotoxins. Although drug-resistant forms are occurring, streptococcal infections usually respond to treatment with antibiotics.... streptococcus

Strobila

The body of a tapeworm.... strobila

Strongyloides

A genus of intestinal nematodes which includes Strongyloides stercoralis in humans and S. fu?lleborni in monkeys and humans.... strongyloides

Subacute Combined Degeneration Of The Cord

A degenerative condition of the SPINAL CORD which most commonly occurs as a complication of PERNICIOUS ANAEMIA. The motor and sensory nerves in the cord are damaged, causing spasticity of the limbs and an unsteady gait. Treatment is with vitamin B12 (see APPENDIX 5: VITAMINS).... subacute combined degeneration of the cord

Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis

A rare complication of MEASLES due to infection of the brain with the measles virus. It develops 2–18 years after the onset of the measles, and is characterised by mental deterioration leading on to CONVULSIONS, COMA and death. The annual incidence in Britain is about one per million of the childhood population. The risk of its developing is 5–25 times greater after measles than after measles vaccination (see MMR VACCINE; IMMUNISATION).... subacute sclerosing panencephalitis

Subarachnoid Space

The space between the arachnoid and the pia mater – two of the membranes covering the BRAIN. (See also MENINGES.)... subarachnoid space

Subdural

Relating to the space between the strong outer layer of the MENINGES, the membranes which cover the BRAIN, and the arachnoid, which is the middle layer of the meninges. A subdural haemorrhage occurs when bleeding takes place into this space. The trapped blood forms a large blood clot or haematoma within the skull and this causes pressure on the underlying brain. Bleeding may occur slowly as the result of disease or suddenly as the result of injury. Headaches, confusion and drowsiness result, sometimes with paralysis. Medical attention is required urgently if a serious haematoma occurs soon after injury.... subdural

Strychnine

An alkaloid (see ALKALOIDS) derived from Strychnos nux-vomica, the seeds of an East Indian tree, as well as from the seeds of several other closely allied trees and shrubs. It is a white crystalline body possessed of an intensely bitter taste, more bitter perhaps than that of any other substance, and it is not very soluble in water. It stimulates all parts of the nervous system, and was at one time widely used for this purpose. Strychnine poisoning is fortunately rare. It shows itself in CONVULSIONS, which come on very speedily after the person has taken the poison. The mental faculties remain unaffected, and the symptoms end in death or recovery within a few hours.

Treatment The patient should be kept quiet. Arti?cial respiration may be necessary and intravenous BENZODIAZEPINES to prevent convulsions may also be needed. (See POISONS; also APPENDIX 2: ADDRESSES: SOURCES OF INFORMATION, ADVICE, SUPPORT AND SELFHELP.)... strychnine

Subinvolution

A term used to indicate that the womb (see UTERUS) has failed to undergo the usual involution, or decrease in size, which naturally takes place within one month after a child is born.... subinvolution

Submucosa

The layer of CONNECTIVE TISSUE that occurs under a MUCOUS MEMBRANE – for example, in the intestinal wall.... submucosa

Succus Entericus

Intestinal Juice. These are enzyme-rich secretions produced by the lining of the upper small intestines. Apparently the enzymes produced compensate for any pancreatic enzymes that are deficient for that particular meal.... succus entericus

Succussion

See THRILL. A clinical technique in which a patient suspected of having excessive ?uid in a body cavity – usually the stomach or pleural cavity – is gently shaken in order to elicit splashing sounds.... succussion

Sucrose

Cane sugar.... sucrose

Sulcus

The term applied to any groove or furrow, but especially to a ?ssure of the BRAIN.... sulcus

Sulfadiazine

A highly active drug which in moderate dosage produces a high and persistent blood concentration. It is relatively non-toxic and is sometimes used to prevent the recurrence of RHEUMATIC FEVER.... sulfadiazine

Sulfamethoxazole

has been used in combination with TRIMETHOPRIM (as co-trimoxazole) to treat infections of the URINARY TRACT. Increasing bacterial resistance to sulphonamides and the incidence of side-effects means that caution is needed in prescribing co-trimoxazole.... sulfamethoxazole

Super

A pre?x signifying above, or implying excess.... super

Supine

Lying on the back, face upwards; or the position of the forearm where the hand lies face upwards.... supine

Suppression

(1) The stopping of any physiological activity.

(2) A psychological defence mechanism by which an individual intentionally refuses to acknowledge an idea or memory that he or she ?nds distasteful or unpleasant.

(3) A treatment that stops the visible signs of an illness or holds back its usual progress.... suppression

Supra

A pre?x signifying above or upon.... supra

Swan-ganz Catheter

(See also CATHETERS.) A ?exible tube with a double lumen and a small balloon at its distal end. It is introduced into a vein in the arm and advanced until the end of the catheter is in the right atrium (see HEART). The balloon is then in?ated with air through one lumen and this enables the bloodstream to propel the catheter through the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery. The balloon is de?ated and the catheter can then record the pulmonary artery pressure. When the balloon is in?ated, the tip is isolated from the pulmonary artery and measures the left atrial pressure. These measurements are important in the management of patients with circulatory failure, as under these circumstances the central venous pressure or the right atrial pressure is an unreliable guide to ?uid-replacement.... swan-ganz catheter

Sweat

See PERSPIRATION.... sweat

Sweat Glands

See SKIN.... sweat glands

Sycosis Barbae

(Barber’s itch.) A chronic staphylococcal folliculitis (infection of the hair follicles with staphylococci bacteria – see STAPHYLOCOCCUS) of the beard area in males, causing a papulopustular in?ammation clearly centred on hair follicles. It must be distinguished from RINGWORM infection of the face and hair follicles (tinea barbae) and from pseudo-folliculitis due to ingrowing hairs. Topical and oral antistaphyloccoccal antibiotics are e?ective.... sycosis barbae

Sympathetic

A division of the autonomic or involuntary nervous system that works in general opposition to the parasympathetic division (q.v.). Many of the sympathetic functions are local, specific, and involve secretion of acetylcholine, like any other of your normal nerves...stimulating or suppressing a specific muscle, gland, or whatever. A certain number of these nerves, however, unlike any others in the body, secrete epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin). These are called adrenergic. Since the adrenal medulla also secretes the same substances into the bloodstream as hormones, all the muscles or glands that are affected by the adrenergic sympathetic nerves also react in toto to the epinephrine secreted into the blood. This forms the basis for a potentially lifesaving emergency fight or flight response and is meant for short, drastic activities. A chronic excess of the adrenergic response, however, is a major cause of stress-and a major contributor to many types of chronic disease. The more you use a particular nerve pathway or induce a particular group of functions, the more blood, fuel storage, and mitochondria are produced to strengthen that group of actions. Using adrenergic energy excessively gives literal dominance to those things that are stimulated or suppressed, and the effects of adrenalin stress linger in the body after the adrenalin is long gone. Since one of the first subjective symptoms of subclinical malnutrition, metabolic imbalances, and environmental pollution is irritability of the central nervous system, hypersympathetic function acts as an intermediate between poor diet, pollution, and disease.... sympathetic

Sympathomimetic

A substance that mimics at least part of adrenalin or catecholamine responses. The term is a little biased towards the minority of sympathetic functions that are adrenergic. A better name might be adrenalomimetic, epinephromimetic, catecholamimetic...or speedomimetic. Examples: coffee, ephedrine, amphetamines.... sympathomimetic

Synergist

(1) A muscle that works in concert with an AGONIST muscle to perform a certain movement.

(2) An agent, for example a drug, that acts with another to produce a result that is greater than adding together the separate effects of the two agents. Synergism in drug treatment may be bene?cial, as in the case of combined LEVODOPA and SELEGILINE, a selective monoamine oxidase inhibitor (see MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS (MAOIS), in the treatment of PARKINSONISM. It may be potentially dangerous, however, as when MAOIs boost the effects of BARBITURATES.... synergist

Synostosis

The term applied to a union by bony material of adjacent bones which are normally separate.... synostosis

Synovial Membrane

This forms the lining of the soft parts that enclose the cavity of a joint. (See JOINTS.)... synovial membrane

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (sle)

See separate dictionary entry.... systemic lupus erythematosus (sle)

Systolic Pressure

See BLOOD PRESSURE.... systolic pressure

Tay Sachs Disease

An inherited recessive condition in which there is abnormal accumulation of lipids (see LIPID) in the BRAIN. The result is blindness, mental retardation and death in early childhood. The disease can usually be prevented by genetic counselling in those communities in which the disease is known to occur.... tay sachs disease

Thumb-sucking

Also called ?nger-sucking, this is a universal and harmless habit in infancy. It is usually given up gradually during the pre-school period, but quite often persists after school age – especially if the child is tired, lonely or unhappy. In these cases the remedy is to deal with the cause. It is cruel to use threats or punishment to try to stop the habit.... thumb-sucking

Tricuspid Stenosis

The normal working of the TRICUSPID VALVE in the HEART is impeded by a narrowing of the opening, often as a sequel of RHEUMATIC FEVER. As with TRICUSPID INCOMPETENCE, heart failure may result and treatment is similar, with surgery to repair or replace the faulty valve an option.... tricuspid stenosis

Vital Sign

An indication that an individual is still alive. Chest movements (resulting from respiration), the existence of a pulse (showing that the heart is still beating) and constriction of the pupil of the eye in response to bright light are all vital signs. Other tests such as assessment of brain activity may also be needed in some circumstances: for example, when a patient is on a life-support machine. (See also GLASGOW COMA SCALE.)... vital sign

Vital Signs

The pulse, respiration, temperature and blood pressure.... vital signs

Vital Statistics

Systematically tabulated information concerning births, marriages, divorces, separations and deaths, based on registrations of those vital events.... vital statistics

Withdrawal Symptoms

Unpleasant physical and mental symptoms that occur when a person stops using a drug or substance on which he or she is dependent (see DEPENDENCE). The symptoms include tremors, sweating, and vomiting which are reversed if further doses are given. Alcohol and hard drugs, such as morphine, heroin, and cocaine, are among the substances that induce dependence, and therefore withdrawal symptoms, when stopped. Amphetamines and nicotine are other examples.... withdrawal symptoms

Wood Sorrel

Oxalis species

Description: Wood sorrel resembles shamrock or four-leaf clover, with a bell-shaped pink, yellow, or white flower.

Habitat and Distribution: Wood sorrel is found in Temperate Zones worldwide, in lawns, open areas, and sunny woods.

Edible Parts: Cook the entire plant.

CAUTION

Eat only small amounts of this plant as it contains a fairly high concentration of oxalic acid that can be harmful.... wood sorrel

Yerba Santa

Eriodictyon glutinosum. (Eriodictyon californicum). Synonym: Bearsweed, Mountain Balm.

Habitat: Grown in, and imported from, California. Features ? Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, serrate, about three inches by one inch, shiny above, white down underneath. Taste and odour, aromatic. Part used ? Leaves.

Action: Expectorant, tonic. In catarrhal affections of the respiratory organs. Often a constituent of asthma prescriptions.... yerba santa

Zollinger-ellison Syndrome

A rare disorder in which severe peptic ulcers recur in the stomach and duodenum (see DUODENAL ULCER; STOMACH, DISEASES OF). It is caused by a tumour in the PANCREAS that produces a hormone, GASTRIN, which stimulates the stomach and duodenum to produce excess acid: this causes ulceration. Treatment is by surgery.... zollinger-ellison syndrome

Age Spots

Liver spots. Pigment defects.

External: Aloe Vera juice or gel. Comfrey paste: Mix a little powder and water. ... age spots

Air Swallowing

Aerophagia. Swallowing mouthfuls of air. Usually associated with indigestion. Treatment. Carminatives, antacids.

Teas: any one: Aniseed, Balm, Caraway seeds, Cardamom seeds, Cinnamon bark, Fennel seeds, Dill seeds, Parsley. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes; dose half-1 cup freely.

Ginger: powder, crystallised or tincture. Horseradish sauce. Few grains Cayenne pepper. Oil Peppermint: 1-2 drops in honey. ... air swallowing

Anaphylactic Shock

See: SERUM SICKNESS. ... anaphylactic shock

Bamboo Spine

See: ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS. ... bamboo spine

Cardiogenic Shock

The result of myocardial infarction. Reduction in contractility and output of the heart.

Symptoms: low blood pressure, reduced urinary output, water in the lungs, etc. See: MYOCARDITIS. ... cardiogenic shock

Osgood Schlatter Disease

Degenerative changes in the growth centres of bones in children due to calcium or other mineral deficiency. Herbs rich in calcium, iron, and magnesium are indicated. (Horsetail, Chamomile, Plantain, Silverweed, Nettles, Mullein, etc)

Selenium 50mcg and Vitamin E 400iu are recommended by Jonathan Wright MD, for decreasing the pain of disease, decreasing over 3 months. (Health Update USA, June 1990) ... osgood schlatter disease

Asperger’s Syndrome

A rare developmental disorder that is usually first recognized in childhood because of difficulties with social interactions, stilted speech, and very specialized interests.

Intelligence is normal or high.

Asperger’s syndrome is considered to be an autistic spectrum disorder and is also known as pervasive developmental disorder.

Special educational support may be needed, often within mainstream education.

The condition is lifelong.... asperger’s syndrome

Behçet’s Syndrome

A rare, multisystem disorder with recurrent mouth ulcers and genital ulcers and inflammation of the eyes, skin joints, blood vessels, brain, and intestines. The cause of Behçet’s syndrome is unknown, but it is strongly associated with a genetically determined histocompatability antigen, -B51. Treatment is difficult and may require corticosteroid and immunosuppressant drugs. The condition often becomes long-term.... behçet’s syndrome

Blind Spot

The small, oval-shaped area on the retina of the eye where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball.

The area is not sensitive to light because it has no light receptors (nerve endings responsive to light).

The blind spot can also be used to describe the part of the visual field in which objects cannot be detected.... blind spot

Carcinoid Syndrome

Flushing of the face and neck caused by an active malignant tumour in the stomach or intestines with secondary growths in the liver. Often accompanied by an explosive diarrhoea. The lesion is usually found in the ileum yet it may also appear in the bile duct, ovaries or bronchi. Other symptoms include low blood pressure, drastic reduction in weight due to loss of body fluids.

Symptoms: flushing of face and neck, diarrhoea, low blood pressure, weight loss.

Treatment: relief of symptoms only. Diarrhoea – Fenugreek seed tea. Flushing: Chamomile tea.

Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation: Because of severe drain on these food elements Multivitamins should be taken daily together with additional 1000ius Vitamin E for the disturbed circulatory system. The heart should be sustained with a preparation of the Hawthorn berry.

To be treated by or in liaison with a qualified medical practitioner. ... carcinoid syndrome

Blood Sugar

See blood glucose.... blood sugar

Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis

Thrombosis arising in the cavernous sinus of the sphenoid bone in the head.

Cause: Septicaemia or infected embolism conveyed from elsewhere – veins of the face, sinuses, head. May be a complication of meningitis.

Symptoms: headache, nausea, swelling of eyelids and forehead, pupils distended, veins of temples prominent, fever with severe constitutional disturbance.

Prognosis: usually fatal in the absence of orthodox antibiotics, but anti-staphylococcal herbs are helpful. Tinctures. Formula. Echinacea 3; Goldenseal 2; Myrrh (Tincture) 1. 1 teaspoon in water every 2 hours (acute). Thrice daily (chronic).

Treatment by or in liaison with general medical practitioner. ... cavernous sinus thrombosis

Celery Seed

Apium graveolens, L. French: Ache. German: Sellerie. Spanish: Apio. Italian: Sedano. Indian: Chanoo Rhadodni. Chinese: Han-ch’in. Dried seeds.

Contains apiol, coumarins. Minerals: iron, phosphorus, potassium, sodium.

Action: alkaline reaction on the blood. Antirheumatic, urinary antiseptic, diuretic, antispasmodic, carminative, tonic digestive, galactagogue, assists elimination of uric acid. Anti-gout, anti-inflammatory, hypotensor, aphrodisiac.

Uses: Rheumatic disorders, stiffness and muscular pain, rheumatoid arthritis. Inflammation of the urinary tract, cystitis. To increase milk flow in nursing mothers. Bad breath.

Preparations: Thrice daily.

Green Drink: fresh raw celery juice prepared in a liquidiser. Blends well with carrot or apple juice. Cooling drink for a sickroom.

Decoction. Quarter to half a teaspoon bruised dry seeds to each cup water, gently simmer 10 minutes in covered vessel. Half-1 cup.

Liquid extract, BHC Vol 1. 1:1, 90 per cent ethanol. Dose: 0.5 to 2ml.

Tincture, BHC Vol 1. 1:5, 90 per cent ethanol. Dose: 2 to 8ml.

Tablets/capsules. Powdered plant 120mg; seed BHP (1983) 5mg.

Home acid tincture. 1 part bruised celery seed to 20 parts Cider vinegar. Macerate 1 month. Filter. Dose: 2-3 teaspoons in water (rheumatic aches and pains).

Essential oil: 1-2 drops in water or honey.

Diet: The vegetable is low in calories: for weight-conscious. Non-fattening.

Not taken in pregnancy.

CELL PROLIFERANTS. Comfrey, Fenugreek, Calendula. ... celery seed

Café Au Lait Spots

Patches of coffeecoloured skin that may occur anywhere on the body.

Café au lait spots are usually oval in shape and may measure several centimetres across.

Generally, a few spots are not significant; larger numbers may be a sign of neurofibromatosis.... café au lait spots

Compartment Syndrome

A painful cramp due to compression of a group of muscles within a confined space. It may occur when muscles are enlarged due to intensive training or injury such as shin splints. Cramps induced by exercise usually disappear when exercise is stopped. Severe cases may require fasciotomy to improve blood flow and prevent development of a permanent contracture.... compartment syndrome

Glands – Swollen

Lymphadenitis. Non-infectious. Can be localised, e.g. armpit only, due to lymphatic drainage of a local inflammation or generalised due to systemic infection (AIDS) or some malignant conditions.

Symptoms. Swelling of glands of armpit, neck and groin.

Alternatives. Tea: combine equal parts: Clivers, Red Clover, Gotu Kola. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup thrice daily.

Decoction. Formula. Equal parts, Yellow Dock, Plantain, Clivers, Liquorice root, 1oz to 1 pint water gently simmered 20 minutes. Half a cup thrice daily.

Powders. Formula. Bayberry 1; Echinacea 2; Poke root half; a trace of Cayenne. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.

Tinctures. Combine equal parts: Poke root and Echinacea. One 5ml teaspoon in water thrice daily.

Poke root. A leading remedy for the condition.

Agnus Castus. Swollen glands in young girls.

Dr Finlay Ellingwood: Liquid Extracts: equal parts, Blue Flag root and Poke root. 30-60 drops in water thrice daily.

Diet. See: DIET – GENERAL. See: LYMPHATICS. ... glands – swollen

Conn’s Syndrome

A disorder caused by the secretion of excessive amounts of the hormone aldosterone by a noncancerous tumour of one of the adrenal glands. (See also aldosteronism.)... conn’s syndrome

Cri Du Chat Syndrome

A rare, congenital condition of severe mental handicap, abnormal facial appearance, low birth weight, and short stature, which is characterized by a cat-like cry in infancy. The syndrome is caused by a chromosomal abnormality. There is no treatment. (See also genetic counselling.)... cri du chat syndrome

Oesophageal Spasm

Constriction of the gullet and throat. Sense of rising pressure from chest to jaw that can simulate early heart attack.

Causes: emotional tension, hiatus hernia, food allergy and the damaging potential of hot drinks. Alternatives. Acute case: Cramp bark. German Chamomile tea, freely. Phytomedicines for chronic condition or as preventatives: Passion flower, Skullcap, Wild Yam, Lobelia, Mistletoe, Valerian. Formula. Cramp bark 2; Chamomile 1; Peppermint 1. Dose – Liquid extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 2-3 teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon) 3 or more times daily.

Milk. Drink whole glass cold milk, with or without 1 drop oil Peppermint, immediately on onset of pain. May relieve spasms in seconds. ... oesophageal spasm

Dry Socket

Infection at the site of a recent tooth extraction, causing pain, bad breath, and an unpleasant taste. Dry socket occurs when a blood clot fails to form in the tooth socket after a difficult extraction, such as removal of a wisdom tooth (see impaction, dental). Sometimes, the clot itself becomes infected, or infection may already have been present before extraction. The inflamed socket appears dry, and exposed bone is often visible. The socket is irrigated to remove debris and may then be coated with an antiinflammatory paste. The infection usually begins to clear up within a few days.... dry socket

Oesophageal Stricture

An abnormal narrowing of the (lower) gullet.

Causes: injury, scarring by chemical medicines, drugs swallowed with insufficient water, antacids for heartburn, piping-hot tea. It is important to exclude oesophageal cancer.

Those with ‘gullet-reflex’ such as the elderly, are at risk. A relationship exists between toothlessness and this condition. Eating of soft fibreless foods does not expand the tube down which food passes. Alternatives. Horsetail, Irish Moss. Echinacea. Marshmallow. Goldenseal. Sarsaparilla. Calendula (Marigold), Chamomile.

Tea. Formula – equal parts, Horsetail, Chamomile, Marshmallow. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.

Tablets/capsules. Echinacea, Goldenseal, Sarsaparilla, Chamomile.

Formula. Irish Moss 1; Comfrey 1; Calendula half; Goldenseal quarter. Dose – Liquid extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 2-3 teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon) in water before meals.

Diet. High fibre. Raw carrots with prolonged mastication. Hot drinks are potentially damaging. ... oesophageal stricture

Chorionic Villus Sampling

A method of diagnosing genetic abnormalities in a fetus using a small sample of tissue taken from the chorionic villi at edge of the placenta. Because the cells have the same chromosome makeup as those in the fetus, they can be used to detect genetic abnormalities. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is usually performed in the first 3 months of pregnancy in women who are at a higher-than-normal risk of having a child with a chromosomal disorder, such as Down’s syndrome, or a genetic disease, such as thalassaemia. Chromosome analysis of the villi cells takes place in the laboratory. CVS slightly increases the risk of miscarriage. choroid A layer of tissue at the back of the eye, behind the retina. The choroid contains many blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to the retinal cells and to surrounding tissues in the eye. choroiditis Inflammation of the choroid. It is often caused by infections such as toxocariasis or toxoplasmosis, more rarely by sarcoidosis, syphilis, and histoplasmosis. It sometimes has no obvious cause. Treatment includes corticosteroid drugs for the inflammation, and antibiotic drugs for any causative infection.... chorionic villus sampling

Circulatory System

The heart and blood vessels, which together maintain a continuous flow of blood throughout the body. The system provides tissues with oxygen and nutrients, and carries away waste products. The circulatory system consists of 2 main parts: the systemic circulation, which supplies blood to the whole body apart from the lungs; and the pulmonary circulation to the lungs. Within the systemic circulation, there is a bypass (the portal circulation), which carries nutrient-rich blood from the stomach, intestine, and other digestive organs to the liver for processing, storage, or re-entry into general circulation.

In the systemic circulation, oxygen-rich blood from the pulmonary circulation is pumped under high pressure from the left ventricle of the heart into the aorta, from where it travels through arteries and smaller arterioles to all parts of the body. Within body tissues, the arterioles branch into networks of fine blood vessels called capillaries. Oxygen and other nutrients pass from the blood through the capillaries’ thin walls into body tissues; carbon dioxide and other wastes pass in the opposite direction. Deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart via venules, veins, and the venae cavae.

Venous blood returns to the right atrium of the heart to enter the pulmonary circulation. It is pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery

to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. The reoxygenated blood then returns through the pulmonary veins to the heart and re-enters the systemic circulation.... circulatory system

Decompression Sickness

A hazard of divers and of others who work in or breathe compressed air or other gas mixtures. Decompression sickness is also called “the bends”, and it results from gas bubbles forming in the tissues and impeding the flow of blood. At depth, divers accumulate inert gas in their tissues from the high-pressure gas mixture that they breathe (see scubadiving medicine). Problems can usually be avoided by allowing the excess gas in their tissues to escape slowly into the lungs during controlled, slow ascent or release of pressure. If ascent is too rapid and pressure falls too quickly, gas can no longer be held within a tissue. Resulting bubbles may block blood vessels, causing symptoms such as skin itching and mottling and severe pain in and around the larger joints. Symptoms of nervous system impairment (such as leg weakness or visual disturbances) are particularly serious, as is a painful, tight feeling across the chest.

Divers with decompression sickness are immediately placed inside a recompression chamber. Pressure within the chamber is raised, causing the bubbles within the tissues to redissolve. Subsequently, the pressure in the chamber is slowly reduced, allowing the excess gas to escape safely via the lungs. If treated promptly, most divers with the “bends” make a full recovery. In serious, untreated cases, there may be long-term problems, such as paralysis.... decompression sickness

Fanconi’s Syndrome

A rare kidney disorder that occurs most commonly in childhood. Various important chemicals, such as amino acids, phosphate, calcium, and potassium, are lost in the urine, leading to failure to thrive, stunting of growth, and bone disorders such as rickets. Possible causes of the syndrome include several rare inherited abnormalities of body chemistry and an adverse reaction to certain drugs.

The child may resume normal growth if an underlying chemical abnormality can be corrected. Alternatively, a kidney transplant may be possible.... fanconi’s syndrome

Ferrous Sulphate

Another name for iron sulphate (see iron).... ferrous sulphate

Ewing’s Sarcoma

A rare malignant form of bone cancer. It arises in a large bone, usually the femur, tibia, humerus, or a pelvic bone, and spreads to other areas at an early stage. The condition is most common in children aged 10–15. An affected bone is painful and tender. It may also become weakened and fracture easily. Other symptoms include weight loss, fever, and anaemia.

The sarcoma is diagnosed by X-rays and a biopsy.

If cancer is found, the whole skeleton is examined by X-rays and radionuclide scanning, and the lungs viewed by CT scanning, to determine if, and how far, the cancer has spread.

Treatment is with radiotherapy and anticancer drugs.

If the cancer has not spread, the outlook is good.... ewing’s sarcoma

Fragile X Syndrome

An inherited defect of the X chromosome that causes learning difficulties.

The disorder occurs within families according to an X-linked recessive pattern of inheritance (see genetic disorders).

Although mainly males are affected, women can become carriers of the genetic defect.

In addition to having learning difficulties, affected males tend to be tall and physically strong, with large testes, a prominent nose and jaw, increased ear length, and are prone to epileptic seizures.

About a third of female carriers show some intellectual impairment.

The condition cannot be treated.... fragile x syndrome

Ganser’s Syndrome

A rare factitious disorder in which a person seeks, consciously or unconsciously, to mislead others about his or her mental state and may simulate symptoms of psychosis.... ganser’s syndrome

Gilles De La Tourette’s Syndrome

A rare, inherited neurological disorder.

It starts in childhood with repetitive grimaces and tics.

Involuntary barks, grunts, or other noises may appear as the disease progresses.

In some cases, the sufferer has episodes of issuing foul language.

The syndrome is more common in males.

It is usually of lifelong duration, but antipsychotic drugs can help in some cases.... gilles de la tourette’s syndrome

Goodpasture’s Syndrome

A rare autoimmune disorder causing inflammation of the glomeruli in the kidney (see glomerulus) and the alveoli in the lungs, and anaemia. It is a serious disease; unless treated early it may lead to lifethreatening bleeding into the lungs and progressive kidney failure. The disease is most common in young men, but can develop at any age and in women. Sometimes, it responds to treatment with immunosuppressant drugs and plasmapheresis. People who have severe or repeated attacks require dialysis and, eventually, a kidney transplant.... goodpasture’s syndrome

Hidradenitis Suppurativa

Inflammation of the sweat glands in the armpits and groin due to a bacterial infection.

Abscesses develop beneath the skin, which becomes reddened and painful and may ooze pus.

The condition tends to be recurrent and can eventually cause scarring in the affected areas.

Antibiotic drugs may help to reduce the severity of an outbreak.... hidradenitis suppurativa

Horner’s Syndrome

A group of physical signs (narrowing of the eye pupil, drooping of the eyelid, and absence of sweating) affecting 1 side of the face that indicates damage to part of the sympathetic nervous system (see autonomic nervous system).... horner’s syndrome

Hurler’s Syndrome

A rare, inherited condition caused by an enzyme defect. The syndrome is a type of inborn error of metabolism (see metabolism, inborn errors of) in which there is an abnormal accumulation of substances known as mucopolysaccharides in the tissues.

Affected children may appear normal at birth but, at 6–12 months of age, they develop cardiac abnormalities, umbilical hernia, skeletal deformities, and enlargement of the tongue, liver, and spleen.

Growth is limited and mental development slows.

If the condition is diagnosed in early infancy, a bone marrow transplant may be curative.... hurler’s syndrome

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

A chromosomal abnormality in which a male has 1, or occasionally more, extra X chromosomes in his cells, giving a complement of instead of. The risk of a baby having the condition increases with maternal age. Features of the syndrome vary in severity and may not become apparent until puberty, when gynaecomastia (breast enlargement) occurs and the testes remain small. Affected males are usually infertile (see infertility). They tend to be tall and thin with a female body shape and absence of body hair. Incidence of learning difficulties is higher in people with Klinefelter’s syndrome than in the general population. There is no cure for the disorder, but hormonal treatment can induce secondary sexual characteristics, and mastectomy may be used to treat gynaecomastia.... klinefelter’s syndrome

Koplik’s Spots

Tiny, grey-white spots that appear in the mouth during the incubation period of measles.... koplik’s spots

Magnesium Sulphate

A magnesium compound used as a laxative drug and an anticonvulsant drug.... magnesium sulphate

Minimally Invasive Surgery

Surgery using a rigid endoscope passed into the body through a small incision. Further small openings are made for surgical instruments so that the operation can be performed without a long surgical incision. Minimally invasive surgery may be used for many operations in the abdomen (see laparoscopy), including appendicectomy, cholecystectomy, hernia repair, and many gynaecological procedures. Knee operations (see arthroscopy) are also often performed by minimally invasive surgery.... minimally invasive surgery

Munchausen’s Syndrome

A chronic factitious disorder in which the sufferer complains of physical symptoms that are pretended or self-induced in order to play the role of patient. Most afflicted people are repeatedly hospitalized.

The usual complaints are abdominal pain, bleeding, neurological symptoms, rashes, and fever. Sufferers typically invent dramatic histories and behave disruptively in hospital. Many have detailed medical knowledge and scars from self-injury or previous treatment. In Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, parents cause factitious disorders in their children.

Treatment consists of protecting sufferers from unnecessary operations and drug treatments.... munchausen’s syndrome

Nelson’s Syndrome

A rare disorder of the endocrine system that causes increased skin pigmentation. Nelson’s syndrome results from enlargement of the pituitary gland, which can follow removal of the adrenal glands (a treatment for Cushing’s syndrome).

Nelson’s syndrome is treated by hypophysectomy (removal or destruction of the pituitary gland).... nelson’s syndrome

Orthognathic Surgery

An operation to correct deformity of the jaw and the severe malocclusion that is invariably associated with it. The bones of the jaw are repositioned under general anaesthesia, and often require splinting (see splinting, dental) until they heal.... orthognathic surgery

Persistent Vegetative State

Long-term unconsciousness caused by damage to areas of the brain that control higher mental functions. The eyes may open and close, and there may be random movements of the limbs, but there is no response to stimuli such as pain. Basic functions such as breathing and heartbeat are not affected. There is no treatment to reverse the situation, but, with good nursing care, survival for months or years is possible.... persistent vegetative state

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

A form of anxiety that develops after a stressful or frightening event.

Common causes include natural disasters, violence, rape, torture, serious physical injury, and military combat.

Symptoms, which may develop many months after the event, include recurring memories or dreams of the event, a sense of personal isolation, and disturbed sleep and concentration.

There may be a deadening of feelings, or irritability and feelings of guilt, sometimes building up to depression.

Most people recover, in time, with emotional support and counselling.... post-traumatic stress disorder

Reiter’s Syndrome

A condition in which there is a combination of urethritis, reactive arthritis, and conjunctivitis. There may also be uveitis. Reiter’s syndrome is more common in men.

The syndrome is caused by an immune response and usually develops only in people with a genetic predisposition. Most patients have the -B27 tissue type (see histocompatability antigens). The syndrome’s development is induced by infection: usually nongonococcal urethritis, but sometimes bacillary dysentery. Reiter’s syndrome usually starts with a urethral discharge, which is followed by conjunctivitis and then arthritis. The arthritis usually affects 1 or 2 joints (usually the knee and/or ankle) and is often associated with fever and malaise. Attacks can last for several months. Tendons, ligaments, and tissue in the soles of the feet may also become inflamed. Skin rashes are common.

Diagnosis is made from the symptoms.

Analgesic drugs and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs relieve symptoms but may have to be taken for a long period.

Relapses occur in about 1 in 3 cases.... reiter’s syndrome

Repetitive Strain Injury

(RSI) An overuse injury that affects keyboard workers and musicians, causing weakness and pain in the wrists and fingers.... repetitive strain injury

Rett’s Syndrome

A brain disorder, thought to be a genetic disorder, that only affects girls. Symptoms usually occur when the child is 12–18 months old. Acquired skills, such as walking and communication skills, disappear and the girl becomes progressively handicapped, perhaps with signs of autism. There are repetitive writhing movements of the hands and limbs, and inappropriate outbursts of crying or laughter. There is no cure for Rett’s syndrome and sufferers need constant care and attention. Parents of an affected child should receive genetic counselling.... rett’s syndrome

Sacralization

Fusion of the 5th (lowest) lumbar vertebra with the upper sacrum.

It may be present at birth, in which there are usually no symptoms.

Surgery may be performed to treat a disc prolapse or spondylolisthesis.

(See also spinal fusion.)... sacralization

Sacroiliitis

Inflammation of a sacroiliac joint. Causes include ankylosing spondylitis, rheumatoid arthritis, Reiter’s syndrome or arthritis associated with psoriasis. The main symptom is pain in the lower back, buttocks, groin, and back of the thigh. Treatment is with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs.... sacroiliitis

Reye’s Syndrome

A rare disorder in which brain and liver damage follow a viral infection. Children over 15 are rarely affected. The cause is unknown, but aspirin seems to be a predisposing factor to developing the condition and is therefore not recommended for children.

The disorder starts as the child recovers from the infection. Symptoms include uncontrollable vomiting, lethargy, memory loss, and disorientation. Swelling of the brain may cause seizures, disturbances in heart rhythm, coma, and cessation of breathing.

Brain swelling may be controlled by corticosteroid drugs and by intravenous infusions of mannitol. Dialysis or blood transfusions may be needed. If breathing stops, a ventilator is used.

The death rate is around 10 per cent, and higher for those who have seizures, lapse into deep coma, and stop breathing.

Permanent brain damage may occur.... reye’s syndrome

Salmeterol

A bronchodilator drug used in the treatment of asthma. The drug is usually inhaled twice a day to prevent asthma attacks. Side effects may include slight tremor, agitation, insomnia, and, rarely, a rapid heartbeat.... salmeterol

Salmon Patch

See stork mark.... salmon patch

Salpingectomy

Surgical removal of one or both fallopian tubes.

Salpingectomy may be performed if the tube is infected (see salpingitis) or to treat ectopic pregnancy.

(See also salpingo-oophorectomy.)... salpingectomy

Saphenous Vein

A major vein that runs the length of the leg just under the skin.

It is sometimes removed and used to bypass a blockage in blood vessels of the heart (see coronary artery bypass).... saphenous vein

Scan

An image produced by one of several scanning techniques.... scan

Scarlatina

Another name for scarlet fever.... scarlatina

Sciatic Nerve

The main nerve in each leg and the largest nerve in the body.The sciatic nerves are formed from nerve roots in the spinal cord.... sciatic nerve

Scirrhous

A term that means hard and fibrous and is usually applied to malignant tumours containing dense, fibrous tissue.... scirrhous

Scleromalacia

Softening of the sclera, commonly a complication of scleritis, especially scleritis of rheumatoid arthritis.... scleromalacia

Seasickness

A type of motion sickness.... seasickness

Selenium

A trace element that may help to preserve the elasticity of body tissues.

The richest sources are meat, fish, whole grains, and dairy products.... selenium

Sensitization

The initial exposure of a person to an allergen or other substance recognized as foreign by the immune system, which leads to an immune response. On subsequent exposures to the same substance, there is a much stronger and faster immune reaction. This forms the basis of allergy and other types of hypersensitivity reaction.... sensitization

Separation Anxiety

The feelings of distress a young child experiences when parted from his or her parents or home. This is a normal aspect of infant behaviour and usually diminishes by age 3 or 4.

In separation anxiety disorder, the reaction to separation is greater than that expected for the child’s level of development.

The anxiety may manifest as physical symptoms.

Separation anxiety disorder may be a feature of depression.... separation anxiety

Sequela

A condition that results from or follows a disease, disorder, or injury.

The term is usually used in plural (sequelae) to refer to the complications of a disease.... sequela

Sequestration

A portion of diseased or dead tissue separated from, or joined abnormally to, surrounding healthy tissue.... sequestration

Serology

A branch of laboratory medicine concerned with analysis of blood serum.

Applications of serological techniques include the diagnosis of infectious diseases by the identification of antibodies, the development of antiserum preparations for passive immunization, and the determination of blood groups in paternity testing and forensic investigations.... serology

Sertraline

A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor drug used in the treatment of depression (see antidepressants).... sertraline

Sézary Syndrome

A rare condition in which there is an abnormal overgrowth of lymphocytes in the skin, liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. It mainly affects middleaged and elderly people. The first symptom is the appearance of red, scaly patches on the skin that spread to form an itchy, flaking rash. There may also be accumulation of fluid under the skin, baldness, and distorted nail growth. Sézary syndrome is sometimes associated with leukaemia. Treatment includes anticancer drugs and radiotherapy.... sézary syndrome

Siadh

The abbreviation for syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (secretion), associated with certain lung or brain disorders and some types of cancer.... siadh

Sievert

A unit for measuring doses of ionizing radiation.

(See radiation units).... sievert

Sigmoid Colon

The S-shaped part of the colon, in the lower abdomen, extending from the brim of the pelvis, usually down to the 3rd segment of the sacrum. It is connected to the descending colon above, and the rectum below.... sigmoid colon

Sildenafil

Commonly known by its brand name Viagra, a drug used in the treatment of impotence. Because of the risk of potentially serious side effects in certain people, the drug must only be used on medical advice.... sildenafil

Sinew

A nonmedical term for a tendon.... sinew

Sjögren’s Syndrome

A condition in which the eyes and mouth are excessively dry.

The nasal cavity, throat, and vagina may also be affected.

The syndrome tends to occur with certain autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Most sufferers are middle-aged women.... sjögren’s syndrome

Skin Graft

A technique used to repair areas of lost or damaged skin that are too large to heal naturally, that are slow

to heal, or that would leave tethering or unsightly scars. A skin graft is often used in the treatment of burns or sometimes for nonhealing ulcers. A piece of healthy skin is detached from one part of the body and transferred to the affected area. New skin cells grow from the graft and cover the damaged area. In a meshed graft, donor skin is removed and made into a mesh by cutting. The mesh is stretched to fit the recipient site; new skin cells grow to fill the spaces in the mesh. In a pinch graft, multiple small areas of skin are pinched up and removed from the donor site. Placed on the recipient site, they gradually expand to form a new sheet of healthy skin. (See also skin flap.)... skin graft

Sleep Apnoea

A disorder in which there are episodes of temporary cessation of breathing (lasting 10 seconds or longer) during sleep.

People with sleep apnoea may not be aware of any problem during the night, but they may be sleepy during the day, with poor memory and concentration. Severe sleep apnoea is potentially serious and may lead to hypertension, heart failure, myocardial infarction, or stroke.

Obstructive sleep apnoea is the most common type and may affect anyone, but more often middle-aged men, especially those who are overweight. The most common cause is over-relaxation of the muscles of the soft palate in the pharynx, which obstructs the passage of air. Obstruction may also be caused by enlarged tonsils or adenoids. The obstruction causes snoring. If complete blockage occurs, breathing stops. This triggers the brain to restart breathing, and the person may gasp and wake briefly.

In central sleep apnoea, breathing stops because the chest and diaphragm muscles temporarily cease to work, probably due to a disturbance in the brain’s control of breathing. Causes include paralysis of the diaphragm and disorders of the brainstem. Snoring is not a main feature.People who are overweight may find losing weight helps.

Alcohol and sleeping drugs aggravate sleep apnoea.

In one treatment, air from a compressor is forced into the airway via a mask worn over the nose.

Night-time artificial ventilation may be needed.

Tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy, or surgery to shorten or stiffen the soft palate may be performed.... sleep apnoea

Sleep Paralysis

The sensation of being unable to move at the moment of going to sleep or when waking up, usually lasting only a few seconds. It may be accompanied by hallucinations. Sleep paralysis most often occurs in people with narcolepsy. (See also cataplexy.)... sleep paralysis

Slit-lamp

An illuminated type of microscope that is used to examine the internal structures of the front

part of the eye and of the retina at the back. (See also eye, examination of.)... slit-lamp

Smear

A specimen for microscopic examination prepared by spreading a thin film of cells on to a glass slide.... smear

Snuffles

A general term for nasal obstruction, especially in infants suffering from an upper respiratory tract infection.... snuffles

Sodium Bicarbonate

An over-thecounter antacid drug used to relieve indigestion, heartburn, and pain caused by a peptic ulcer.

It often causes belching and abdominal discomfort.

Long-term use may cause swollen ankles, muscle cramps, tiredness, and nausea.... sodium bicarbonate

Sodium Cromoglicate

A drug given by inhaler to control mild asthma in children and allergic or exercise-induced asthma in adults; as a nasal spray to treat allergic rhinitis; in eye-drops for allergic conjunctivitis; and orally for food allergy.

Side effects include coughing and throat irritation on inhalation.... sodium cromoglicate

Spasticity

Increased rigidity in a group of muscles, causing stiffness and restriction of movement. Spasticity occurs in Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and tetanus.... spasticity

Spastic Paralysis

Inability to move a part of the body, accompanied by rigidity of the muscles. Causes of spastic paralysis include stroke, cerebral palsy, and multiple sclerosis. (See also paralysis.)... spastic paralysis

Specific Gravity

The ratio of the density of a substance to that of water.... specific gravity

Spermatocele

A harmless cyst of the epididymis containing fluid and sperm.... spermatocele

Sphincterotomy

A surgical procedure that involves cutting the muscle that closes a body opening or that constricts the opening between body passages.... sphincterotomy

Spider Naevus

A red, raised pinheadsized dot, from which small blood vessels radiate, due to a dilated minor artery and its connecting capillaries. Small numbers of spider naevi are common in children and pregnant women, but in larger numbers, they may indicate liver disease. (See also telangiectasia.)... spider naevus

Spina Bifida

A congenital defect that is a type of neural tube defect in which part of 1 or more vertebrae fails to develop completely. As a result, a portion of the spinal cord is left exposed.

spinal anaesthesia Injection of an anaesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid in the spinal canal to block pain sensations before they reach the central nervous system. It is used mainly during surgery on the lower abdomen and legs.

(See also epidural anaesthesia.)... spina bifida

Spinal Nerves

A set of 31 pairs of nerves that connect to the spinal cord. Spinal nerves emerge in 2 rows from either side of the spinal cord and leave the spine through gaps between adjacent vertebrae. The nerves then branch out to supply all parts of the trunk, arms, and legs with sensory and motor nerve fibres.

Disc prolapse may lead to pressure on a spinal nerve, causing pain. Injury to a nerve may lead to loss of sensation or movement in the area supplied by the nerve. (See also nerve injury; neuropathy.)... spinal nerves

Splint

A device used to immobilize a part of the body.... splint

Splinter Haemorrhage

Bleeding under the fingernails visible as tiny splinterlike marks.

Usually due to trauma, it can also be a sign of infective endocarditis.... splinter haemorrhage

Spine

The column of bones and cartilage that extends from the base of the skull to the pelvis, enclosing the spinal cord and supporting the trunk and head. The spine is made up of 33 roughly cylindrical vertebrae. Each pair of adjacent vertebrae is connected by a facet joint, which stabilizes the vertebral column. Between each pair of vertebrae lies a disc-shaped pad of cartilage called an intervertebral disc (see disc, intervertebral). These discs cushion the vertebrae during movement. The vertebrae are bound together by 2 ligaments running the length of the spine and by smaller ligaments between each vertebra. Attached to the vertebrae are several groups of muscles, which control movement of, and help to support, the spine. spine, disorders of Many disorders of the spine cause back pain. Spina bifida is a congenital disorder in which part of the spinal cord is exposed. Sometimes, the spine is abnormally curved (see lordosis, kyphosis, scoliosis). In ankylosing spondylitis, and in some cases of rheumatoid arthritis, spinal joints are affected; osteoarthritis affects the spinal joints of most people over 60. Other disorders affecting the spine are spinal injuries; disc prolapse, and spondylolisthesis.... spine

Spondylolysis

A disorder of the spine in which the arch of the 5th (or, rarely, the 4th) lumbar vertebra consists of soft fibrous tissue instead of normal bone.

As a result, the arch is weak and prone to damage under stress, which may produce spondylolisthesis.

Otherwise, spondylolysis is usually symptomless.

See cervical spondylosis; cervical osteoarthritis.... spondylolysis

Sporotrichosis

A chronic infection caused by the fungus SPOROTHRIX SCHENCKII, which grows on plants.

The infection is most often contracted through a skin wound; gardeners are particularly vulnerable.

An ulcer develops at the site of the wound, followed by the formation of nodules in lymph channels around the site.

Potassium iodide solution taken orally usually clears up the infection.

Rarely, in people with reduced immunity, sporotrichosis spreads to other parts of the body and requires treatment with amphotericin, an antifungal drug.... sporotrichosis

Sprain

Tearing or stretching of the ligaments that hold together the bone ends in a joint, caused by a sudden pull. The ankle is the most commonly sprained joint. A sprain causes painful swelling of the joint, which cannot be moved without increasing the pain. There may also be spasm of surrounding muscles.

Treatment consists of applying an icepack, wrapping the joint in a bandage, resting it in a raised position, and taking analgesic drugs.

In severe cases, surgical repair may be necessary.... sprain

Stein-leventhal Syndrome

See ovary, polycystic.... stein-leventhal syndrome

Sterilization

The complete destruction or removal of living organisms, usually to prevent spread of infection; any procedure that renders a person infertile (see sterilization, female; vasectomy).... sterilization

Stimulus

Anything that directly results in a change in the activities of the body as a whole or of any individual part.... stimulus

Stool

Another word for faeces.... stool

Stress Fracture

A fracture that occurs as a result of repetitive jarring of a bone. Common sites include the metatarsal bones in the foot (see March fracture), the tibia or fibula, the neck of the femur, and the lumbar spine. The main symptoms are pain and tenderness at the fracture site. Diagnosis is by bone imaging. Treatment consists of resting the affected area for 4–6 weeks. The fracture may be immobilized in a cast.... stress fracture

Stria

Also called a stretch-mark, a line on the skin caused by thinning and loss of elasticity in the dermis. Striae first appear as red, raised lines. Later they become purple, eventually fading to shiny streaks.

Striae often develop on the hips and thighs during the adolescent growth spurt, especially in athletic girls. They are a common feature of pregnancy, occurring on the breasts, thighs, and lower abdomen. Purple striae are a characteristic feature of Cushing’s syndrome.

Striae are thought to be caused by an excess of corticosteroid hormones.

There is no means of prevention, but in some cases laser treatment may be used.... stria

Strontium

A metallic element occurring in various compounds in certain minerals, seawater, and marine plants.

A radioactive variety, strontium 90, is produced during nuclear reactions and may be present in nuclear fallout.

Strontium 90 accumulates in bone, where the radiation it emits may cause leukaemia and/or bone tumours.

Other forms of radioactive strontium have been used to diagnose and treat bone tumours.... strontium

Subclavian Steal Syndrome

Recurrent attacks of blurred or double vision, loss of coordination, or dizziness caused by reduced blood flow to the base of the brain when one arm (usually the left) is moved.

The cause is narrowing of the arteries that carry blood to the arms, usually due to atherosclerosis.

Treatment is by arterial reconstructive surgery.... subclavian steal syndrome

Sublingual

A term meaning under the tongue. Drugs taken sublingually, either as tablets or spray, are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream via the lining of the mouth. For example, nitrate tablets are given sublingually to provide rapid relief of an angina attack.... sublingual

Sucralfate

An ulcer-healing drug used to treat peptic ulcer.

Possible side effects are constipation and abdominal pain.... sucralfate

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

The sudden, unexpected death of an infant that cannot be explained.

Possible risk factors include: laying the baby face-down to sleep; overheating; parental smoking after the birth; prematurity and low birth weight; and poor socioeconomic background.

Preventive measures include: ensuring that the baby sleeps on its back at the foot of the cot; regulating the baby’s temperature (using the same amount of clothing and blankets that an adult would need); and stopping smoking.... sudden infant death syndrome

Sulfinpyrazone

A drug that reduces the frequency of attacks of gout.

Side effects include nausea and abdominal pain.... sulfinpyrazone

Sunstroke

A common form of heatstroke.... sunstroke

Superego

The part of the personality, as described in psychoanalytic theory, that is responsible for maintaining a person’s standards of behaviour.

Popularly termed the “conscience”, the superego arises as a result of a child incorporating the moral views of those in authority (usually parents).... superego

Superficial

Situated near the surface.... superficial

Superinfection

A second infection that occurs during the course of an existing infection. The term usually refers to an infection by a microorganism that is resistant to drugs being used against the original infection.... superinfection

Supernumerary

A term meaning more than the normal number.... supernumerary

Surgical Spirit

A liquid preparation, consisting mainly of ethyl alcohol, that has a soothing and hardening effect when applied to the skin.

It may be used before injections as an antiseptic.... surgical spirit

Swallowing

The process by which food or liquid is conveyed from the mouth tothe stomach via the oesophagus. Once food has been chewed and mixed with saliva to form a bolus, the tongue pushes the bolus to the back of the mouth and the voluntary muscles in the palate push it into the throat. The rest of the swallowing process occurs by a series of reflexes. Entry of food into the throat causes the epiglottis to tilt down to seal the trachea and the soft palate to move back in order to close off the naval cavity. The throat muscles push the food into the oesophagus. Waves of contraction (peristalsis) along the oesophagus propel the food towards the stomach. swallowing difficulty A common symptom with various possible causes, including a foreign object in the throat; insufficient production of saliva (see mouth, dry); a disorder of the oesophagus such as oesophageal stricture; pressure on the oesophagus, for example from a goitre; a nervous system disorder such as myasthenia gravis or stroke; or a psychological problem such as globus hystericus.

Investigations of swallowing difficulty may include oesophagoscopy or barium swallow (see barium X-ray examinations).

Treatment depends on the cause.... swallowing

Sydenham’s Chorea

A rare childhood disorder of the central nervous system that causes involuntary jerky movements of the head, face, limbs, and fingers. Voluntary movements are clumsy, and the limbs become floppy. The disorder usually follows an attack of rheumatic fever.

Sydenham’s chorea usually clears up after 2–3 months and has no long-term adverse effects.... sydenham’s chorea

Sympathectomy

An operation in which the ganglia (nerve terminals) of sympathetic nerves are destroyed to interrupt the nerve pathway. This may be performed to improve blood supply to a limb (as a treatment for peripheral vascular disease) or to relieve chronic pain, for example causalgia.... sympathectomy

Synaesthesia

A condition in which stimulation of one of the senses (by a sound, for example) produces an additional response, such as the appearance of a colour in addition to the normal perception associated with that stimulus.... synaesthesia

Systemic Sclerosis

Also known as scleroderma, a rare autoimmune disorder that can affect many organs and tissues, particularly the skin, arteries, kidneys, lungs, heart, gastrointestinal tract, and

joints. The condition is 3 times as common in women and is most likely to appear between the age of 30 and 50.

The number and severity of symptoms varies. The most common symptom is Raynaud’s phenomenon. Also common are changes in the skin, especially of the face and fingers, which becomes shiny, tight, and thickened, leading to difficulty with movements. Other parts of the body may also be affected, leading to difficulty in swallowing, shortness of breath, palpitations, high blood pressure, joint pain, or muscle weakness. Progression of scleroderma is often rapid in the first few years and then slows down or even stops. In a minority of people, degeneration is rapid, and leads to death from heart failure, respiratory failure, or kidney failure.

There is no cure for scleroderma, but many of the symptoms can be relieved.... systemic sclerosis

Temporomandibular Joint Syndrome

Pain and other symptoms affecting the head, jaw, and face, thought to result when the temporomandibular joints and the muscles and ligaments attached to them do not work together correctly. Causes include spasm of the chewing muscles, an incorrect bite (see malocclusion), jaw, head, or neck injuries, or osteoarthritis. Common symptoms include headaches, tenderness of the jaw muscles, and aching facial pain. Treatment involves correction of any underlying abnormality, analgesic drugs, and, in some cases, injection of corticosteroid drugs into the joint.... temporomandibular joint syndrome

Testicular Feminization Syndrome

A rare inherited condition in which a genetic male with internal testes has the external appearance of a female. The syndrome is a form of intersex and is the most common form of male pseudohermaphroditism.

The cause is a defective response of the body tissues to testosterone.

The causative genes are carried on the X chromosome, and so females can be carriers. Affected individuals appear to be girls throughout childhood, and most develop female secondary sexual characteristics at puberty; but amenorrhoea occurs, and a diagnosis is usually made during investigations to find its cause. Chromosome analysis shows the presence of male chromosomes and blood tests show male levels of testosterone. Treatment of testicular feminization syndrome involves surgical removal of the testes, to prevent cancerous change in later life, and therapy with oestrogen drugs. An affected person is not fertile but can live a normal life as a woman.... testicular feminization syndrome

Tietze’s Syndrome

Chest pain localized to an area on the front of the chest wall, usually made worse by movement of the arms or trunk or by pressure on the chest wall. The syndrome is caused by inflammation of 1 or several rib cartilages and symptoms may persist for months. Treatment is with analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or local injections of corticosteroid drugs into the cartilage.... tietze’s syndrome

Tourette’s Syndrome

See Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome.... tourette’s syndrome

Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation

See TENS.... transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation

Turner’s Syndrome

A disorder caused by a chromosomal abnormality that only affects females. The abnormality may arise in 1 of 3 ways: affected females may have only 1 X chromosome instead of 2; they may have 1 normal and 1 defective X chromosome; or they may have a mixture of cells (see mosaicism), in which some of the cells are missing an X chromosome, some have extra chromosomes, and others have the normal complement of chromosomes. Turner’s syndrome causes short stature; webbing of the skin of the neck; absence or retarded development of sexual characteristics; amenorrhea, coarctation of the aorta, and abnormalities of the eyes and bones.

Treatment with growth hormone from infancy helps girls with Turner’s syndrome to achieve near normal height. Coarctation of the aorta is treated surgically. Treatment with oestrogen drugs induces menstruation, but it does not make affected girls fertile.... turner’s syndrome

Acacia Senegal

Willd.

Synonym: A. verek Guillem and Perr.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Native to Sudan. Cultivated in dry parts of western India.

English: Gum arabic tree.

Ayurvedic: Shveta Babbuula.

Action: The tree yields the true Gum arabic of commerce. Mucilaginous, demulcent, emulsifying agent. Used as an ingredient in compounds for treatment of diarrhoea, catarrh.

Bechic, antihaemorrhagic, antiinflammatory. Stembark—antiinflammatory, spasmolytic. Root— used for dysentery and urinary discharges.

The gum consists mainly of arabin. It is the salt of an organic acid, arabic acid, with metals such as calcium, magnesium and potassium.

The stembark gives octacosanol, beta-amyrin, uvaol, beta-stosterol and its glucoside and erthrodiol. An alkaloid, dimethyltryptamine has been isolated from the leaves.... acacia senegal

Acacia Suma

Buch.-Ham.

Synonym: A. polycantha willd.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: West Bengal, Bihar, western peninsula.

Ayurvedic: Shveta Khadira, Kadara, Somavalkala.

Unani: Khor, Safed Khair.

Action: Cutch is prepared from the heartwood. See A. catechu.

Acacia ferruginea DC. is also equated with Shveta Khadira.... acacia suma

Accreditation Standard

A standard against which facilities or programmes are evaluated to determine if they will be accredited.... accreditation standard

Aconitum Spicatum

Stapf.

Family: Ranunculaceae.

Habitat: The alpine zone of the Himalayas of Sikkim and Chumbi. Principal source of Bikh or Bish of Kolkata market. English: Nepal Aconite. Ayurvedic: Vatsanaabha (related sp.).

Action: Antipyretic, analgesic.

The roots yield 1.75% of alkaloids which contain mainly pseudoaconitine and bikhaconitine.... aconitum spicatum

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (aids)

A severe manifestation of infection with the Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).... acquired immune deficiency syndrome (aids)

Actaea Spicata

Linn.

Synonym: A. acuminata Wall. ex Royle

Family: Ranunculaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe; grows in temperate Himalayas from Hazara to Bhutan.

English: Baneberry Grapewort.

Folk: Visha-phale (Kannada).

Action: Root—antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, nerve sedative, emetic, purgative; used in the treatment of rheumatic fever, lumbago, scrofula, nervous disorders, chorea.

The plant is reported to contain trans-aconitic acid, which shows a strong cytostatic action. Its Me ether is active against Ehrlich's ascites tumours.

In folk medicine, roots are used in cases of ovarian neuralgia, uterine tenderness and sub-involution. They are adulterant of the roots of Helleborus niger. Berries are poisonous; used topically for skin diseases. The toxic constituent is protoanemonin (lactone). It is irritant to mucous membrane.... actaea spicata

Action On Smoking And Health

See ASH.... action on smoking and health

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ards)

Formerly known as adult respiratory distress syndrome. A form of acute respiratory failure in which a variety of di?erent disorders give rise to lung injury by what is thought to be a common pathway. The condition has a high mortality rate (about 70 per cent); it is a complex clinical problem in which a disproportionate immunological response plays a major role. (See IMMUNITY.)

The exact trigger is unknown, but it is thought that, whatever the stimulus, chemical mediators produced by cells of the immune system or elsewhere in the body spread and sustain an in?ammatory reaction. Cascade mechanisms with multiple interactions are provoked. CYTOTOXIC substances (which damage or kill cells) such as oxygen-free radicals and PROTEASE damage the alveolar capillary membranes (see ALVEOLUS). Once this happens, protein-rich ?uid leaks into the alveoli and interstitial spaces. SURFACTANT is also lost. This impairs the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs and gives rise to the clinical and pathological picture of acute respiratory failure.

The typical patient with ARDS has rapidly worsening hypoxaemia (lack of oxygen in the blood), often requiring mechanical ventilation. There are all the signs of respiratory failure (see TACHYPNOEA; TACHYCARDIA; CYANOSIS), although the chest may be clear apart from a few crackles. Radiographs show bilateral, patchy, peripheral shadowing. Blood gases will show a low PaO2 (concentration of oxygen in arterial blood) and usually a high PaCO2 (concentration of carbon dioxide in arterial blood). The lungs are ‘sti?’ – they are less e?ective because of the loss of surfactant and the PULMONARY OEDEMA.

Causes The causes of ARDS may be broadly divided into the following:... acute respiratory distress syndrome (ards)

Advance Statements About Medical Treatment

See LIVING WILL.... advance statements about medical treatment

Advocacy Scheme

Services which seek to ensure that a person’s views are heard and his or her interests represented.... advocacy scheme

All Payer System

A system in which prices for health services and payment methods are the same, regardless of who is paying. For instance, in an all payer system, federal or state government, a private insurer, a self-insured employer plan, an individual, or any other payer could pay the same rates. The uniform fee bars health care providers from shifting costs from one payer to another. See “cost shifting”.... all payer system

Allium Sativum

Linn.

Family: Liliaceae, Alliaceae.

Habitat: Native to Central Asia. Cultivated all over India.

English: Garlic.

Ayurvedic: Lashuna, Rasona, Yavaneshta, Ugragandha, Ma- haushadh, Arishta.

Unani: Seer, Lahsun.

Siddha/Tamil: Ullippoondu, Vellaip- pondu.

Action: Antibiotic, bacteriostatic, fungicide, anthelmintic, antithrom- bic, hypotensive, hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemic. Also used for upper respiratory tract infections and catarrhal conditions.

Key application: As a supportive to dietary measures for elevated levels of lipids in blood; as a preventive measure for age-dependent vascular changes. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO, The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Also as an antimicrobial. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia). Garlic has been shown to be effective in respiratory infections and catarrhal conditions. (The British Herbal Compendium.)

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia indicates the use of the bulb as a brain tonic in epilepsy and psychic disorders.

Heavy consumption of garlic prior to surgery led to increased clotting time or reduced platelet aggregation (in human case reports). Garlic tablets at a dose of 400 mg twice daily for 12 weeks reduced platelet aggregation 59% compared with placebo in 80 patients (in human clinical study). (Francis Brinker.)

Garlic cloves are high in sulphur- containing amino acids known as al- liin (no taste, no smell, no medicinal action). With crushing or chewing alli- in comes into contact with the enzyme alliinase. Alliinase, in less than 6 s, transforms alliin into allicin (strongly medicinal), which breaks down into a number of sulphur compounds including ajoene, vinyldithin and diallyl disulfide, and trisulfide. The antibiotic effect is attributed to allicin; hypogly- caemic effect to allicin and allylpro- phyldisulphide (also to S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide); anticarcinogenic activity to diallyl monosulfide; platelet aggregation inhibitory effect to diallyl-di- and tri-sulphides. Ajoene inactivated human gastric lipase, which is involved in digestion and absorption of dietary fats.

Diallyltetra, penta-, hexa- and hep- tasulphides are potential antioxidants.

Allium leptophyllum Wall. is equated with Vana Lashuna, Jangali Lahsun.

Dosage: Bulb—3 g (API Vol. III.)... allium sativum

Alpha (i) Statistic

A statistic commonly used to reflect the reliability of a measurement scale. See “reliability”.... alpha (i) statistic

Alternative Medical System

A complete system of theory and practices that has evolved independently of, and often prior to, the conventional biological approach. Many are traditional systems of medicine that are practised by individual cultures throughout the world. Traditional Oriental medicine and Ayurveda, India’s traditional system of medicine, are two examples.... alternative medical system

Ambulatory Setting

A type of institutional organized health setting in which health services are provided on an outpatient basis. Ambulatory care settings may be either mobile (when the facility is capable of being moved to different locations) or fixed (when the person seeking care must travel to a fixed service site).... ambulatory setting

Analytic Study

A study designed to examine associations, commonly putative or hypothesized causal relationships. An analytic study is usually concerned with identifying or measuring the effect of risk factors, or is concerned with the health effects of specific exposure(s).... analytic study

Ancillary Service

Support service provided in conjunction with medical or hospital care. Such services include laboratory, radiology, physical therapy and inhalation therapy, among others.... ancillary service

Animal Starch

See GLYCOGEN.... animal starch

Allium Schoenoprasum

Linn.

Family: Liliaceae, Alliaceae.

Habitat: Native to temperate northern Europe and the U.S.; distributed in the western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at altitudes of 2,400-3,000 m.

English: Chives.

Action: Used in place of young onions.

An alcoholic extract of the bulbs exhibited hypotensive and cardiac depressant activity.

The aerial parts (chives) gave alliins (alkylcysteine sulfoxides), particularly methyl alliin and pentylalliin.

Allium tuberosum Rottl. ex Spreng, found in eastern India and western Himalayas, is equated with Chinese Chives. It is available in Meghalaya.... allium schoenoprasum

Alpinia Speciosa

(Wendl.) K.Schum.

Synonym: A. Zerumbet Burtt and R.M. Smith

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Native to East Indies. Occurs in the eastern Himalayas from West Bengal eastwards.

English: Light Galangal.

Siddha/Tamil: Chitraraththai.

Action: Rhizomes are used as a substitute for A. galanga and even for ginger; antiulcerative, spasmolytic.

The leaves and rhizomes yield an essential oil which contains alpha-and beta-pinene, borneol, campene and ci- neole as major constituents.... alpinia speciosa

Alstonia Scholaris

R. Br.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Habitat: Throughout moist regions of India, especially in West Bengal and west-coast forests of southern India.

English: Devil's tree, Dita Bark tree.

Ayurvedic: Saptaparna, Sapta- chhada, Saptaparni, Saptaahvaa, Vishaaltvak, Shaarada, Visham- chhada.

Unani: Chhaatim, Kaasim (Kaasim Roomi, Anjudaan Roomi is equated with Myrrhis odorata Scope.)

Siddha/Tamil: Ezhilamippalai, Mukkampalai.

Folk: Chhitavan, Sataunaa.

Action: Bark—febrifuge, antiperi- odic, spasmolytic, antidysenteric, uterine stimulant, hypotensive; used for internal fevers.

Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of stembark in phosphaturia and recommends it as a blood purifier.

Alstonia sp. is known as Fever Bark. A. constricta is native to Australia; A. scholaris to Australia and Southeast Asia. The bark of both the species contains indole alkaloids. A. constric- ta contains reserpine (a hyptotensive agent). A. scholaris contains echita- mine, which has also demonstrated hypotensive effects. Though A. schol- aris produces fall in the temperature of human patients with fever, there are conflicting reports about the activity of echitamine against Plasmodium berghei.

Dosage: Stembark—20-30 g for decoction. (API Vol. I.)... alstonia scholaris

Alternanthera Sessilis

(Linn.) R. Br. ex DC.

Synonym: A. triandra Lam. A. denticulata R. Br. A. repens Gmel. Non-Link.

Family: Amaranthaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the hotter parts of India, especially around tanks and ponds.

Ayurvedic: Matsyaakshi, Matsyaak- shika (a multimeaning name, also indicating Braahmi, Ain- dri), Matsyagandhaa, Matsyaa- dini, Minaakshi, Bahli, Gandali, Gartkalambukaa, Vaahlikaa.

Unani: Machhechhi.

Siddha/Tamil: Ponnonkanni keerai.

Folk: Gudari Saag.

Action: Febrifuge, galactagogue, cholagogue.

Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of dried whole plant in diseases due to vitiated blood and obstinate skin diseases.

Young shoots contain protein 5% and iron 16.7 mg/100 g. Leaves also contain a good amount of alpha- and beta-tocopherols.

The plant gave stigmasterol, beta- sitosterol, a saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon and aliphatic ester.

Dosage: Whole plant—2-6 g powder. (API Vol. II.)... alternanthera sessilis

Anterior Tibial Syndrome

See under MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF – Compression syndrome.... anterior tibial syndrome

Anxiety State

See NEUROSIS.... anxiety state

Appointment Scheduling System

A system for planning of appointments between resources such as clinicians and facilities and patients. It is used in order to minimize waiting times, prioritize appointments and optimize the utilization of resources.... appointment scheduling system

Amaranthus Spinosus

Linn.

Family: Amaranthaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated fields, waste places and along roadsides.

English: Spiny Amaranth, Thorny Amaranth, Spiny Pigweed.

Ayurvedic: Tanduliya, Tandulaka, Meghnaad, Megharava, Vishaghn, Alpamaarish.

Siddha/Tamil: Mullukkeerai.

Folk: Katili-chaulai.

Action: Galactogenic, laxative, emollient, spasmolytic, diuretic. Pollen extract—used for allergic asthma and allergic rhinitis. Root— used in menorrhoea.

Plant contains sterols. Leaves and stems contain alpha-spinasterol and hentriacontane. Leaves also contain amino acids with high content of lysine.

Dosage: Whole plant—10-20 ml juice; 400-800 mg powder. (CCRAS.)... amaranthus spinosus

Amomum Subulatum

Roxb.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in swampy places in Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Tamil Nadu.

English: Greater or Nepal Cardamom.

Ayurvedic: Sthula-elaa, Bhadraa, Bhadrailaa, Bahulaa, Prithivikaa, Triputaa, Truti.

Unani: Heel Kalaan, Qaaqule Kubaar.

Siddha/Tamil: Peria Elam, Kattu Elam, Beraelam.

Action: Stomachic, antiemetic, an- tibilious, astringent, alexipharmic; used for the treatment of indigestion, biliousness, abdominal pains, vomiting, in congestion of liver. Pericarp—in headache and stomatitis.

The seeds contain a chalcone (carda- monin), a flavonoid (alpinetin), petu- nidin-3, 5-diglucoside and leucocyani- din glucocide; also a aurone glycoside subulin. The essential oil (2.5%) contains cineole.

Dosage: Seed-1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... amomum subulatum

Apthous Stomatitis

Little ulcers or canker sores on the surface. of the tongue, lips, and cheek mucosa. In adults, they are often related to gastric reflux and dyspepsia.... apthous stomatitis

Asparagus Sarmentosus

Linn. has been equated with Mahaa-shataavari. Other related sp. are Asparagus curillus Buch.-Ham., A. filicinus Buch.-Ham. and A. gracilis Royle.

Dosage: Dried root—3-6 g powder. (API Vol. IV.)... asparagus sarmentosus

Assessment System

A structured process developed to ensure that assessment is relevant, consistent, fair and valid. The system requires rules of operation, a regular review process and competent assessors.... assessment system

Astragalus Strobiliferus

Royle.

Family: Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.

Habitat: The western Himalayas at 2,400-3,900 m, and Kashmir.

English: Indian Gum tragacanth.

Action: Gum—an Indian substitute for tragacanth (A. gummifer gum).... astragalus strobiliferus

Anethum Sowa

Roxb. ex Flem.

Synonym: A. graveolens Linn. var. sowa Roxb. A. graveolens DC. Peucedanum sowa Roxb. Peucedanum graveolens Benth.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated all over India.

English: Indian Dill, Sowa.

Ayurvedic: Shataahvaa. Shata- pushpaa (also accepted as Foenicu- lum vulgare Mill., equated with Mishreya, Mishi, Madhurikaa).

Unani: Shibt, Soyaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Sadakuppai.

Action: Carminative, stomachic, antispasmodic.

Key application: In dyspepsia. (German Commission E.)

The fresh and dried leaf is used for prevention and treatment of diseases and disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, kidney and urinary tract, for spasms and sleep disorders. (Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.)

An aqueous dill extract, administered intravenously, lowers blood pressure, dilates blood vessels, stimulates respiration and slows heart rate in animals. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Dill seeds contain up to 5% volatile oil (about half of which is carvone), flavonoids, coumarins, xanthones and triterpenes. The yield of the oil from Indian A. sowa varies from 1.3 to 3.5%. Carvone is the major constituent (19.569.7%). The oil from seeds is used for flatulence in children and enters into the preparations of gripe water. The oil is also antimicrobial and antifungal.

Dill apiol is considered undesirable and toxic. Vizag fruit var. from Andhra Pradesh is dill-apiol-free and with 54-56%, carvone content having same flavonoid pattern as A. sowa.

Dosage: Dried fruit—3-6 g powder. (API Vol. III.) Fruit, leaf—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... anethum sowa

Annona Squamosa

Linn.

Family: Annonaceae.

Habitat: A native to South America and the West Indies; now cultivated throughout India.

English: Custard Apple, Sugar Apple, Sweet-sop.

Ayurvedic: Gandagaatra, Sitaa phala (also equated with Curcurbita maxima).

Unani: Sharifaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Sitaaphalam, Atta.

Action: Leaves—insecticide (seed powder, mixed with leaf juice is used for removing lice from scalp). Seeds—abortifacient. Root— purgative, used in blood dysentery.

Fruit—invigorating, sedative to heart, antibilious, antiemetic, expectorant. Dried, powdered unripe fruits—used for treating ulcers. Ripe fruit made into paste with betel leaves is applied to tumour to hasten suppuration. Leaves, bark, unripe fruit—strongly astringent; used for diarrhoea and dysentery.

A fraction of total alkaloid from roots exhibits antihypertensive, antispasmodic, antihistaminic and bron- chodilatory properties. Leaves contain a cardiotonic alkaloid, quinoline. Squamone and bullatacinone were selectively cytotoxic to human breast carcinoma.

In Cuban medicine, leaves are taken to reduce uric acid levels.... annona squamosa

Argyreia Speciosa

Sweet.

Synonym: A. nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj.

Family: Convolvulaceae.

Habitat: Found all over India, ascending to 300 m.

English: Elephant Creeper.

Ayurvedic: Vriddhadaaruka, Vriddhadaaru, Vriddhadaaraka, Bastaantri, Sthavira, Sthaviradaaru, Atarunadaaru, Samudrashosha. (Seeds of Salvia plebeia R. Br. are also known as Samudrashosha.)

Unani: Samunder sokh.

Siddha/Tamil: Ambgar, Samuddira- pacchai

Folk: Bidhaaraa.

Action: Root—aphrodisiac (considered as a rejuvenator), nervine (used in diseases of nervous system, sexual disorders), diuretic (used in strangury), antirheumatic. Seeds—hypotensive, spasmolytic. Leaves—used externally in skin diseases (ringworm, eczema, boils, swellings); rubefacient, topically stimulant.

The seeds contain hallucinogenic ergoline alkaloids, the main ones being ergine and isoergine. EtOH (50%) extract of seeds exhibits hypotensive activity. (Seeds of all species of Argyreia contain ergoline alkaloids and are hypotensive.) Leaves of Argyreia sp. contain sitosterol and are antiphlogistic.

In Indian medicine, A. speciosa is not used as a single drug for sexual disorders in men, but as a supporting drug for exerting its antiphlogistic, spasmolytic and hypotensive actions on the central nervous system. The drug, in itself, did not show anabolic- cum-androgen-like or spermogenetic activity experimentally.

Ipomoea petaloidea Chois and Ipo- moea biloba Forskofthe Convolvulacae family are also used as Vriddhadaaru.

In Western herbal medicine, Hawaiian Baby Woodrose is equated with Argyreia nervosa (synonym Argyreia speciosa; grows in Florida, California and Hawaii). The seed is used for pain relief and as a hallucinogen.

The seeds contain hallucinogens including ergonovine, isoergine (isoly- sergic acid amide) and ergine (lysergic acid amide). Four to eight seeds are equivalent to 10-100 mcg of LSD, a potent serotonin-1A (5-HT1A) agonist. The effects last 6-8 h. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Dosage: Root—3-5 g powder.

(CCRAS.)... argyreia speciosa

Atylosia Scarabaeoides

(L.) Benth.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India; up to 1,800 m in the western Himalayas.

Ayurvedic: Vana-kulattha.

Folk: Jangli Tur, Kulthi.

Action: Antidysenteric, anticholerin, febrifuge; also used in anaemia, anasarca and hemiplegia. Seeds— taeniafuge.

A flavone glucoside, atyloside, has been isolated from the leaves.... atylosia scarabaeoides

Arnica Tea: A Skin Aid

Arnica tea is a healing beverage, with a long history in treating a large array of ailments. It is used only externally, because of its toxicity. Arnica Tea description Arnica is a woodland plant from the same family as the sunflower. It normally grows in Central Europe and in the western United States, at high altitudes. It is known as mountain tobacco or smoke herb, because Native American Indians used to smoke this herb. Arnica tea has been used since the 16th century to calm digestive disorders, reduce fever and for topical treatment when dealing with skin disorders. At present, Arnica tea is recommended to be used only externally, because of its potential toxicity. Its flowers are dried and used to prepare ointments, creams and gels to treat bruises and sprains. Arnica Tea brewing To prepare Arnica tea:
  • Infuse 1 teaspoon of dried (or powdered) flower into ½ cup of hot water.
  • Allow the mix to steep for about 10 minutes.
 Arnica tea should not be ingested or drunk. Its usage is only external. Arnica Tea benefits Arnica Tea is recognized for its anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties. This tea has been successfully used to treat:
  • muscle pains
  • contusions
  • sore feet
  • leg ulcers in diabetics
  • sprains and bruises
  • hair loss
  • acne
  • scars, eczemas and itching caused by poison ivy
Arnica Tea side effects It has been proved that Arnica tea applied on open wounds or broken skin can increase the blood pressure. Arnica tea should be avoided in case of pregnancy. Also, people with sensitive skin are recommended not to use it. Long periods of Arnica tea usage can lead to eczema, edemas, rash, swelling and dermatitis. Arnica tea is a healing beverage which can heal skin problems and also, lessen pain. It is recommended to people looking for a medicinal remedy for their health issues.... arnica tea: a skin aid

Asperger’s Syndrome

A lifelong personality disorder, evident from childhood and regarded as a mild form of AUTISM. Persons with the syndrome tend to have great di?culty with personal relationships. They tend to take what is said to them as literal fact and have great di?culty in understanding irony, metaphors or even jokes. They appear shy with a distant and aloof character, emotional rigidity and inability to adapt to new situations. They are often mocked and ill-treated at school by their fellows because they appear unusual. Many people with Asperger’s seem to take refuge in intense interests or hobbies, often conducted to an obsessional degree. Many become skilled in mathematics and particularly information technology. Frustration with the outside world which is so hard to comprehend may provoke aggressive outbursts when stressed.... asperger’s syndrome

Astragalus Sarcocola

Dymock.

Family: Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.

Habitat: The mountainous regions from Asia Minor to Iraq and Iran.

English: Sarcocola.

Ayurvedic: Rudanti (substitute).

Unani: Anzaroot, Kohal Kirmaani (Gum).

Action: Gum—antirheumatic, aperient, anthelmintic, emollient.

The rootbark yields alkaloids, atala- phylline and its N-methyl derivatives and atalaphyllidine, which have close structural similarities with the antitu- mour alkaloid, acronycine, and its co- geners. The rootbark also contains the limonoid, atalantin.

The leaf juice forms an ingredient of a compound liniment used in hemiplegia. The essential oil is used in paralysis. The oil contains higher terpene esters belonging to azulene group (29%). (Azulenes impart anti-inflammatory activity.)... astragalus sarcocola

Attention Deficit Disorder (hyperactivity Syndrome)

A lifelong disorder characterised by overactive behaviour, short attention span and poor concentration. It is thought to be caused by a minor abnormality that affects the part of the brain that allows us to concentrate and focus on tasks. Some scientists have suggested that it may be caused by particular foods, particularly processed foods containing arti?cial additives, and recommend special diets. In some countries, attention de?cit disorder is diagnosed in up to a tenth of all children; this may re?ect di?erences in paediatric practice and diagnosis rather than a real variation in prevalence of the disorder. Behaviour therapy is the main treatment. Those children with very severe symptoms of restlessness, short attention span and disturbed behaviour may respond to additional treatment with methylphenidate (Ritalin®). This is an amphetamine-like drug that is thought to stimulate the part of the brain that is not working properly. Use of this drug has, however, been controversial.... attention deficit disorder (hyperactivity syndrome)

Auto-suggestion

A self-induced receptive, hypnotic state which is believed to improve the body’s ability to help itself. Doctors have long realised that if they suggested to a patient that a particular treatment would work, it often did – a type of placebo e?ect. Some techniques now make use of this idea. For instance, people can be taught muscular relaxation to control their anxiety states – the BIOFEEDBACK principle.... auto-suggestion

Average Length Of Stay (alos)

A measure of how many days a patient, on average, spends in the hospital. Hence, this measure, when applied to individuals or specific groups of patients, may be an indicator of the severity of illness and resource use. It is often used as a comparison to assess efficiency of resource usage between hospitals.... average length of stay (alos)

Avena Sativa

Linn.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: A cereal and fodder crop of Europe and America; also cultivated in India.

English: Oat, Common oat.

Ayurvedic: Yavikaa. (Indian sp. is equated with A. byzantina C. Koch.)

Unani: Sult (Silt), Jao Birahnaa, Jao Gandum.

Action: Nervine tonic (used in spermatorrhoea, palpitation, sleeplessness), cardiac tonic (used in debility), stimulant, antispasmodic, thymoleptic, antidepressant (used in menopausal phase). Also used in diarrhoea, dysentery, colitis. Externally, emollient.

Key application: Oat straw— externally in baths for inflammatory and seborrhoeic skin diseases. (German Commission E.) The effect on blood sugar is less than that from most of the fiber-containing herbs and foods. (Sharon M. Herr.)

The seeds contain proteins and prolamines (avenins); C-glycosyl flavones; avenacosides (spirostanol glycosides); fixed oil, vitamin E, starch.

Silicon dioxide (2%) occurs in the leaves and in the straw in soluble form as esters of silicic acid with polyphenols and monosaccharides and oligosaccharides.

Oat straw contains a high content of iron (39 mg/kg dry weight), manganese (8.5 mg) and zinc (19.2 mg).

In an experimental study, oat straw stimulated the release of luteinizing hormone from the adenohypophysis of rats. (Expanded Commission E Monographs.)

An alcoholic extract of green oats was tried on opium addicts. Six chronic opium addicts gave up opium completely, two reduced their intake and two showed no change following regular use of 2 ml three times daily (human clinical study). A significant diminish- ment of the number of cigarettes used by habitual tobacco smokers resulted from using 1 ml (four times daily) of fresh Avena alcoholic extract of mature plants; however, a few studies gave disappointing results. (Francis Brinker.)

Oat polyphenol composition prevented the increase of cholesterol and beta-lipoprotein of blood serum of fasting rabbits. Antioxidant property of the oat flour remains unaffected by heat. Homoeopathic tincture of seeds is used as a nervine tonic. Beta-glucan from the oats stimulated immune functions.

Avenacosides exhibit strong anti- fungal activity in vitro.... avena sativa

B Nosed. The Test For Brain-stem Death Are:

Fixed dilated pupils of the eyes

Absent CORNEAL REFLEX

Absent VESTIBULO-OCULAR REFLEX

No cranial motor response to somatic (physical) stimulation

Absent gag and cough re?exes

No respiratory e?ort in response to APNOEA despite adequate concentrations of CARBON DIOXIDE in the arterial blood.... b nosed. the test for brain-stem death are:

Barleria Strigosa

Willd.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh to West Bengal, up to an altitude of 1,200 m.

Ayurvedic: Sahachara (blue- flowered var.).

Siddha/Tamil: Nili.

Folk: Koilekhaa.

Action: Mild antiseptic, expectorant (given in spasmodic cough); also used as an antianaemic.

The plant gave beta-and gamma- sitosterol.... barleria strigosa

Basic Health Service

A network of health units providing essential health care to a population. Basic health services include communicable disease control, environmental sanitation, maintenance of records for statistical purposes, health education of the public, public health nursing and medical care.... basic health service

Bed Sores

See ULCER.... bed sores

Behçet’s Syndrome

This is a syndrome characterised by oral and genital ulceration, UVEITIS and ARTHROPATHY. THROMBOPHLEBITIS is a common complication, and involvement of the central nervous system may occur.... behçet’s syndrome

Bicarbonato De Sodio

Baking soda; used as a gargle for sore throat and tonsillitis, sometimes combined with vinagre blanco (white vinegar) or with limón (lemon) and miel de abeja (honey); can be combined with other herbal remedies such as poultices that are applied externally.... bicarbonato de sodio

Bipolar Staining

The effect of the two ends of a bacillus staining while the centre of the rod remains unstained (eg in Yersinia pestis, the cause of Bubonic Plague) when stained with Giemsa stain.... bipolar staining

Blepharispermum Subsessile

DC.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka.

Ayurvedic: Used as a substitute for Raasnaa in Madhya Pradesh.

Action: Anti-inflammatory (used internally and externally for rheumatic affections).... blepharispermum subsessile

Bean Sprouts

See also Beans.

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Moderate Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins, folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Iron, potassium

About the Nutrients in This Food Because beans use stored starches and sugars to produce green shoots called sprouts, sprouted beans have less carbohydrate than the beans from which they grow. But bean sprouts are a good source of dietary fiber, including insoluble cellulose and lignin in leaf parts and soluble pectins and gums in the bean. The sprouts are also high in the B vitamin folate and vitamin C. One-half cup raw mung bean sprouts has 1.2 mg dietary fiber, 31.5 mcg folate (8 percent of the R DA), and 7 mg vitamin C (9 percent of the R DA for a woman, 7 percent of the R DA for a man). Raw beans contain anti-nutrient chemicals that inhibit the enzymes we use to digest proteins and starches; hemagglutinins (substances that make red blood cells clump together); and “factors” that may inactivate vita- min A. These chemicals are usually destroyed when the beans are heated. with the bean must be cooked before serving. Sprouted beans served

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Cooked (see Adverse effects associated with this food ).

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-fiber, low-residue diet

Buying This Food Look for: Fresh, crisp sprouts. The tips should be moist and tender. (The shorter the sprout, the more tender it will be.) It is sometimes difficult to judge bean sprouts packed in plastic bags, but you can see through to tell if the tip of the sprout looks fresh. Sprouts sold from water-filled bowls should be refrigerated, protected from dirt and debris, and served with a spoon or tongs, not scooped up by hands. Avoid: Mushy sprouts (they may be decayed) and soft ones (they have lost moisture and vitamin C).

Storing This Food Refrigerate sprouts in a plastic bag to keep them moist and crisp. If you bought them in a plastic bag, take them out and repack them in bags large enough that they do not crush each other. To get the most vitamin C, use the sprouts within a few days.

Preparing This Food R inse the sprouts thoroughly under cold running water to get rid of dirt and sand. Discard any soft or browned sprouts, then cut off the roots and cook the sprouts. Do not tear or cut the sprouts until you are ready to use them. When you slice into the sprouts, you tear cells, releasing enzymes that begin to destroy vitamin C.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Cooking destroys some of the heat-sensitive vitamin C in sprouts. To save it, steam the sprouts quickly, stir-fry them, or add them uncooked just before you serve the dish.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Canning. Vitamin C is heat-sensitive, and heating the sprouts during the canning process reduces their vitamin C content.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Lower risk of some birth defects. As many as t wo of ever y 1,000 babies born in the United States each year may have cleft palate or a neural tube (spinal cord) defect due to their mothers’ not having gotten adequate amounts of folate during pregnancy. The R DA for folate is 400 mcg for healthy adult men and women, 600 mcg for pregnant women, and 500 mcg for women who are nursing. Taking folate supplements before becoming pregnant and continuing through the first t wo months of pregnancy reduces the risk of cleft palate; taking folate through the entire pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Lower risk of heart attack. In the spring of 1998, an analysis of data from the records for more than 80,000 women enrolled in the long-running Nurses’ Health Study at Harvard School of Public Health/Brigham and Woman’s Hospital, in Boston, demonstrated that a diet provid- ing more than 400 mcg folate and 3 mg vitamin B6 daily, from either food or supplements, more than twice the current R DA for each, may reduce a woman’s risk of heart attack by almost 50 percent. Although men were not included in the analysis, the results are assumed to apply to them as well. However, data from a meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in December 2006 called this theory into question. Researchers at Tulane University examined the results of 12 controlled studies in which 16,958 patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease were given either folic acid supplements or placebos (“look-alike” pills with no folic acid) for at least six months. The scientists, who found no reduction in the risk of further heart disease or overall death rates among those taking folic acid, concluded that further studies will be required to verif y whether taking folic acid supplements reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Food poisoning: Reacting to an outbreak of Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 food poisoning associated with eating raw alfalfa sprouts, the Food and Drug Administration issued a warn- ing in 1998 and again in summer 1999, cautioning those at high risk of food-borne illness not to eat any raw sprouts. The high-risk group includes children, older adults, and people with a weakened immune system (for example, those who are HIV-positive or undergoing cancer chemotherapy). Tests conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1999 sug- gest that irradiating raw sprouts and bathing them in an antiseptic solution at the processing plant may eliminate disease organisms and prolong the vegetable’s shelf life; this remains to be proven.... bean sprouts

Bovine Spongiform

... bovine spongiform

Breast Screening

A set of investigations aimed at the early detection of breast cancer. It includes self-screening by monthly examination of the breasts, and formal programmes of screening by palpation and mammography in special clinics. In the UK the NHS o?ers regular mammography examinations to all women between 50 and 64 years of age; in 1995–6, 1.1 million women were screened – 76 per cent of those invited. More than 5,500 cancers were detected – 5.3 per 1,000 women screened.... breast screening

Benefits Of Lapsang Souchong Tea

Lapsang Souchong tea is a type of black tea originating from China. Out of all the types of black tea, this one is special thanks to its history, rich taste and health benefits. Find out more about the Lapsang Souchong tea in this article. About the Lapsang Souchong tea Lapsang Souchong tea is a type of black tea originating from China, from the Wuyi region of the Fujian province. It is the first type of black tea in history, having been discovered around the beginning of the 19th century. Later, people started to move the tea bushes even outside of China, for example to India or Sri Lanka. The flavor of this tea is smoky, rich and fruity. It goes well with salty and spicy dishes, as well as with cheese. Lapsang Souchong tea - a smoked tea It is said that the lapsang souchong tea was discovered by accident. During the Dao Guang era of the Qing Dynasty, an army unit passed through Xingcu village and decided to set camp at a tea factory filled with unprocessed tea leaves. The workers could only return at the company after the soldiers left. Discovering that they didn’t have enough time to let the leaves dry, the workers decided to speed up the process. What they did was to place the tea leaves into bamboo baskets and dry them over fires made from local pines. This is how the lapsang souchong tea was discovered. Because of this, it is also called “smoked tea”. Seeing as they are smoke-dried over fires made from pine wood, the lapsang souchong tea has a strong, smoky flavor. How to make lapsang souchong tea To make lapsang souchong tea, you need one teaspoon of leaves for a 6 ounce cup. Leave it to steep for 3-4 minutes before you remove the leaves. You can later use the leaves to resteep, but the flavor might differ after each steeping. The lapsang souchong tea is usually drunk without milk or sugar. People either love its taste, or completely hate it, so there’s no need to change it. Benefits of lapsang souchong tea The lapsang souchong tea, just like all other types of black teas, has many health benefits that should encourage you to drink more of it. First of all, drinking lapsang souchong tea can reduce your chances of getting cancer. It also helps reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, as it lowers the cholesterol in your blood and helps the blood flow better in your veins. The lapsang souchong tea helps strengthen your immunity, protecting you from viruses that lead to colds, the flu or other diseases. It also helps you fight against various types of inflammations. During diets, it is recommended to drink black tea; this includes the lapsang souchong tea, as well. It helps burn fats faster and, therefore, helps you lose weight. Side effects of lapsang souchong tea The side effects of the lapsang souchong tea are those found at other types of black tea, as well. They are related to the caffeine found in the tea’s composition, and drinking too much tea. If you know caffeine isn’t good for you, be careful when drinking lapsang souchong tea. It may cause you to experience the following symptoms: insomnia, anxiety, headache, dizziness, irritability, blurred vision and skin rashes. You also have to be careful if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding. In the case of pregnancy, the caffeine in the lapsang souchong tea (and caffeine in general) can cause miscarriages and birth defects. If you’re breastfeeding, lapsang souchong tea can affect the baby, who might get insomnia, heart palpitations and tremors. Also, if you’re suffering from ulcer, don’t drink too much lapsang souchong tea. The caffeine in its composition may increase the production of stomach acid and, therefore, aggravate the ulcer symptoms. It is recommended that you not drink more than six cups of tea per day. Otherwise, it might end up becoming harmful rather than helpful. The side effects that you might get are headaches, dizziness, insomnia, irregular heartbeats, vomiting, diarrhea and loss of appetite. If you encounter any of these symptoms, reduce the amount of tea you drink. This applies to all types of tea, including the lapsang souchong tea. If you want a special kind of black tea, try the lapsang souchong tea. The smoky, fruity flavor will definitely charm you. And don’t forget, it’s also good for your health!... benefits of lapsang souchong tea

Brown Snake

A poisonous snake found on the mainland of Australia. It belongs to the family Elapidae and is extremely venomous, having a potent neurotoxin.... brown snake

Brugmansia Suaveolens

Bercht. & Presl.

Synonym Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.

Habitat: Native to Mexico; grown in Indian gardens.

English: Angel's Trumpet.

Action: Leaf and flower—used to treat asthma; to induce hallucinations. Can cause severe toxicity.

All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids (concentration highest in the foliage and seeds), particularly atropine, hyoscyamine and hyoscine (scopolamine.)... brugmansia suaveolens

Brussels Sprouts

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: High Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin A, folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium, iron

About the Nutrients in This Food Brussels sprouts are high in dietary fiber, especially insoluble cellulose and lignan in the leaf ribs. They are also a good source of vitamin A and vitamin C. One-half cup cooked fresh brussels sprouts has three grams of dietary fiber, 1,110 IU vitamin A (48 percent of the R DA for a woman, 37 percent of the R DA for a man), 47 mcg folate (16 percent of the R DA), and 48 mg vitamin C (64 percent of the R DA for a woman, 53 percent of the R DA for a man). Brussels sprouts also contain an antinutrient, a natural chemical that splits the thiamin (vitamin B1) molecule so that it is no longer nutritionally useful. This thiamin inhibitor is inactivated by cooking.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Fresh, lightly steamed to preserve the vitamin C and inactivate the antinutrient.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Antiflatulence diet Low-fiber diet

Buying This Food Look for: Firm, compact heads with bright, dark-green leaves, sold loose so that you can choose the sprouts one at a time. Brussels sprouts are available all year round. Avoid: Puff y, soft sprouts with yellow or wilted leaves. The yellow carotenes in the leaves show through only when the leaves age and their green chlorophyll pigments fade. Wilting leaves and puff y, soft heads are also signs of aging. Avoid sprouts with tiny holes in the leaves through which insects have burrowed.

Storing This Food Store the brussels sprouts in the refrigerator. While they are most nutritious if used soon after harvesting, sprouts will keep their vitamins (including their heat-sensitive vitamin C) for several weeks in the refrigerator. Store the sprouts in a plastic bag or covered bowl to protect them from moisture loss.

Preparing This Food First, drop the sprouts into salted ice water to flush out any small bugs hiding inside. Next, trim them. Remove yellow leaves and leaves with dark spots or tiny holes, but keep as many of the darker, vitamin A–rich outer leaves as possible. Then, cut an X into the stem end of the sprouts to allow heat and water in so that the sprouts cook faster.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Brussels sprouts contain mustard oils (isothiocyanates), natural chemicals that break down into a variety of smelly sulfur compounds (including hydrogen sulfide and ammonia) when the sprouts are heated, a reaction that is intensified in aluminum pots. The longer you cook the sprouts, the more smelly compounds there will be. Adding a slice of bread to the cook- ing water may lessen the odor; keeping a lid on the pot will stop the smelly molecules from floating off into the air. But keeping the pot covered will also increase the chemical reaction that turns cooked brussels sprouts drab. Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes green vegetables green, is sensi- tive to acids. When you heat brussels sprouts, the chlorophyll in their green leaves reacts chemically with acids in the sprouts or in the cooking water to form pheophytin, which is brown. The pheophytin turns cooked brussels sprouts olive or, since they also contain yel- low carotenes, bronze. To keep cooked brussels sprouts green, you have to reduce the interaction between chlorophyll and acids. One way to do this is to cook the sprouts in a lot of water, so the acids will be diluted, but this increases the loss of vitamin C.* Another alternative is to leave the lid off the pot so that the hydrogen atoms can float off into the air, but this allows the smelly sulfur compounds to escape, too. The best solution is to steam the sprouts quickly in very little water, so they retain their vitamin C and cook before there is time for reaction between chlorophyll and hydrogen atoms to occur.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Freezing. Frozen brussels sprouts contain virtually the same amounts of vitamins as fresh boiled sprouts.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Protection against cancer. Naturally occurring chemicals (indoles, isothiocyanates, gluco- sinolates, dithiolethiones, and phenols) in brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower and other cruciferous vegetables appear to reduce the risk of some cancers, perhaps by pre- venting the formation of carcinogens in your body or by blocking cancer-causing substances from reaching or reacting with sensitive body tissues or by inhibiting the transformation of healthy cells to malignant ones. All cruciferous vegetables contain sulforaphane, a member of a family of chemicals known as isothiocyanates. In experiments with laboratory rats, sulforaphane appears to increase the body’s production of phase-2 enzymes, naturally occurring substances that inac- tivate and help eliminate carcinogens. At Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, 69 percent of the rats injected with a chemical known to cause mammary cancer developed tumors vs. only 26 percent of the rats given the carcinogenic chemical plus sulforaphane. In 1997, the Johns Hopkins researchers discovered that broccoli seeds and three- day-old broccoli sprouts contain a compound converted to sulforaphane when the seed and sprout cells are crushed. Five grams of three-day-old broccoli sprouts contain as much sulforaphane as 150 grams of mature broccoli. The sulforaphane levels in other cruciferous vegetables have not yet been calculated. Lower risk of some birth defects. Up to two or every 1,000 babies born in the United States each year may have cleft palate or a neural tube (spinal cord) defect due to their mothers’ not having gotten adequate amounts of folate during pregnancy. NOTE : The current R DA for folate is 180 mcg for a woman and 200 mcg for a man, but the FDA now recommends * Brussels sprouts will lose as much as 25 percent of their vitamin C if you cook them in water that is cold when you start. As it boils, water releases oxygen that would otherwise destroy vitamin C. You can cut the vitamin loss dramatically simply by letting the water boil for 60 seconds before adding the sprouts. 400 mcg for a woman who is or may become pregnant. Taking a folate supplement before becoming pregnant and continuing through the first two months of pregnancy reduces the risk of cleft palate; taking folate through the entire pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Possible lower risk of heart attack. In the spring of 1998, an analysis of data from the records for more than 80,000 women enrolled in the long-running Nurses’ Health Study at Harvard School of Public Health/Brigham and Women’s Hospital, in Boston, demonstrated that a diet providing more than 400 mcg folate and 3 mg vitamin B6 daily, either from food or supple- ments, might reduce a woman’s risk of heart attack by almost 50 percent. Although men were not included in the study, the results were assumed to apply to them as well. However, data from a meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in December 2006 called this theory into question. Researchers at Tulane Univer- sity examined the results of 12 controlled studies in which 16,958 patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease were given either folic acid supplements or placebos (“look-alike” pills with no folic acid) for at least six months. The scientists, who found no reduction in the risk of further heart disease or overall death rates among those taking folic acid, concluded that further studies will be required to verif y whether taking folic acid supplements reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease. Vision protection. In 2004, the Johns Hopkins researchers updated their findings on sulfora- phane to suggest that it may also protect cells in the eyes from damage due to ultraviolet light, thus reducing the risk of macular degeneration, the most common cause of age-related vision loss.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). Cruciferous vegetables, including brussels sprouts, contain goitrin, thiocyanate, and isothiocyanate. These chemicals, known collectively as goitrogens, inhibit the formation of thyroid hormones and cause the thyroid to enlarge in an attempt to produce more. Goitrogens are not hazardous for healthy people who eat moderate amounts of cruciferous vegetables, but they may pose problems for people who have a thyroid condi- tion or are taking thyroid medication. Intestinal gas. Bacteria that live naturally in the gut degrade the indigestible carbohydrates (food fiber) in brussels sprouts and produce gas that some people find distressing.

Food/Drug Interactions Anticoagulants Brussels sprouts are rich in vitamin K, the blood-clotting vitamin produced naturally by bacteria in the intestines. Consuming large quantities of this food may reduce the effectiveness of anticoagulants (blood thinners) such as warfarin (Coumadin). One cup of drained, boiled brussels sprouts contains 219 mcg vitamin K, nearly three times the R DA for a healthy adult.... brussels sprouts

Buffering System

The several blood factors that enable the acid waste products of metabolism to be carried in the alkaline blood without disrupting its chemistry. These include carbolic acid, carbonates, phosphates, electrolytes, blood proteins, and erythrocyte membranes.... buffering system

Button Spider

A South African spider similar to the Redback spider of Australia and the Black Widow spider of America. Belongs to the species Latrodectus indistinctus.... button spider

Calliper Splint

This is applied to a broken leg in such a way that in walking, the weight of the body is taken by the hip-bone and not by the foot.... calliper splint

Capparis Spinosa

Linn.

Capparis moonii Wight.

Family: Capparidaceae.

Habitat: Indigenous to New Zealand. Now distributed in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Ayurvedic: Rudanti.

Action: Fruit—used in puerperal sepsis and septic wounds, also for debility and cough.

EtOH (50%) extract of aerial parts is CNS depressant.

Fruits contain l-stachydrine, rutin and beta-sitosterol.... capparis spinosa

Biophytum Sensitivum

(Linn.) DC.

Synonym: Oxalis sensitiva Linn.

Family: Oxalidaceae.

Habitat: Throughout tropical India.

Ayurvedic: Lajjaalu (var.) Vipareet Lajjaalu (non-classical), Alam- bushaa (Hindi commentators have equated it with Gorakh Mun- di, Sphaeranthus indicus Linn., Asteraceae.)

Folk: Lajoni, Jhalai, Lakajana.

Action: Plant—used in insomnia, convulsions, cramps, chest-complaints, inflammations, tumours, chronic skin diseases. Ash—in stomachache. Leaves— diuretic, astringent, antiseptic. Paste is applied to burns, contusions and wounds. Decoction is given in strangury, asthma and phthisis. Roots—decoction is given in lithia- sis. Mature leaves are recommended in diabetes; contain an insulin-like principle.

A saline extract of leaves showed hy- poglycaemic activity in rabbits.... biophytum sensitivum

Bistort Tea For Stomach Ailments

Bistort tea is widely known as an adjuvant in the areas of treating stomach, respiratory and bleeding problems. It can be intaken two or three times a day to fully enjoy its healthy benefits. Bistort Tea description Bistort is a perennially-growing plant from the Northern Hemisphere. It is normally grown as an ornamental plant because of its small white and pink blooms. It contains vitamins A and C, mucilage and antioxidants, acknowledged for their anti-cancer action. However, Bistort is also cultivated for medicinal purposes, being well-known as one of the most astringent herb. Bistort tea is the beverage resulting from brewing the abovementioned plant. Bistort Tea brewing Bistort tea can be made as a decoction:
  • Place one teaspoonful of the dried bistort rhizome in a 250 ml cup of water and boil the mix.
  • Let it steep for about 10 to 15 minutes.
  • Strain the liquid.
Bistort tea can be consumed twice or thrice a day. It can also be used as a gargle or mouthwash to treat infections inside the mouth. Bistort Tea benefits Bistort tea has been successfully used to:
  • treat diarrhea, dysentery and irritable bowel syndrome
  • aid in the treatment of diverticulitis
  • help treating oral and tongue inflammations
  • help fighting pharyngitis and sore throat
  • help in the treatment of jaundice
  • aid fighting measles and smallpox
  • fight hemorrhoids
  • ease menstrual bleeding
  • help in the healing of wounds, skin ruptures and burstings (when applied topically)
Bistort tea may also help expel worms. Bistort Tea side effects A long-term administration of Bistort tea is not recommended. Pregnant and nursing women are advised not to intake this tea. Bistort tea is a medicinal remedy against several digestive problems and, it also proved to be effective in treating menstrual bleeding, but not only.... bistort tea for stomach ailments

Boswellia Serrata

Roxb.

Family: Burseraceae.

Habitat: The drier parts of Peninsular India.

English: Indian Frankincense, Indian Olibanum.

Ayurvedic: Shallaki, Susravaa, Gajabhakshyaa, Salai. Gum— Kunduru.

Unani: Kundur (gum).

Siddha/Tamil: Parangisambirani, Kungli.

Folk: Salai Guggul.

Action: Gum-resin—antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antiatheroscle- rotic, emmenagogue, analgesic, sedative, hypotensive. Also used in obesity, diarrhoea, dysentery, piles, urinary disorders, scrofulous affections. Oil—used topically in chronic ulcers, ringworm.

Nonphenolic fraction of gum-resin exhibited marked sedative and analgesic effect in rats. It produced a marked and long-lasting hypotension in anaesthetized dogs.

Many derivatives of 3-keto-methyl- beta-boswellic ester, isolated from the gum-resin., have been prepared; a py- razoline derivative exhibited maximum anti-inflammatory activity. (Gum-resin is used in osteoarthri- tis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, soft tissue fibrositis and spondylitis, also for cough, bronchitis, asthma, mouth sores.)

Essential oil from gum-resin—anti- fungal.

Gum-resin contains triterpenes of oleanane, ursane and euphane series. Stem and fruit—hypoglycaemic.

Dosage: Gum-resin—1-3 g (API Vol. IV.)... boswellia serrata

Carcinoma Simplex

Poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma.... carcinoma simplex

Care Supply

The types and volumes of services available.... care supply

Bites And Stings

Animal bites are best treated as puncture wounds and simply washed and dressed. In some cases ANTIBIOTICS may be given to minimise the risk of infection, together with TETANUS toxoid if appropriate. Should RABIES be a possibility, then further treatment must be considered. Bites and stings of venomous reptiles, amphibians, scorpions, snakes, spiders, insects and ?sh may result in clinical effects characteristic of that particular poisoning. In some cases speci?c ANTIVENOM may be administered to reduce morbidity and mortality.

Many snakes are non-venomous (e.g. pythons, garter snakes, king snakes, boa constrictors) but may still in?ict painful bites and cause local swelling. Most venomous snakes belong to the viper and cobra families and are common in Asia, Africa, Australia and South America. Victims of bites may experience various effects including swelling, PARALYSIS of the bitten area, blood-clotting defects, PALPITATION, respiratory di?culty, CONVULSIONS and other neurotoxic and cardiac effects. Victims should be treated as for SHOCK – that is, kept at rest, kept warm, and given oxygen if required but nothing by mouth. The bite site should be immobilised but a TOURNIQUET must not be used. All victims require prompt transfer to a medical facility. When appropriate and available, antivenoms should be administered as soon as possible.

Similar management is appropriate for bites and stings by spiders, scorpions, sea-snakes, venomous ?sh and other marine animals and insects.

Bites and stings in the UK The adder (Vipera berus) is the only venomous snake native to Britain; it is a timid animal that bites only when provoked. Fatal cases are rare, with only 14 deaths recorded in the UK since 1876, the last of these in 1975. Adder bites may result in marked swelling, weakness, collapse, shock, and in severe cases HYPOTENSION, non-speci?c changes in the electrocardiogram and peripheral leucocytosis. Victims of adder bites should be transferred to hospital even if asymptomatic, with the affected limb being immobilised and the bite site left alone. Local incisions, suction, tourniquets, ice packs or permanganate must not be used. Hospital management may include use of a speci?c antivenom, Zagreb®.

The weever ?sh is found in the coastal waters of the British Isles, Europe, the eastern Atlantic, and the Mediterranean Sea. It possesses venomous spines in its dorsal ?n. Stings and envenomation commonly occur when an individual treads on the ?sh. The victim may experience a localised but increasing pain over two hours. As the venom is heat-labile, immersion of the affected area in water at approximately 40 °C or as hot as can be tolerated for 30 minutes should ease the pain. Cold applications will worsen the discomfort. Simple ANALGESICS and ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS may be given.

Bees, wasps and hornets are insects of the order Hymenoptera and the females possess stinging apparatus at the end of the abdomen. Stings may cause local pain and swelling but rarely cause severe toxicity. Anaphylactic (see ANAPHYLAXIS) reactions can occur in sensitive individuals; these may be fatal. Deaths caused by upper-airway blockage as a result of stings in the mouth or neck regions are reported. In victims of stings, the stinger should be removed as quickly as possible by ?icking, scraping or pulling. The site should be cleaned. Antihistamines and cold applications may bring relief. For anaphylactic reactions ADRENALINE, by intramuscular injection, may be required.... bites and stings

Brain-stem Death

Brain damage, resulting in the irreversible loss of brain function, renders the individual incapable of life without the aid of a VENTILATOR. Criteria have been developed to recognise that ‘death’ has occurred and to allow ventilation to be stopped: in the UK, these criteria require the patient to be irreversibly unconscious and unable to regain the capacity to breathe spontaneously. (See also GLASGOW COMA SCALE and PERSISTENT VEGETATIVE STATE (PVS).)

All reversible pharmacological, metabolic, endocrine and physiological causes must be excluded, and there should be no doubt that irreversible brain damage has occurred. Two senior doctors carry out diagnostic tests to con?rm that brain-stem re?exes are absent. These tests must be repeated after a suitable interval before death can be declared. Imaging techniques are not required for death to be diag-... brain-stem death

Brucea Sativa

National Formulary of UnaniMedicine, Part I, equated Jirjeer with Brucea sativa Mill. or Nasturtium officinale R. Br.

Nasturtium officinale, found in Europe, is known as watercress. Indian cress is cultivated in gardens as a creeper. Brucea is a totally different species (Simaroubaceae). Taraamirra of Unani medicine should be equated with Eru- ca sativa and not with Brucea sativa.

Action: Taraamiraa (Jirjeer)— used in Unani medicine as a spermatic tonic (powder of seeds is administered with a half-fried egg), also as a blood purifier, diuretic, emmenagogue and deobstruent. Leaf juice—used as a lotion for blotches, spots and blemishes.

Nasturtium officinale (Brassicaceae): Antiscorbutic and stimulant. A rich source of vitamins A and E, also of ascorbic acid. Seeds contain glucon- casturtin. Used for metabolic disorders, anaemia, strangury, kidney and bladder disorders and catarrh of the respiratory tract.

Eruca sativa Mill.: Cultivated in North India; known as Taraamiraa, Siddhaartha, Bhutaghna. Seeds are used like mustard. Seeds—antibacterial. Crude juice of the plant inhibited E. coli, S. typhi and B. subtlis. Seeds contain (4-Me-thio)-Bu-glucosinolate (glucoerucin) as K and tetra-Me-N salts. A composition is used in induration of liver.... brucea sativa

Case Severity

A measure of intensity or gravity of a given condition or diagnosis for an older person.... case severity

Case Study

An in-depth study of an individual, group, institution, organization or programme. The advantage of the case study method is that it allows more intensive analyses of specific empirical details. However, it is difficult to use the results to generalize to other cases.... case study

Burns And Scalds

Burns are injuries caused by dry heat, scalds by moist heat, but the two are similar in symptoms and treatment. Severe burns are also caused by contact with electric wires, and by the action of acids and other chemicals. The burn caused by chemicals di?ers from a burn by ?re only in the fact that the outcome is more favourable, because the chemical destroys the bacteria on the affected part(s) so that less suppuration follows.

Severe and extensive burns are most frequently produced by the clothes – for example, of a child – catching ?re. This applies especially to cotton garments, which blaze up quickly. It should be remembered that such a ?ame can immediately be extinguished by making the individual lie on the ?oor so that the ?ames are uppermost, and wrapping him or her in a rug, mat or blanket. As prevention is always better than cure, particular care should always be exercised with electric ?res and kettles or pots of boiling water in houses where there are young children or old people. Children’s clothes, and especially night-clothes, should be made of non-in?ammable material: pyjamas are also much safer than nightdresses.

Severe scalds are usually produced by escape of steam in boiler explosions. Cigarettes are a common cause of ?res and therefore of burns; people who have fallen asleep in bed or in a chair while smoking may set ?re to the bed or chair. Discarded, unextinguished cigarettes are another cause.

Degrees of burns Burns are referred to as either super?cial (or partial-thickness) burns, when there is su?cient skin tissue left to ensure regrowth of skin over the burned site; and deep (or full-thickness) burns, when the skin is totally destroyed and grafting will be necessary.

Symptoms Whilst many domestic burns are minor and insigni?cant, more severe burns and scalds can prove to be very dangerous to life. The main danger is due to SHOCK, which arises as a result of loss of ?uid from the circulating blood at the site of a serious burn. This loss of ?uid leads to a fall in the volume of the circulating blood. As the maintenance of an adequate blood volume is essential to life, the body attempts to compensate for this loss by withdrawing ?uid from the uninjured areas of the body into the circulation. If carried too far, however, this in turn begins to affect the viability of the body cells. As a sequel, essential body cells, such as those of the liver and kidneys, begin to suffer, and the liver and kidneys cease to function properly. This will show itself by the development of JAUNDICE and the appearance of albumin in the urine (see PROTEINURIA). In addition, the circulation begins to fail with a resultant lack of oxygen (see ANOXIA) in the tissues, and the victim becomes cyanosed (see CYANOSIS), restless and collapsed: in some cases, death ensues. In addition, there is a strong risk of infection occurring. This is the case with severe burns in particular, which leave a large raw surface exposed and very vulnerable to any micro-organisms. The combination of shock and infection can all too often be life-threatening unless expert treatment is immediately available.

The immediate outcome of a burn is largely determined by its extent. This is of more signi?cance than the depth of the burn. To assess the extent of a burn in relation to the surface of the body, what is known as the Rule of Nine has been evolved. The head and each arm cover 9 per cent of the body surface, whilst the front of the body, the back of the body, and each leg each cover 18 per cent, with the perineum (or crutch) accounting for the remaining 1 per cent. The greater the extent of the burn, the more seriously ill will the victim become from loss of ?uid from his or her circulation, and therefore the more prompt should be his or her removal to hospital for expert treatment. The depth of the burn, unless this is very great, is mainly of import when the question arises as to how much surgical treatment, including skin grafting, will be required.

Treatment This depends upon the severity of the burn. In the case of quite minor burns or scalds, all that may be necessary if they are seen immediately is to hold the part under cold running water until the pain is relieved. Cooling is one of the most e?ective ways of relieving the pain of a burn. If the burn involves the distal part of a limb – for example, the hand and forearm – one of the most e?ective ways of relieving pain is to immerse the burned part in lukewarm water and add cold water until the pain disappears. As the water warms and pain returns, more cold water is added. After some three to four hours, pain will not reappear on warming, and the burn may be dressed in the usual way. Thereafter a simple dressing (e.g. a piece of sterile gauze covered by cotton-wool, and on top of this a bandage or adhesive dressing) should be applied. The part should be kept at rest and the dressing kept quite dry until healing takes place. Blisters should be pierced with a sterile needle, but the skin should not be cut away. No ointment or oil should be applied, and an antiseptic is not usually necessary.

In slightly more severe burns or scalds, it is probably advisable to use some antiseptic dressing. These are the cases which should be taken to a doctor – whether a general practitioner, a factory doctor, or to a hospital Accident & Emergency department. There is still no general consensus of expert opinion as to the best ‘antiseptic’ to use. Among those recommended are CHLORHEXIDINE, and antibiotics such as BACITRACIN, NEOMYCIN and polymixin. An alternative is to use a Tulle Gras dressing which has been impregnated with a suitable antibiotic.

In the case of severe burns and scalds, the only sound rule is immediate removal to hospital. Unless there is any need for immediate resuscitation, such as arti?cial respiration, or attention to other injuries there may be, such as fractures or haemorrhage, nothing should be done on the spot to the patient except to make sure that s/he is as comfortable as possible and to keep them warm, and to cover the burn with a sterile (or clean) cloth such as a sheet, pillowcases, or towels wrung out in cold water. If pain is severe, morphine should be given – usually intravenously. Once the victim is in hospital, the primary decision is as to the extent of the burn, and whether or not a transfusion is necessary. If the burn is more than 9 per cent of the body surface in extent, a transfusion is called for. The precise treatment of the burn varies, but the essential is to prevent infection if this has not already occurred, or, if it has, to bring it under control as quickly as possible. The treatment of severe burns has made great advances, with quick transport to specialised burns units, modern resuscitative measures, the use of skin grafting and other arti?cial covering techniques and active rehabilitation programmes, o?ering victims a good chance of returning to normal life.

CHEMICAL BURNS Phenol or lysol can be washed o? promptly before they do much damage. Acid or alkali burns should be neutralised by washing them repeatedly with sodium bicarbonate or 1 per cent acetic acid, respectively. Alternatively, the following bu?er solution may be used for either acid or alkali burns: monobasic potassium phosphate (70 grams), dibasic sodium phosphate (70 grams) in 850 millilitres of water. (See also PHOSPHORUS BURNS.)... burns and scalds

Butea Superba

Roxb.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Central and Southern India.

Ayurvedic: Lataa-Palaash (orange or orange scarlet-flowered var.).

Action: Seeds—sedative and anthelmintic; decoction emollient and used topically for piles. Seed oil—anthelmintic and hypotensive. Seeds exhibit haemagglutinating activity against human ABO red cells. Roots—hypotensive. Watery sap from stems is used for drinking purposes. Bark is used in tonics and elixirs.

White-flowered var. is equated with Butea parviflora Roxb.... butea superba

Caesalpinia Sappan

Linn.

Family: Caesalpiniaceae.

Habitat: Native to India and Malaysia. Cultivated in Bengal and South India, also grown as a hedge plant.

English: Sappan.

Ayurvedic: Pattanga, Patanga, Pattraanga, Raktasaara, Ranjana, Pataranjaka, Suranga, Kuchandana.

Unani: Bakam.

Siddha/Tamil: Patangam, Anaikun- trumani.

Folk: Patang.

Action: Wood decoction— emmenagogue, antidiarrhoeal; used in skin diseases.

The heartwood gave an anti-inflammatory principle brazilin; amyrin glu- coside, amino acids and carbohydrates. EtOH (50%) extract of stem exhibited semen coagulant activity Aqueous and chloroform extracts of the wood exhibited inhibitory action on cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. The methanolic extract of the sappan lignan showed sleep-time-elongation effect in mice. Significant anti-hypercholes- terolaemic activity is attributed to ben- zilic compounds.

The oil exhibited antibacterial and antifungal activity.

Plant pigments find use in facials which are resistant to light, heat and water and are non-irritating.

Dosage: Heartwood—5-10 g (API Vol. IV.)... caesalpinia sappan

Camellia Sinensis

(Linn.) O. Kuntze.

Family: Ranunculaceae.

Habitat: Western temperate Himalayas from 2,500 to 4,000 m.

English: American cowslip, Marsh Marigold, Water Buttercup.

Folk: Mamiri (Punjab).

Family: Theaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Assam, Darjeeling, Travancore, the Nilgiris, Malabar, Bengal, Dehra Dun and Kumaon.

English: Tea.

Unani: Chaai, Shaahi, Shaayi.

Siddha/Tamil: Thaeyilai.

Action: Stimulant, diuretic, astringent. In China, used for diarrhoea and dysentery (causes gastrointestinal upsets and nervous irritability when consumed in excess). Green tea: anticancer effects have been observed in Chinese green tea, Camellia thea, extract; the extract of Japanese green tea showed antihepatotoxic effects.

Important constituents of leaf buds and very young leaves are: caffeine, with a much smaller amount of other xanthines (theophylline and theo- bromine); tannins (the main tannin in green tea is (-)-epigallocatechin); flavonoids, quercetin, kaempferol. The stimulant and diuretic are due to caffeine content, the astringency due to the tannins.

Drinking tea lowers thiamine and thiamine diphosphate losses in urine and blood serum respectively but increases niacin losses. Hot water extract of black tea facilitates Ca absorption in the body experimentally. Tea may decrease zinc bioavailability.

The tea, if added to the meal, significantly lower the availability of iron. Milk is as effective as ascorbic acid in countering the depressing effect of tea on iron availability (in vitro).

The green tea catechin inhibited car- cinogenesis in small intestines when given during or after carcinogen treatment to experimental rats. (-)-epi- gallocatechin gallate and theaflavin di- gallate from green tea inhibited the in- fectivity of both influenza A and B virus (in vitro).

Green tea, when added to a lard- cholesterol diet, decreased the cholesterol and triglyceride levels in fowls. Tea polyphenols exhibit hypocholes- terolaemic activity.

Tea polyphenols—(-)-epicatechin gallate, (-)-epigallocatechine galate, theaflavin monogallate A or B, and or theaflavin digallate—are used for treating hyperglycaemia.

Saponins from tea are used as an- tiulcer agents.

Concurrent use of tea and beta- adrenergic agonists may increase the risk of cardiac arrhythmias. Caffeine, a component of tea, may increase insulin resistance. (Sharon M. Herr.)... camellia sinensis

Canarium Strictum

Roxb.

Synonym: C. sikkimense King

Family: Burseraceae

Habitat: A large, deciduous tree distributed in West Ghats, Assam and Sikkim.

English: Black Dammar.

Ayurvedic: Raal Dhuup, Mand Dhuup.

Siddha/Tamil: Karunkungiliyam (gum).

Action: Resin—used for chronic cutaneous diseases, such as psoriasis, pityriasis; as a linament in rheumatic affections. Dammer Oil—used for rheumatism, asthma, venereal diseases.

Black dammer resin contains (+)- junenol, canarone and epikhusinal.

The plant contains a sesquiterpene ketone—canarone.

Canarium sikkimense King is known as Gogul Dhuup in Nepal.... canarium strictum

Cannabis Sativa

Linn.

Synonym: C. indica Linn.

Family: Cannabinaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated all over the country. Commonly occurs in waste grounds, along road side, often becoming gregarious along the irrigation channels of gardens.

English: Hemp, Indian Hemp.

Ayurvedic: Vijayaa, Bhangaa, Maadani, Maatulaani, Indraasana, Trailokya-vijayaa, Tribhuvana- vijayaa, Shukranaashana, Ganjaa, Bhangaa. (Bhangaa is consumed orally; Ganjaa and charas are usually smoked.)

Unani: Bhang, Charas, Qinnab.

Siddha/Tamil: Ganja.

Folk: Bhaanga.

Action: Hallucinogenic, hypnotic, sedative, analgesic, anti- inflammatory, Hemp derivatives are suggested for treating glaucoma and as an antiemetic in cancer chemotherapy. All variants produce initial excitement followed by depression.

Cannabis yields 421 chemicals of various classes—cannabinoids, canna- bispirans and alkaloids. More than 60 cannabinoids have been isolated, the most important one is delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

Toxic constituents are readily absorbed, excreted in urine and feces, stored in lipid tissues, especially CNS, crosses placenta. High doses in animals have damaged developing embryos and resulted in birth defects. (Francis Brinker.)

Dosage: Dried leaves, after removing turbity—125-250 mg powder. (API Vol. I.)... cannabis sativa

Capparis Sepiaria

Linn.

Family: Capparidaceae.

Habitat: Dry regions of the country, also planted as a hedge plant.

English: Indian Caper.

Ayurvedic: Himsraa, Gridhnakhi, Duh-pragharshaa, Kaakdaani, Kabara, Kanthaari.

Siddha/Tamil: Karunjurai.

Family: Cappariadaceae.

Habitat: Native to the Mediterranean region. Distributed in North-west India, Rajasthan, and Peninsular India.

English: Caper Bush.

Ayurvedic: Himsraa, Kaakdaani, Kabara.

Unani: Kabar.

Action: Anti-inflammatory, deob- struent to liver and spleen, diuretic, anthelmintic, vasoconstrictive. Bark—given in splenic, renal and hepatic complaints. Juice of leaves and fruits—anticystic, bactericidal and fungicidal. Dried flower buds— used in scurvy.

Plant gave glucosinolates—glucoi- berin, glucocapparin, sinigrin, gluco- cleomin and glucocapangatin. Rutin has also been reported from plant. The root bark, cortex and leaves gave stachydrine. Stachydrine, when given to dogs, rabbits and rats, quickened the coagulation of blood and reduced loss of blood.... capparis sepiaria

Cause Specific

These rates commonly are also age, death rate sex, or race specific. They are expressed as numbers of deaths assigned to a stated cause in a calendar year, divided by total population as of July 1st of that year, expressed in 100,000.... cause specific

Cell Salvage Transfusion

See TRANSFUSION.... cell salvage transfusion

Chalk-stones

See GOUT.... chalk-stones

Cheyne-stokes Breathing

A type of breathing which gets very faint for a short time, then gradually deepens until full inspirations are taken for a few seconds, and then gradually dies away to another quiet period, again increasing in depth after a few seconds and so on in cycles. It is seen in some serious neurological disorders, such as brain tumours and stroke, and also in the case of persons with advanced disease of the heart or kidneys. When well marked it is a sign that death is impending, though milder degrees of it do not carry such a serious implication in elderly patients.... cheyne-stokes breathing

Cardo Santo

Mexican prickly poppy (Argemone mexicana).

Plant Part Used: Leaf, flower, root and stem.Dominican Medicinal Uses: Leaf/whole herb: prepared as a tea for blood-cleansing, cancer, stomach ulcers, delayed menstruation, vaginal infection, menopause symptoms; prepared as a douche for vaginal infection and inflammation; as a multi-herb mixture for ovarian cysts, uterine fibroids and tumors; root: boiled tea for stomach pain.Safety: Entire plant shown to be hepatotoxic due to sanguinarine and alkaloid content, especially concentrated in the seeds; internal use strongly cautioned against.Contraindications: Pregnancy, lactation, children.Laboratory & Preclinical Data: In vitro: antifungal, anti-HIV, anti-tumor, morphine-withdrawal alleviation, uterine stimulant (organic plant extracts).* See entry for Cardo santo in “Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles” of this book for more information, including references.

... cardo santo

Care Standards Act

Legislation (approved by the UK parliament in 2001) that sets up a new, independent regulatory body for social care and private and voluntary health-care services. The new body is called the National Care Standards Commission and covers England and Wales, but in the latter the National Assembly is the regulatory body. Independent councils register social-care workers, set social-care work standards and regulate the education and training of social workers in England and Wales. The Act also gives the Secretary of State for Health the authority to keep a list of individuals considered unsuitable to work with vulnerable adults. In addition, the legislation reforms the regulation of childminders and day-care provision for young children, responsibility for overseeing these services having been transferred from local authorities to the Chief Inspector of Schools. Services covered by the Act range from residential care homes and nursing homes, children’s homes, domiciliary-care agencies, fostering agencies and voluntary adoption agencies through to private and voluntary health-care services. This includes private hospitals and clinics and private primary-care premises. For the ?rst time, local authorities will have to meet the same standards as independent-sector providers.... care standards act

Cassia Sophera

Linn.

Family: Calsalpiniaceae.

Habitat: In gardens as hedge throughout India.

English: Sophera Senna.

Ayurvedic: Kaasamarda.

Unani: Kasondi.

Siddha/Tamil: Ponnaavaarai.

Action: Leaves, seeds, bark— cathartic; considered specific for ringworm and other skin diseases (bark may cause dermatitis); used for bronchitis and asthma.

A paste of leaves is used for treating piles. An infusion of fresh leaves, with sugar, is given in jaundice. Plant is spasmolytic. Alcoholic extract of leaves is intestinal and bronchial muscle relaxant.

The leaves contain a flavone glyco- side and sennoside. Root bark contains anthraquinones, chrysophanol, physcion and beta-sitosterol. Heart- wood gave isomeric derivatives, 1,2, 7-trihydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone, along with sopheranin, beta-sitosterol, chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, 1- octadecanol and quercetin.... cassia sophera

Childhood Immunization Schedule

The schedule laid down by most countries to recommend which routine immunizations should be given to children and the intervals at which boosters should be administered. Such routine immunizations usually include tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, polio, Hepatitis B, Haemophilus influenzae type b (H.I.B.) and after one year of age, measles, rubella and mumps vaccines.... childhood immunization schedule

Chore Service

Help with chores, such as home repairs, gardening and heavy house cleaning.... chore service

Chorea, Sydenham’s

A disease or syndrome of children, usually following or companion to rheumatic fever, and having involuntary movements, anxiety and impaired memory. It usually clears up in two or three months.... chorea, sydenham’s

Chronic Sick And Disabled Act 1970

UK legislation that provides for the identi?cation and care of individuals who have an incurable chronic or degenerative disorder. The patients are usually distinguished from elderly people with chronic disorders. Local authorities identify relevant individuals and arrange for appropriate services. The legislation does not, however, compel doctors and nurses in the community to inform local authorities of potential bene?ciaries. This may be because the individuals concerned dislike being on a register of disabled, or because questions of con?dentiality prevent health sta? from reporting the person’s condition.... chronic sick and disabled act 1970

Clinical Information System

An information system that collects, stores and transmits information that is used to support clinical applications (e.g. transmission of laboratory test results, radiology results, prescription drug orders). Electronic medical records are one method by which clinical information systems can be created.... clinical information system

Clinical Significance

A conclusion that an intervention has an effect that is of practical meaning to older persons and health care providers. Even though an intervention is found to have a statistically significant effect, this effect may not be clinically significant. In a trial with a large number of participants, a small difference between treatment and control groups may be statistically significant, but clinically unimportant. In a trial with few participants, an important clinical difference may be observed that does not achieve statistical significance. (A larger trial may be needed to confirm that this is a statistically significant difference).... clinical significance

Cascara Sagrada Tea - A Powerful Laxative

Cascara Sagrada Tea has been known since ancient times as a great stimulant and laxative agent. In fact, the ones to discover its medical benefits were the American. The first proofs of this fact date from the 17th century, when American practitioners used Cascara Sagrada bark to treat many bacterial ailments of the digestive system. Cascara is a small shrub that grows mainly in the North America, in states like Idaho, California or Montana. Cascara never grows taller than 50 centimeters and has pale yellow greenish leaves and deep green leaves. Also known as rhamnus purshiana, Cascara has purple fruits or black berries that hide usually three hard seeds. Cascara Sagrada is harvested in the fall and can only be used dried (one year apart from the harvesting time) in order to release its curative benefits. Many people in Northern America specialize in Cascara Sagrada harvesting and herb processing (the plant needs to be properly dried and according to a list of specifications). Cascara Sagrada Tea Properties Cascara Sagrada Tea is known for its strong, stimulant and laxative properties. The main substances of this tea are very efficient in cases of nervous system failures and intestinal tract ailments. Cascara Sagrada Tea has a very bitter and therefore unpleasant taste. That’s why most people prefer to take it as capsules or extracts. Cascara Sagrada Tea Benefits Aside from its use as a constipation treatment, Cascara Sagrada Tea can also cure a variety of diseases involving the digestive tract, such as intestinal parasites or bacterial infections. However, make sure that you take this tea responsibly and don’t forget that this is a medical treatment wich only should be taking while you’re sick. Don’t try to replace your morning coffee with Cascara Sagrada Tea or you’ll face a series of complications! How to make Cascara Sagrada Tea Infusion When preparing Cascara Sagrada Tea, you have to make sure that you only use ingredients from a trusted provider. Nowadays, there are many illegal substances on the market sold as tea. Also, the herb you bought may be exactly what the label says it is, but not properly dried, in which case you’ll suffer from unwanted complications as well. Once you have the right ingredients, use a teaspoon of dried herbs for every cup of tea you want to make, add boiling water and wait 20 minutes for the wonderful benefits to be released. Strain the decoction and drink it hot or cold. You may also add honey or even sugar if the taste feels a bit unpleasant. Cascara Sagrada Tea Side Effects When taken in small amounts, Cascara Sagrada Tea is a safe treatment. However, high dosages may lead to various problems, such as urine discoloration, blood in stools, pain and vomiting. Make sure the dosage you’re using is the appropriate one or ask your doctor before making any moves: it’s better to be safe than sorry! Cascara Sagrada Contraindications Cascara Sagrada Tea is not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women, patients suffering from appendicitis or ulcerative colitis. Also, if you are on blood thinners or anticoagulants, avoid taking a treatment based on Cascara Sagrada Tea. To gather more information, talk to an herbalist or to your doctor! If he gives you the green light and you happen to be in a teashop, add Cascara Sagrada Tea to your shopping cart and enjoy its wonderful benefits responsibly!... cascara sagrada tea - a powerful laxative

Castanea Sativa

Mill.

Synonym: C. vulgaris Lam.

Family: Fagaceae.

Habitat: Darjeeling, Khasi Hills, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.

English: Spanish Chestnut, Sweet Chestnut.

Folk: Singhaaraa (not to be confused with water-chestnut, Tripa natans L.)

Action: Leaves—astringent, antitussive and febrifuge (used for fevers and diseases of the respiratory tract). An infusion is used as a gargle in pharyngitis, proxysmal coughs, catarrh and whooping cough. Nuts—extract, as platelet inhibitor in thrombosis and atherosclerosis.

The leaves contain tannins (8-9%) flavone glycosides, triterpenoids, ursolic acid, lupeol and betulin. Heartwood contains 61.4% tannins and 25.7% nontannins. The wood and bark contain 714 and 8-14% tannins respectively.

Nuts are eaten raw, roasted or boiled like potatoes. Nuts contain protein,... castanea sativa

Clinical Signs

The physical manifestations of an illness elicited by a doctor when examining a patient – for example, a rash, lump, swelling, fever or altered physical function such as re?exes.... clinical signs

Clinical Symptoms

The experiences of a patient as communicated to a doctor, for example, pain, weakness, cough. They may or may not be accompanied by con?rmatory CLINICAL SIGNS.... clinical symptoms

Cold Sores

See HERPES SIMPLEX.... cold sores

Coma Scale

See GLASGOW COMA SCALE.... coma scale

Committee On Safety Of Medicines (csm)

An independent advisory committee – launched in 1971 in the United Kingdom – composed of doctors, pharmacists and other specialists. It advises the MEDICINES CONTROL AGENCY in the UK on the safety, e?cacy and pharmaceutical quality of MEDICINES for which licences are sought and also reviews reports of ADVERSE REACTIONS TO DRUGS, including spontaneous ‘Yellow Card’ reports from doctors or pharmacists who suspect that a patient has suffered an adverse reaction from a medicine. Its predecessor, the Committee for Safety of Drugs, was set up in 1963 in response to the THALIDOMIDE disaster.... committee on safety of medicines (csm)

Ceratonia Siliqua

Linn.

Family: Caesalpinaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab. English: Locust Bean; St. John's Bread, Carob tree.

Unani: Kharnub Shaami.

Action: Pod and husk from seed— antidiarrhoeal (stools in gastroenteritis and colitis are known to solidify within 48 h).

The pods contain tannin from 0.88 to 4.09%.

Pulp of the pod contains 30-70% sugars, fats, starch, protein, amino acids, gallic acid; leucoanthocyanins and related phenolics. Leaves contain catechols.... ceratonia siliqua

Chloroxylon Swietenia

DC.

Family: Rutaceae.

Habitat: Dry, deciduous forests, throughout Peninsular India.

English: Indian Satinwood tree.

Ayurvedic: Provisionally equated with Bhillotaka.

Siddha/Tamil: Karumboraju, Kudavuboraju, Poraju.

Folk: Bhirraa, Bharahula, Raktaro- hidi.

Action: Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antiseptic. A paste is applied to wounds; also in rheumatism. Bark—astringent. A decoction is used in contusions and for painful joints. (The wood, its dust, moist dust of freshly cut wood, cause skin irritation and dermatitis.)

The bark contains the alkaloids— skimmianine, swietenidins A and B, chloroxylin and chloroxylonine. Chloroxylonine is a powerful irritant. The bark also contains the coumarins and lignans.

The leaves yield an essential oil which shows antibacterial and anti- fungal activity.... chloroxylon swietenia

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (cfs)

See also MYALGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS (ME). A condition characterised by severe, disabling mental and physical fatigue brought on by mental or physical activity and associated with a range of symptoms including muscle pain, headaches, poor sleep, disturbed moods and impaired concentration. The prevalence of the condition is between 0.2 and 2.6 per cent of the population (depending on how investigators de?ne CFS/ME). Despite the stereotype of ‘yuppie ?u’, epidemiological research has shown that the condition occurs in all socioeconomic and ethnic groups. It is commoner in women and can also occur in children.

In the 19th century CFS was called neurasthenia. In the UK, myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) is often used, a term originally introduced to describe a speci?c outbreak such as the one at the Royal Free Hospital, London in 1955. The term is inaccurate as there is no evidence of in?ammation of the brain and spinal cord (the meaning of encephalomyelitis). Doctors prefer the term CFS, but many patients see this as derogatory, perceiving it to imply that they are merely ‘tired all the time’ rather than having a disabling illness.

The cause (or causes) are unknown, so the condition is classi?ed alongside other ‘medically unexplained syndromes’ such as IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME (IBS) and multiple chemical sensitivity – all of which overlap with CFS. In many patients the illness seems to start immediately after a documented infection, such as that caused by EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS, or after viral MENINGITIS, Q FEVER and TOXOPLASMOSIS. These infections seem to be a trigger rather than a cause: mild immune activation is found in patients, but it is not known if this is cause or e?ect. The body’s endocrine system is disturbed, particularly the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal axis, and levels of cortisol are often a little lower than normal – the opposite of what is found in severe depression. Psychiatric disorder, usually depression and/or anxiety, is associated with CFS, with rates too high to be explained solely as a reaction to the disability experienced.

Because we do not know the cause, the underlying problem cannot be dealt with e?ectively and treatments are directed at the factors leading to symptoms persisting. For example, a slow increase in physical activity can help many, as can COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY. Too much rest can be harmful, as muscles are rapidly weakened, but aggressive attempts at coercing patients into exercising can be counter-productive as their symptoms may worsen. Outcome is in?uenced by the presence of any pre-existing psychiatric disorder and the sufferer’s beliefs about its causes and treatment. Research continues.... chronic fatigue syndrome (cfs)

Community Health Services

Usually managed by NHS trusts, these are a complex variety of services provided to people outside hospital settings. The key parts are the services delivered by district nurses, health visitors and therapists – for example, physiotherapists and speech therapists.... community health services

Community Visitor Scheme

A scheme utilizing volunteers to visit, spend time with and become friends with an older person in his/her place of residence.... community visitor scheme

Community-based Care / Community-based Services / Programmes

The blend of health and social services provided to an individual or family in his/her place of residence for the purpose of promoting, maintaining or restoring health or minimizing the effects of illness and disability. These services are usually designed to help older people remain independent and in their own homes. They can include senior centres, transportation, delivered meals or congregate meals sites, visiting nurses or home health aides, adult day care and homemaker services.... community-based care / community-based services / programmes

Circulatory System Of The Blood

The course of the circulation is as follows: the veins pour their blood, coming from the head, trunk, limbs and abdominal organs, into the right atrium of the HEART. This contracts and drives the blood into the right ventricle, which then forces the blood into the LUNGS by way of the pulmonary artery. Here it is contained in thin-walled capillaries, over which the air plays freely, and through which gases pass readily out and in. The blood gives o? carbon dioxide (CO2) and takes up oxygen (see RESPIRATION), and passes on by the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart. The left atrium expels it into the left ventricle, which forces it on into the aorta, by which it is distributed all over the body. Passing through capillaries in the various tissues, it enters venules, then veins, which ultimately unite into two great veins, the superior and the inferior vena cava, these emptying into the right atrium. This complete circle is accomplished by any particular drop of blood in about half a minute.

In one part of the body there is a further complication. The veins coming from the bowels, charged with food material and other products, split up, and their blood undergoes a second capillary circulation through the liver. Here it is relieved of some food material and puri?ed, and then passes into the inferior vena cava, and so to the right atrium. This is known as the portal circulation.

The circle is maintained always in one direction by four valves, situated one at the outlet from each cavity of the heart.

The blood in the arteries going to the body generally is bright red, that in the veins dull red in colour, owing to the former being charged with oxygen and the latter with carbon dioxide (see RESPIRATION). For the same reason the blood in the pulmonary artery is dark, that in the pulmonary veins is bright. There is no direct communication between the right and left sides of the heart, the blood passing from the right ventricle to the left atrium through the lungs.

In the embryo, before birth, the course of circulation is somewhat di?erent, owing to the fact that no nourishment comes from the bowels nor air into the lungs. Accordingly, two large arteries pass out of the navel, and convey blood to be changed by contact with maternal blood (see PLACENTA), while a large vein brings this blood back again. There are also communications between the right and left atria, and between pulmonary artery and aorta. The latter is known as the ductus arteriosus. At birth all these extra vessels and connections close and rapidly shrivel up.... circulatory system of the blood

Cleavers Tea - Best Tonic For The Lymphatic System Available In Nature

Cleavers tea has been used for centuries, even in ancient Greece. It is considered probably the best tonic for the lymphatic system available. Discover all of its benefits and learn how to make the most of this type of tea. Description of Cleavers tea Cleavers is an annual green plant that grows mostly in Britain, North America and Eurasia regions. The green to white flowers look like small balls and they are very sticky, similar to the leaves. Scientifically named gallium aparine, cleavers is also called bedstraw, barweed, catchweed, grip grass. The entire cleavers plant is used in herbal medicine and is harvested just before it blooms in early summer. The active constituents of cleavers tea are chlorophyll, citric acide, rubichloric acid, galiosin and tannins. To benefit the most from these constituents, you can consume cleavers, usually found in the form of tea, extracts, capsule, or fresh for many cooking recipes. The roasted seeds are used as a coffee substitute and the young leaves can be eaten like spinach. Cleavers tea has a slightly bitter taste and no odor. Cleavers tea brew For a tasty Cleavers tea, take 2 to 3 teaspoons of the dried above-ground parts of the plant and infuse them in a 250 mg cup of hot water for 10 or 15 minutes. You may add sugar or honey to improve its taste and drink up to three times per day. Cleavers tea  Benefits Cleavers tea is a strong detoxifying for the lymphatic system. It is diuretic, thus treating most of urinary tract infections. It cleans the blood, the liver and kidneys. The tea can be used together with Uva Ursi or Echinacea for best results. Applied topically, Cleavers tea helps in the treatment of many skin conditions like acne, eczema, psoriasis, dandruff, itchy scalp, sunburns or even wounds. Cleavers tea can be used as a facial tonner because it helps clear the complexion. Cleavers tea Side effects Cleavers tea has no known side effects. Though it is widely safe, children, pregnant or nursing women should drink it with precaution. Cleavers tea can surely be included in a healthy lifestyle. As long as you don’t exaggerate with it, you can enjoy the benefits of this tea and even use the plant to prepare many tasty recipes and salads.... cleavers tea - best tonic for the lymphatic system available in nature

Complement System

This is part of the body’s defence mechanism that comprises a series of 20 serum peptides (see PEPTIDE). These are sequentially activated to produce three signi?cant effects: ?rstly, the release of small peptides which provoke in?ammation and attract phagocytes (see PHAGOCYTE); secondly, the deposition of a substance (component C3b) on the membranes of invading bacteria or viruses, attracting phagocytes to destroy the microbes; thirdly, the activation of substances that damage cell membranes – called lytic components – which hasten the destruction of ‘foreign’ cells. (See IMMUNOLOGY.)... complement system

Comprehensive Health System

A health system that includes all the elements required to meet all the health needs of the population.... comprehensive health system

Cone Shells

Molluscs with cone-shaped shells, at least two species of which (Conus geographicus and C. textile) have been responsible for some 18 human deaths, usually from respiratory arrest. C. geographicus has caused at least one Australian death.... cone shells

Convenience Sample

A population being studied because they are conveniently accessible (for example, all the people at a certain hospital or attending a particular support centre). As they are not a random sample of the whole population, they may be unrepresentative.... convenience sample

Clerodendrum Serratum

(Linn.) Moon.

Family: Verbenaceae.

Habitat: A shrub distributed throughout the country, especially common in Assam and Bengal.

English: Blue-flowered Glory tree, Beetle Killer.

Ayurvedic: Bhaargi, Bhaaran- gi, Angaarvalli, Phanji, Braah- manyashtikaa, Kharshaak, Padma, Bhragubhavaa, Brahmayashtikaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Kandoorbarangi (root), cherutekku.

Action: Root—Antiasthmatic, antihistaminic, antispasmodic, antitussive carminative, febrifuge. Leaf—febrifuge.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the dried roots in cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea, chest diseases and sinusitis.

The bark contains triterpenoids— serratagenic, oleanolic and queretaric acids; leaves contain alpha-spinasterol and flavonoids, including luteolin, api- genin, baicalein, scutellarein, phenolic acids—caffeic and ferulic acids.

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibited hypotensive and spasmolytic activity. Polyhydric property on isolated guinea pig ileum. Antiasthmatic effect was also observed pharmacologically.

Dosage: Root—3-6 g powder; 1020 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)... clerodendrum serratum

Computerised Decision-support Systems

Also known as ‘expert systems’, these are computer software systems intended to help doctors make clinical decisions. Primary care medicine is especially noted for its uncertainty by virtue of being most patients’ ?rst point of contact with health care, confronting the clinician with many ‘undi?erentiated’ health problems. So far, these systems have not been as e?ective as expected because of a failure to ana-lyse the needs of primary care. Simple procedures to prompt the delivery of treatment to patients with chronic conditions have improved care quality, but work needs to be done on their cost-e?ectiveness. The aim of more complex computerised support systems will be to forecast likely future events and the possible e?ectiveness of proposed interventions, based on available information about the patient and an understanding of the risks and e?cacy of interventions by doctors and other experts.

One example, called ISABEL, can be accessed by paediatricians to check on their diagnosis and management of many childhood disorders.... computerised decision-support systems

Convolvulus Scammonia

Linn.

Family: Convolvulaceae.

Habitat: A native to the Mediterranean region.

English: Scammony.

Unani: Saqmunia.

Action: Resin from rhizomes—hy- dragogue, Cathartic, administered in dropsy and anascara.

Most of the resin available in India is imported from Syria and Asia Minor and is grossly adulterated.

The roots contain on an average 8% resin together with dihydroxy cinnam- ic acid, beta-methyl-esculetin, ipu- ranol, surcose, a reducing sugar and starch. The resin consists of the glyco- sides and methylpentosides of jalapi- nolic acid and its methyl ester.

Large doses cause acute gastro-intestinal irritation, and, if absorbed, produce cystitis and nephritis.... convolvulus scammonia

Coordination Within The Health Sector

Organized collaboration, as necessary, among those providing the services at the same and different levels of the health system in order to make the most efficient use of resources, as well as within and among the various categories of health workers following agreement on the division of labour. It also means coordination of programmes or services to avoid duplication or inconsistency.... coordination within the health sector

Coriandrum Sativum

Linn.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated chiefly in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Bihar.

English: Coriander.

Ayurvedic: Dhaanyaka, Kustum- buru, Dhaanyeyaka, Dhanika, Dhanikaa, Dhaanaa, Dhaanya, Dhaniyaa, Kunati, Chhatraa, Vitunnaka.

Unani: Kishneez.

Siddha/Tamil: Kotthamalli.

Action: Stimulant, stomachic, carminative, antispasmodic, diuretic; also hypoglycaemic and anti-inflammatory. Oil—bactericidal and larvicidal. Used in China as a remedy for measles, diabetes, aerophagy and gastroenteritis.

Key application: In dyspeptic complaints, loss of appetite. (German Commission E, British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)

Coriander contains 0.5-1% volatile oil, consisting mainly of delta-linalool (55-74%), alpha-pinene and terpinine. It also contains flavonoids, coumarins, phthalides and phenolic acids (including caffeic and chlorogenic).

Aqueous extract of the roasted seeds contains large amounts of acetylcho- line and its precursor choline. (Choline is found useful in preventing and curing certain liver disorders.) The extract shows cholinomimetic effects experimentally.

Coriandrin, an antiviral agent, has been synthesized from the aerial parts. The plant forms an ingredient of a Pakistani herbal drug (Intellan) which is considered to be a neuro-energizer.

In Unani medicine, an infusion of fruits is also used in bleeding piles, neuralgia, cephalalgia and spermatorrhoea.

Dosage: Fruit—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... coriandrum sativum

Cost Sharing

Payment method whereby a person is required to pay some health costs in order to receive medical care. The general set of financing arrangements whereby the consumer must pay out-of-pocket to receive care, either at the time of initiating care or during the provision of health care services, or both. Cost sharing can also occur when an insured person pays a portion of the monthly premium for health care insurance.... cost sharing

Cost Shifting

Recouping the cost of providing uncompensated care by increasing revenues from some payers to offset losses and lower net payments from other payers.... cost shifting

Corn Silk Tea Remedy

Have you ever thought that if you remove the corn silk from corn combs, you can use it as a remedy? While many people may not be familiar with this type of tea, in fact corn silk tea was used for a long time even by Native Americans as a remedy for heart problems, malaria or urinary tract infections. More about Corn silk tea Corn silk is in fact the thin, hair-like strands that cover the corn cob. These silky yellowish strands which form the stigma collect pollen to fertilize the corn, and they’re also used to make a healing tea. In corn silk there can be found many important components like flavonoids, allantoin, mucilage, saponins, vitamins C and K and potassium. Corn silk may also be combined with other herbs to increase its healing powers and range of medicinal uses. It’s also available in prepackaged teabags, or in a dried supplement form. Powdered corn silk is a common ingredient in face powders, due to its soothing qualities. Corn silk tea has a slightly sweet taste. If you decide to collect it in order to make a tea, make sure that the plants were not sprayed with pesticides. Brew corn silk tea In order to make a tasty healthy corn silk tea it is usually recommended to use fresh corn silk. If you don’t have it at your hand, the dried one works just fine. To prepare the infusion, use 2 teaspoons of fresh corn silk or 2.5 g of dried one and pour 1 cup of boiled water over it. Let it seep for 10 - 15 minutes and it is ready to serve. Corn silk tea benefits Corn silk tea has many health benefits for adults and for children. The most important benefit of this tea is for disorders in the urinary system : infections, cystitis, as well as bladder infections or gonorrhea. If you want your children to stop wetting their beds give them corn silk tea. Corn silk tea is also diuretic, demulcent, has anti-inflammatory properties and it fights kidney stones. Corn silk tea may help detoxify and flush out accumulated toxins in the body. Corn silk tea contains vitamin K, which has been shown to improve the body’s blood clotting process. Corn silk tea has also been shown to lower blood pressure, relieve arthritis pains, and help in the treatment of jaundice and prostate disorders. When applied topically, corn silk tea can help heal wounds and skin ulcers. Corn silk tea side effects In most cases, corn silk tea is suitable for daily consumption without special warnings. However, in rare cases, in you are allergic to corn, you may develop a skin rash. Corn silk tea can also decrease the level of potassium in your blood. So you should avoid it if you already have low potassium levels, problems with blood pressure, or diabetes. It is not recommended for children, during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Corn silk tea is safe to be included in your diet, but in order to enjoy its benefits, do not exceed 3 cups a day.... corn silk tea remedy

Costus Speciosus

(Koenig) Sm.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Assam, North Bengal, Khasi and Jaintia Hills, sub Himalayan tracts of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh and Western Ghats.

English: Canereed, Wild Ginger.

Ayurvedic: Kebuka, Kembuka.

Siddha/Tamil: Krrauvam, Malai Vasambu, Ven Kottam.

Folk: Kebu.

Action: Astringent, purgative, depurative, anti-inflammatory (used in gout, rheumatism; bronchitis, asthma, catarrhal fevers, dysuria), anthelmintic, antivermin, maggoticide, antifungal.

The rhizomes contain saponins— dioscin, gracillin and beta-sitosterol- beta-D-glucoside. The alkaloids show papaverine-like smooth-muscle-relaxant activity, cardiotonic activity like that of digitalis and antispasmodic,

CNS-depressant, diuretic and hydro- choleretic activities. Saponins show significant anti-inflammatory and an- tiarthritic activity.

The seeds also contain saponins and exhibit potent and sustained hypoten- sive and bradycardiac activities in dogs with low toxicity and without any haemolytic activity; also weak spasmolytic activity on isolated guinea-pig ileum.

All parts of the plant yield steroidal sapogenin, diogenin (quantity varies from 0.32 to 4%).

(Not to be confused with Kushtha of Indian medicine, Saussurea lappa.)... costus speciosus

Cough Syncope

Temporary loss of consciousness that may be induced by a severe spasm of coughing. This is the result of the high pressure that may be induced in the chest – over 200 millimetres of mercury – by such a spasm, which prevents the return of blood to the heart. The veins in the neck begin to bulge and the blood pressure falls; this may so reduce the blood ?ow to the brain that the individual feels giddy and may then lose consciousness. (See FAINTING.)... cough syncope

Cracked-pot Sound

A peculiar resonance heard sometimes on percussion of the chest over a cavity in the lung, resembling the jarring sound heard on striking a cracked pot or bell. It is also heard on percussion over the skull in patients with diseases of the brain such as haemorrhages and tumours, and in certain cases of fracture of the skull.... cracked-pot sound

Crown-of-thorns Starfish

Colloquial term for the starfish Acanthaster planci. See Acanthaster planci.... crown-of-thorns starfish

Ct Scan

See COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY.... ct scan

Crocus Sativus

Linn.

Family: Iridaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Kashmir up to 2,000 m and in Chaubattia in Uttar Pradesh.

English: Saffron, Crocus.

Ayurvedic: Kumkuma, Rudhira, Vadrika, Kaashmira, Kaashmiraka, Vaalhika, Agnishikhaa, Ghrusrrn, Rakta, Kshataja. Keshara (usually Keshara indicates Naagakeshara, Mesuaferrea Linn.)

Unani: Zaafraan.

Siddha/Tamil: Kumgumappoo (dried stigma).

Action: Stigma and style—nervine tonic, sedative, antispasmodic expectorant (in dry cough, whooping cough, bronchitis), stomachic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the stigma and style in migraine, chronic sinusitis, and in urinary obstruction, inflammation of the urinary tract.

The saffron is used in Chinese medicine for melancholia, depression, shock and menstrual disorders.

Saffron contains a volatile oil composed of terpenes, terpene alcohols and esters. The herb also contains crocin, picrocrocin, crocetin, carotenoids and riboflavin and thiamine.

Preliminary evidence suggests that crocetin may improved atherosclerosis by increasing plasma oxygen diffusion and decreasing cholesterol and triglyceride levels. In addition, cro- cetin binds to albumin, potentially increasing oxygen diffusion and improving atherosclerosis. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

The stigma showed remarkable inhibitory effect on blood coagulation due to the presence of platelet aggregation inhibitor containing adenosine. It accelerated in vitro fibrinolytic activity of urokinase and plasmin.

Small amounts of Saffron stimulate gastric secretion; larger amounts stimulate uterine smooth muscle and exhibit emmenagogue and abortifacient effects.

Saffron extract showed cytotoxic and antimutagenic activity and antitu- mour activity against ascites tumours in mice. Chemical analysis indicated that the naturally occurring crocin may be the active principle responsible for the observed anticancer activity.

A xanthone, carotenoid glycosidic conjugate, mangi-crocin, isolated from saffron, showed significant adapto- genic activity. A natural antioxidant, isolated from saffron stem callus, showed better antioxidant activity than vitamin E. Saffron bulbs are toxic, stigmas in overdoses narcotic.

The dose of stigma and styles at 1.55.0 g is toxic. (Recommended dose : 0.5-1.5 g per day).

Dosage: Dried style and stigma—20-50 mg (API Vol. IV.)... crocus sativus

Ct Scanner

The machine which combines the use of a computer and X-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the body (see COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY).... ct scanner

Cucumis Sativus

Linn.

Family: Cucurbitaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated for its edible fruits which are usually used as salad vegetable.

English: Cucumber.

Ayurvedic: Trapusha, Traapusha, Trapushi, Tiktakarkatikaa (bitter var.).

Unani: Khiyaar, Khiraa.

Siddha/Tamil: Vellarikkai.

Folk: Khiraa.

Action: Seed—used in dysuria, irritation of the urinary tract, cystitis. Reduces specific gravity of urine. Also used for tapeworms.

Cucumber contains rutin; seeds glu- cosides including cucurbitaside; leaves free cucurbitasides B & C, ferredox- in, alpha-spinasterol. Free and bound sterols are found in seedlings and in male and female flowers.

Presence of proteolytic enzymes, ascorbic acid oxidase and succinic and malic dehydrogenases has been reported.

Dosage: Seed—3-6 g powder; fruit juice—25-50 ml. (CCRAS.)... cucumis sativus

Cupressus Sempervirens

Linn.

Family: Cupressaceae.

Habitat: Native to Asia Minor, Syria and North Persia. The tree is a variety only known in the cultivated state in North-West India. (Chopra RN.)

English: Mediterranean Cypress.

Ayurvedic: Suraahva.

Unani: Saro.

Siddha/Tamil: Suram, Churam.

Action: Tincture—vasoconstrictor, antiseptic, sedative, antispasmodic, diuretic. Used for cough, cold, bronchitis, varicose veins, piles, menopausal cramps, leg-cramps. Essential oil—used only externally. Used in aromatherapy for massage (10 drops in 2 teaspoonful of almond oil).

The essential oil from the plant gave 73 compounds; major compound was alpha-pinene (47.00-52.76%); among others—D-camphane, D-silvestren, p- cymene, L-cadinenes, cedrol, terpine- ol, acetyl-and isovalerianyl monoter- pene ester.

No longer taken internally as a diluted essential oil. Medicinal parts are cones, branches and oil.... cupressus sempervirens

Cutaneous Means Belonging To The Skin.

... cutaneous means belonging to the skin.

Cyclo-oxygenase-2 Selective Inhibitors

See COX-2 INHIBITORS.... cyclo-oxygenase-2 selective inhibitors

Da Costa’s Syndrome

See EFFORT SYNDROME.... da costa’s syndrome

Dalbergia Sympathetica

Nimmo ex Grah.

Synonym: D. multiflora Heyne ex Prain.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Common in Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Folk: Tibali (Goa), Pentagul (Maharashtra).

Action: Bark—used as a paste for pimples. Leaf—alterative. Aerial part—spasmolytic, CNS active, hypothermic.... dalbergia sympathetica

Cushing’s Syndrome

Described in 1932 by Harvey Cushing, the American neurosurgeon, Cushing’s syndrome is due to an excess production of CORTISOL. It can thus result from a tumour of the ADRENAL GLANDS secreting cortisol, or from a PITUITARY GLAND tumour secreting ACTH and stimulating both adrenal cortexes to hypertrophy and secrete excess cortisol. It is sometimes the result of ectopic production of ACTH from non-endocrine tumours in the LUNGS and PANCREAS.

The patient gains weight and the obesity tends to have a characteristic distribution over the face, neck, and shoulder and pelvic girdles. Purple striae develop over the abdomen and there is often increased hairiness or hirsutism. The blood pressure is commonly raised and the bone softens as a result of osteoporosis. The best test to establish the diagnosis is to measure the amount of cortisol in a 24-hourly specimen of urine. Once the diagnosis has been established, it is then necessary to undertake further tests to determine the cause.... cushing’s syndrome

Cymbopogon Schoenanthus

Spreng.

Synonym: Andropogon schoenan- thus Linn.

Family: Poaceae.

Habitat: Warmer parts of India, from Punjab to Bengal and in South India.

English: Camel-Hay.

Ayurvedic: Rohisha (var.).

Unani: Rusaa Ghaas, Izkhar.

Siddha/Tamil: Karpurapul, Rohisha- trna.

Action: Roots and rhizome— carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue; used for fever, cold and genitourinary affections.

Fresh leaves yield an essential oil (yield 0.8%). It contains a series of methyl ketones, along with limonene 19.5, camphene 8.0%, and a group of oxygenated sesquiterpenes, the major being elemol 4.5%.

The fragrant oil is known as Rusa or Geranium Oil and is used as a substitute for rose oil. It exhibits stimulant, carminative, antispasmodic and diaphoretic properties. It is applied externally in rheumatism and neuralgia.... cymbopogon schoenanthus

Cynara Scolymus

Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Monastery gardens of Europe. Now cultivated in India.

English: Globe Artichoke.

Unani: Harshaf.

Action: Herb—antitoxic, liver restorative, hypocholesterolaemic. Water soluble extract is used for liver and renal diseases for its cholagogic and choleretic action (flow of bile increases up to 60 per cent). Artichokes assist digestion of fats, are known as diabetic's potato in Europe.

Key application: In dyspeptic problems. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported hepatic action.

All parts of the plant contains ses- quiterpene lactone cynaropecrin and inulin. The leaves contain cynarin. Hepatic activity of the leaves is due to polyphenols such as cynarin, caf- feoylquinic acid derivatives and flavon- oids. Cynarin and caffeic acid exhibited hepatoprotective activity in CCl4-treated rats. (A minimum of 1% polyphenols and 0.2% flavonoids in the dried leaves is required for the activity.)

The plant is included in indigenous compound formulations recommended for viral and drug-induced hepatitis. All parts of the plant stimulate digestive secretions, especially bile, and are used for the treatment of gallbladder problems. Plant is used as a diuretic in dropsy. The plant is also used against atherosclerosis and for lowering cholesterol levels.

The extract gave mixed results in preventing alcohol-induced hangover. (CMAJ, 169, 2003, 1269-73; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... cynara scolymus

Cyperus Scariosus

R.Br.

Family: Cyperaceae.

Habitat: Damp situations in Uttar Pradesh and eastern and southern parts of India.

English: Nut grass.

Ayurvedic: Bhadramustaa, Musta, Amoda, Naagaramustaka. (Naagara is a different drug, equated with Zingiber officinale Rosc.)

Siddha: Korai-kilangu (Tamil).

Folk: Naagara-mothaa.

Action: Essential oil—hypotensive, anti-inflammatory, CNS stimulant, antimicrobial. Rhizome—stomachic, cordial, antidiarrhoeal and diuretic.

See C. rotundus.... cyperus scariosus

Day Surgical Centre / Clinic

A free-standing ambulatory surgery centre, independent of a hospital.... day surgical centre / clinic

De Morgan’s Spots

De Morgan’s spots are a type of small HAEMANGIOMA occuring in the skin of middle-aged people. No more than 3 mm in diameter, they are rarely widespread and are not malignant.... de morgan’s spots

Dead Space

Gas exchange only occurs in the terminal parts of the pulmonary airways (see LUNGS). That portion of each breath that is taken into the lungs but does not take part in gas exchange is known as dead space. Anatomical dead space describes air in the airways up to the terminal BRONCHIOLES. Physiological dead space also includes gas in alveoli (air sacs) which are unable to take part in gas exchange because of structural abnormalities or disease.... dead space

Decision Support System

See “decision analysis”.... decision support system

Cytisus Scoparius

(L.) Link.

Synonym: Sarothamnus scoparius (L.) Koch.

Family: Papilionaceae, Fabaceae.

Habitat: Mild climatic regions of south and central Europe, north Africa and West Asia. C. scoparius is fairly common in and around Oatacmund (Nilgiris) and is found wild as a garden escape. It grows also in Simla and neighbouring places. An allied species, C. monspessulanus Linn., White Broom, also occurs in the Nilgiri hills.

English: Broom, Scotch Broom, Yellow Broom.

Folk: Broom.

Action: Green twigs of the plant, collected before flowering, either fresh or after drying, are used as diuretic and cathartic. Emetic in large doses. The seeds are also used similarly. The herb is used chiefly in the form of sulphate in tachycardia and functional palpitation. (The action of the whole plant is stated to be different from that of isolated alkaloids.) The whole herb has been used to treat tumours.

Key application: For functional heart and circulatory disorders. Aqueous-ethanolic extracts are used internally. Simultaneous administration of MAO-inhibitors contraindicated due to the tyramine content. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported antiarrhythmic and diuretic action of the herb.

The herb contains quinolizidine alkaloids; main alkaloids are (-)-spar- teine, lupanine, ammodendrine and various derivatives; biogenic amines, including tryramine, epinine, dopa- mine; isoflavone glycosides including genistein, scoparin; flavonoids; essential oil; caffeic acid and p-coumaric acids; tannins. Seeds contain lectins (phytohaemagglutinins).

The herb contains over 2% tyramine. Tyramine acts as an indirect sympa- thomimetic, vasoconstrictive and hy- potensive.

The herb is contraindicated in high blood pressure, A-V block and pregnancy.

Scoparin's action on renal mucous membrane is similar to that of Buchu and Uva-ursi. (A decoction or infusion of broom is used in dropsical complaints of cardiac origin.)

Sparteine produces a transient rise in arterial pressure followed by a longer period of decreased vascular tension (contradictory observations have been recorded). Some researchers are of the opinion that sparteine is a regulator in chronic vulvar disease. It showed no cumulative action like digitalis. In large doses, it is highly toxic and impairs the activity of respiratory organs.

C. monopessulanus (a related species) contains. 9% alkaloids.

Sparteine is toxic at more than 300 mg dose. (Francis Brinker.)... cytisus scoparius

Dalbergia Sissoides

Grah.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, especially in the South.

English: Malabar Blackwood.

Ayurvedic: Kushimshapaa. (Shimshapaa related species).

Siddha/Tamil: Vel-itti.

Folk: Sisam.

Action: Anti-inflammatory.

The root contains isoflavones. The alcoholic extract of the root exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in carrage- enan-induced hind paw oedema of male albino rats.

A quinone, sissoidenone and dalbergion, latifolin and dalbergin have been isolated from the heartwood; also oleanolic acid, liquiritigenin and isoliquiritigenin. The sapwood and young leaves gave sissotrin. Biochanin A, isolated from young leaves, inhibited both serum and epidermal growth factor (EGF)—stimulated growth of human prostate cancer cell lines.... dalbergia sissoides

Dalbergia Sissoo

Roxb ex DC.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: The sub-Himalayan tract, up to 1,200 m from Indus to Assam and in plains throughout India.

English: Sissoo, South Indian Redwood, Sissoo.

Ayurvedic: Shimshapaa, Krishna- shimshapaa, Picchilaa.

Unani: Seesham.

Siddha/Tamil: Irupoolai.

Action: Leaves—bitter, and stimulant. Leaf mucilage, mixed with sweet oil, is applied to excoriations. Wood—anthelmintic, alterative, emetic, stomachic, antileprotic; used in diseases due to vitiated blood. Bark—anticholerin. Root—astringent.

Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the heart- wood in turbity of the urine, calculus and lipuria.

The leaves gave isoflavone sissotrin; flowers 7,4'-di-Me-tectorigenin. Seed oil (4.1%) contained fatty acids composed of palmitic (16.2), stearic (7.0%), oleic (14.6), linolenic (9.80) and linole- ic (52.5) acids and lipids comprising neutral lipids (88.5), glycolipids (7.2) and phospholipids (4.0%). Pods contain 2% tannins.

Dosage: Heartwood—1.5-10 g powder; 10-20 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)... dalbergia sissoo

Delima Scandens

Burkill.

Tetracera scandens

Family: Dilleniaceae.

Habitat: Forests of Bengal, Assam and the Andamans.

Ayurvedic: Paaniya Valli.

Action: A decoction of the plant is given in dysentery and coughs. Leaves—used for the treatment of boils. Root—astringent, used as external application for burns.... delima scandens

Demand (for Health Services)

Willingness and/or ability to seek, use and, in some settings, pay for services. Sometimes further subdivided into expressed demand (equated with use) and potential demand or need.... demand (for health services)

Deprivation Score

A measure of an individual’s or group’s lack of normal social amenities such as proper housing, diet and warmth. It was devised in the 1980s to help assess the medical services needed by a socially deprived population.... deprivation score

Datura Stramonium

Linn.

Synonym: D. tatula Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: The Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim up to 2,700 m, hilly districts of Central and South India.English: Thornapple, Jimsonweed, Stramonium.Ayurvedic: Krishnadhattuura, Dhuurta (black seed var.), Unmatta, Kitav, Tuuri, Maatul, Madan.

Unani: Dhaturaa.

Action: Spasmolytic, antiasthmatic, anticholinergic, cerebral depressant, nerve-sedative. Controls spasms of bronchioles in asthma. Anticholinergic. Effects of overdose are similar to those of atropine. Temporary relief from Parkinsonian tremor recorded. (Contraindicated with depressant drugs.) Applied locally, stramonium palliates the pain of muscular rheumatism, neuralgia, also pain due to haemorrhoids, fistula, abscesses and similar inflammations. Prevents motion sickness.

Key application: In diseases of the autonomic nervous system. (Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported antispasmodic action of the leaf; Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia accepted it as expectorant and antispasmodic. Whole plant contains 0.26% alkaloids (seeds 0.98% and stem 0.08%); also flavonoids, withanolides, cou- marins and tannins; the major alkaloid is hyoscyamine (44-67%), hyoscine (13.2-25.3%) and atropine (0.01-0.1%). The tropane alkaloids are similar to those found in Atropa belladonna. Hyoscine is five times as active as atropine in producing mydriasis, but its main use is as antimotion sickness drug; and in combination as a sedative.Toxic constituents include anti- cholinergic alkaloids.

Dosage: Leaf—60-185 mg powder; seed—60-120 mg powder (CCRAS.)

... datura stramonium

Delphinium Staphisagria

Linn.

Habitat: Native to Mediterranean region.

English: Stavesacre.

Unani: Muvizaj.

Action: Parasiticide. Used for destroying lice. Contains poisonous alkaloids. Seeds are violently emetic and cathartic; used as an external application in obstinate skin diseases and eruptions under medical supervision.

Seeds contain diterpene alkaloids; delphidine, delphinine, delphirine, del- phisine and neoline.

Stavesacre has a similar effect to aco- nitine. Extract from the seeds is used in homoeopathic dilutions.... delphinium staphisagria

Dental Surgeon

A dental surgeon, or dentist, is an individual trained to diagnose and treat disorders of the teeth and gums, as well as to advise on preventive measures to ensure that these areas remain healthy. Dentists qualify after a four-year course at dental school and then register with the GENERAL DENTAL COUNCIL, which is responsible for maintaining educational and professional standards. Around 25,000 dentists practise in the NHS and private sector.

Over the past four decades the ?nancial outlay on NHS dental services has been around 5 per cent of total NHS funding. This contrasts with 10 per cent during the service’s early years, when the NHS was coping with decades of ‘dental neglect’. The population’s dental health has, however, been steadily improving: in 1968 more than one-third of people had no natural teeth; by the late 1990s the proportion had fallen to 13 per cent.

Dentistry is divided into several groupings.

General dental practitioners Concerned with primary dental care, the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the gums and teeth – for example, caries (see TEETH, DISORDERS OF). They also deal with diffculties in biting and the effects of trauma, and are aware that oral disorders may re?ect disease elsewhere in the body. They will refer to the hospital dental services, patients who require treatment that cannot be satisfactorily carried out in a primary-care setting.

Most routine dental prevention and treatment is carried out in general dental practitioners’ surgeries, where the dentists also supervise the work of hygienists and dental auxiliaries. Appliances, such as dentures, crowns, bridges and orthodontic appliances are constructed by dental technicians working in dental laboratories.

There are around 18,800 dentists providing general dental services in the UK. These practitioners are free to accept or reject any potential patient and to practise where they wish. Those dentists treating patients under an NHS contract (a mixture of capitation fees and items of service payments) can also treat patients privately (for an appropriate fee). Some dentists opt for full-time private practice, and their numbers are increasing in the wake of changes in 1990 in the contracts of NHS general dental practitioners.

Community dental practitioner Part of the public-health team and largely concerned with monitoring dental health and treating the young and the handicapped.

In the hospitals and dental schools are those who are involved in only one of the specialities.

Around 2,800 dentists work in NHS hospitals and 1,900 in the NHS’s community services. In some parts of the UK, people wanting NHS treatment are having diffculties ?nding dentists willing to provide such care.

Restorative dentist Concerned with the repair of teeth damaged by trauma and caries, and the replacement of missing teeth.

Orthodontist Correction of jaws and teeth which are misaligned or irregular. This is done with appliances which may be removable or ?xed to the teeth which are then moved with springs or elastics.... dental surgeon

Death, Signs Of

There are some minor signs, such as: relaxation of the facial muscles (which produces the staring eye and gaping mouth of the ‘Hippocratic countenance’), as well as a loss of the curves of the back, which becomes ?at by contact with the bed or table; discoloration of the skin, which takes on a wax-yellow hue and loses its pink transparency at the ?nger-webs; absence of blistering and redness if the skin is burned (Christison’s sign); and failure of a ligature tied round the ?nger to produce, after its removal, the usual change of a white ring, which, after a few seconds, becomes redder than the surrounding skin in a living person.

The only certain sign of death, however, is that the heart has stopped beating. To ensure that this is permanent, it is necessary to listen over the heart with a stethoscope, or directly with the ear, for at least ?ve minutes. Permanent stoppage of breathing should also be con?rmed by observing that a mirror held before the mouth shows no haze, or that a feather placed on the upper lip does not ?utter.

In the vast majority of cases there is no dif?culty in ensuring that death has occurred. The introduction of organ transplantation, however, and of more e?ective mechanical means of resuscitation, such as ventilators, whereby an individual’s heart can be kept beating almost inde?nitely, has raised diffculties in a minority of cases. To solve the problem in these cases the concept of ‘brain death’ has been introduced. In this context it has to be borne in mind that there is no legal de?nition of death. Death has traditionally been diagnosed by the irreversible cessation of respiration and heartbeat. In the Code of Practice drawn up in 1983 by a Working Party of the Health Departments of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, however, it is stated that ‘death can also be diagnosed by the irreversible cessation of brain-stem function’. This is described as ‘brain death’. The brain stem consists of the mid-brain, pons and medulla oblongata which contain the centres controlling the vital processes of the body such as consciousness, breathing and the beating of the heart (see BRAIN). This new concept of death, which has been widely accepted in medical and legal circles throughout the world, means that it is now legitimate to equate brain death with death; that the essential component of brain death is death of the brain stem; and that a dead brain stem can be reliably diagnosed at the bedside. (See GLASGOW COMA SCALE.)

Four points are important in determining the time that has elapsed since death. HYPOSTASIS, or congestion, begins to appear as livid spots on the back, often mistaken for bruises, three hours or more after death. This is due to the blood running into the vessels in the lowest parts. Loss of heat begins at once after death, and the body has become as cold as the surrounding air after 12 hours – although this is delayed by hot weather, death from ASPHYXIA, and some other causes. Rigidity, or rigor mortis, begins in six hours, takes another six to become fully established, remains for 12 hours and passes o? during the succeeding 12 hours. It comes on quickly when extreme exertion has been indulged in immediately before death; conversely it is slow in onset and slight in death from wasting diseases, and slight or absent in children. It begins in the small muscles of the eyelid and jaw and then spreads over the body. PUTREFACTION is variable in time of onset, but usually begins in 2–3 days, as a greenish tint over the abdomen.... death, signs of

Descriptive Study

A study concerned with and designed only to describe the existing distribution of variables, without regard to causal or other hypotheses.... descriptive study

Descurainia Sophia

(Linn.) Webb ex Prantl.

Synonym: Sisymbrium sophia L.

Family: Brassicaceae.

Habitat: Temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,200-4,100, also in eastern Himalaya.

English: Flix Weed, Flax Weed.

Action: Leaf and flower—astringent, antiscorbutic. Seed—expectorant, anti-inflammatory, febrifuge, antidysenteric. Aerial parts— antiviral, hypoglycaemic.

The plants has been used externally for ulcers, seeds are used as substitute or adulterant of the seeds of Sisymbrium iro Linn. (The source of Khaakasi, Khubb, Tukhm-e-Shahuh, Khuubkalaan of Unani medicine, known as Hedge Mustard or London Rocket.)... descurainia sophia

Devils Shoestring

Protection, Gambling, Luck, Power, Employment... devils shoestring

Dichotomous Scale

See “measurement scale”.... dichotomous scale

Distilled Spirits

(Brandy, gin, rum, tequila, whiskey, vodka)

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate to high Protein: None Fat: None Saturated fat: None Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: None (except for cordials which contain added sugar) Fiber: None Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: None Major mineral contribution: Phosphorus

About the Nutrients in This Food Spirits are the clear liquids produced by distilling the fermented sugars of grains, fruit, or vegetables. The yeasts that metabolize these sugars and convert them into alcohol stop growing when the concentration of alcohol rises above 12–15 percent. In the United States, the proof of an alcoholic beverage is defined as twice its alcohol content by volume: a beverage with 20 percent alcohol by volume is 40 proof. This is high enough for most wines, but not high enough for most whiskies, gins, vodkas, rums, brandies, and tequilas. To reach the concentra- tion of alcohol required in these beverages, the fermented sugars are heated and distilled. Ethyl alcohol (the alcohol in beer, wine, and spirits) boils at a lower temperature than water. When the fermented sugars are heated, the ethyl alcohol escapes from the distillation vat and condenses in tubes leading from the vat to a collection vessel. The clear liquid that collects in this vessel is called distilled spirits or, more technically, grain neutral spirits. Gins, whiskies, cordials, and many vodkas are made with spirits American whiskeys (which include bourbon, rye, and distilled from grains. blended whiskeys) and Canadian, Irish, and Scotch whiskies are all made from spirits aged in wood barrels. They get their flavor from the grains and their color from the barrels. (Some whiskies are also colored with caramel.) Vodka is made from spirits distilled and filtered to remove all flavor. By law, vodkas made in America must be made with spirits distilled from grains. Imported vodkas may be made with spirits distilled either from grains or potatoes and may contain additional flavoring agents such as citric acid or pepper. Aquavit, for example, is essentially vodka flavored with caraway seeds. Gin is a clear spirit flavored with an infusion of juniper berries and other herbs (botanicals). Cordials (also called liqueurs) and schnapps are flavored spirits; most are sweetened with added sugar. Some cordials contain cream. Rum is made with spirits distilled from sugar cane (molasses). Tequila is made with spirits distilled from the blue agave plant. Brandies are made with spirits distilled from fruit. (Arma- gnac and cognac are distilled from fermented grapes, calvados and applejack from fermented apples, kirsch from fermented cherries, slivovitz from fermented plums.) Unless they contain added sugar or cream, spirits have no nutrients other than alcohol. Unlike food, which has to be metabolized before your body can use it for energy, alcohol can be absorbed into the blood-stream directly from the gastrointestinal tract. Ethyl alcohol provides 7 calories per gram.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food The USDA /Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines for Americans defines one drink as 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits, and “moderate drinking” as two drinks a day for a man, one drink a day for a woman.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Bland diet Lactose-free diet (cream cordials made with cream or milk) Low-purine (antigout) diet

Buying This Food Look for: Tightly sealed bottles stored out of direct sunlight, whose energy might disrupt the structure of molecules in the beverage and alter its flavor. Choose spirits sold only by licensed dealers. Products sold in these stores are manufac- tured under the strict supervision of the federal government.

Storing This Food Store sealed or opened bottles of spirits in a cool, dark cabinet.

Preparing This Food All spirits except unflavored vodkas contain volatile molecules that give the beverage its characteristic taste and smell. Warming the liquid excites these molecules and intensifies the flavor and aroma, which is the reason we serve brandy in a round glass with a narrower top that captures the aromatic molecules as they rise toward the air when we warm the glass by holding it in our hands. Whiskies, too, though traditionally served with ice in America, will have a more intense flavor and aroma if served at room temperature.

What Happens When You Cook This Food The heat of cooking evaporates the alcohol in spirits but leaves the flavoring intact. Like other alcoholic beverages, spirits should be added to a recipe near the end of the cooking time to preserve the flavor while cooking away any alcohol bite. Alcohol is an acid. If you cook it in an aluminum or iron pot, it will combine with metal ions to form dark compounds that discolor the pot and the food you are cooking. Any recipe made with spirits should be prepared in an enameled, glass, or stainless-steel pot.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Reduced risk of heart attack. Data from the American Cancer Society’s Cancer Prevention Study 1, a 12-year survey of more than 1 million Americans in 25 states, shows that men who take one drink a day have a 21 percent lower risk of heart attack and a 22 percent lower risk of stroke than men who do not drink at all. Women who have up to one drink a day also reduce their risk of heart attack. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower cholesterol levels. Beverage alcohol decreases the body’s production and storage of low density lipoproteins (LDLs), the protein and fat particles that carry cholesterol into your arteries. As a result, people who drink moderately tend to have lower cholesterol levels and higher levels of high density lipoproteins (HDLs), the fat and protein particles that carry cholesterol out of the body. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower risk of stroke. In January 1999, the results of a 677-person study published by researchers at New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University showed that moderate alcohol consumption reduces the risk of stroke due to a blood clot in the brain among older people (average age: 70). How alcohol prevents stroke is still unknown, but it is clear that moderate use is a key. Heavy drinkers (those who consume more than seven drinks a day) have a higher risk of stroke. People who once drank heavily, but cut their consumption to moderate levels, reduce their risk of stroke. Stimulating the appetite. Alcoholic beverages stimulate the production of saliva and the gastric acids that cause the stomach contractions we call hunger pangs. Moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages, which may help stimulate appetite, are often prescribed for geriatric patients, convalescents, and people who do not have ulcers or other chronic gastric problems that might be exacerbated by the alcohol. Dilation of blood vessels. Alcoholic beverages dilate the tiny blood vessels just under the skin, bringing blood up to the surface. That’s why moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages (0.2–1 gram per kilogram of body weight, or two ounces of whiskey for a 150-pound adult) temporarily warm the drinker. But the warm blood that flows up to the surface of the skin will cool down there, making you even colder when it circulates back into the center of your body. Then an alcohol flush will make you perspire, so you lose more heat. Excessive amounts of beverage alcohol may depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Alcoholism. Alcoholism is an addiction disease, the inability to control one’s alcohol consumption. It is a potentially life-threatening condition, with a higher risk of death by accident, suicide, malnutrition, or acute alcohol poisoning, a toxic reaction that kills by para- lyzing body organs, including the heart. Fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a specific pattern of birth defects—low birth weight, heart defects, facial malformations, learning disabilities, and mental retarda- tion—first recognized in a study of babies born to alcoholic women who consumed more than six drinks a day while pregnant. Subsequent research has found a consistent pattern of milder defects in babies born to women who drink three to four drinks a day or five drinks on any one occasion while pregnant. To date there is no evidence of a consistent pattern of birth defects in babies born to women who consume less than one drink a day while preg- nant, but two studies at Columbia University have suggested that as few as two drinks a week while pregnant may raise a woman’s risk of miscarriage. (One drink is 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits.) Increased risk of breast cancer. In 2008, scientists at the National Cancer Institute released data from a seven-year survey of more than 100,000 postmenopausal women showing that even moderate drinking (one to two drinks a day) may increase by 32 percent a woman’s risk of developing estrogen-receptor positive (ER+) and progesterone-receptor positive (PR+) breast cancer, tumors whose growth is stimulated by hormones. No such link was found between consuming alcohol and the risk of developing ER-/PR- tumors (not fueled by hor- mones). The finding applies to all types of alcohol: beer, wine, and distilled spirits. Increased risk of oral cancer (cancer of the mouth and throat). Numerous studies confirm the A merican Cancer Societ y’s warn ing that men and women who consume more than t wo drinks a day are at higher risk of oral cancer than are nondrinkers or people who drink less. Increased risk of cancer of the colon and rectum. In the mid-1990s, studies at the University of Oklahoma suggested that men who drink more than five beers a day are at increased risk of rectal cancer. Later studies suggested that men and women who are heavy beer or spirits drinkers (but not those who are heavy wine drinkers) have a higher risk of colorectal cancers. Further studies are required to confirm these findings. Malnutrition. While moderate alcohol consumption stimulates appetite, alcohol abuses depresses it. In addition, an alcoholic may drink instead of eating. When an alcoholic does eat, excess alcohol in his/her body prevents absorption of nutrients and reduces the ability to synthesize new tissue. Hangover. Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestine and carried by the bloodstream to the liver, where it is oxidized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), the enzyme our bodies use every day to metabolize the alcohol we produce when we digest carbohydrates. The acetaldehyde is converted to acetyl coenzyme A and either eliminated from the body or used in the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and body tis- sues. Although individuals vary widely in their capacity to metabolize alcohol, an adult of average size can metabolize the alcohol in four ounces (120 ml) whiskey in approximately five to six hours. If he or she drinks more than that, the amount of alcohol in the body will exceed the available supply of ADH. The surplus, unmetabolized alcohol will pile up in the bloodstream, interfering with the liver’s metabolic functions. Since alcohol decreases the reabsorption of water from the kidneys and may inhibit the secretion of an antidiuretic hormone, the drinker will begin to urinate copiously, losing magnesium, calcium, and zinc but retaining uric acid, which is irritating. The level of lactic acid in the body will increase, making him or her feel tired and out of sorts; the acid-base balance will be out of kilter; the blood vessels in the head will swell and throb; and the stomach, its lining irritated by the alcohol, will ache. The ultimate result is a hangover whose symptoms will disappear only when enough time has passed to allow the body to marshal the ADH needed to metabolize the extra alcohol in the person’s blood. Changes in body temperature. Alcohol dilates capillaries, tiny blood vessels just under the skin, producing a “flush” that temporarily warms the drinker. But drinking is not an effective way to stay warm in cold weather. Warm blood flowing up from the body core to the surface capillaries is quickly chilled, making you even colder when it circulates back into your organs. In addition, an alcohol flush triggers perspiration, further cooling your skin. Finally, very large amounts of alcohol may actually depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature. Impotence. Excessive drinking decreases libido (sexual desire) and interferes with the ability to achieve or sustain an erection. Migraine headache. Some alcoholic beverages contain chemicals that inhibit PST, an enzyme that breaks down certain alcohols in spirits so that they can be eliminated from the body. If they are not broken down by PST, these alcohols will build up in the bloodstream and may trigger a migraine headache. Gin and vodka appear to be the distilled spirits least likely to trigger headaches, brandy the most likely.

Food/Drug Interactions Acetaminophen (Tylenol, etc.). FDA recommends that people who regularly have three or more drinks a day consult a doctor before using acetaminophen. The alcohol/acetaminophen combination may cause liver failure. Anti-alcohol abuse drugs (disulfiram [Antabuse]). Taken concurrently with alcohol, the anti- alcoholism drug disulfiram can cause flushing, nausea, a drop in blood pressure, breathing difficulty, and confusion. The severity of the symptoms, which may var y among individu- als, generally depends on the amount of alcohol consumed and the amount of disulfiram in the body. Anticoagulants. Alcohol slows the body’s metabolism of anticoagulants (blood thinners), intensif ying the effect of the drugs and increasing the risk of side effects such as spontane- ous nosebleeds. Antidepressants. Alcohol may strengthen the sedative effects of antidepressants. Aspirin, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Like alco- hol, these analgesics irritate the lining of the stomach and may cause gastric bleeding. Com- bining the two intensifies the effect. Insulin and oral hypoglycemics. Alcohol lowers blood sugar and interferes with the metabo- lism of oral antidiabetics; the combination may cause severe hypoglycemia. Sedatives and other central nervous system depressants (tranquilizers, sleeping pills, antide- pressants, sinus and cold remedies, analgesics, and medication for motion sickness). Alcohol intensifies the sedative effects of these medications and, depending on the dose, may cause drowsiness, sedation, respiratory depression, coma, or death. MAO inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase (M AO) inhibitors are drugs used as antidepressants or antihypertensives. They inhibit the action of natural enzymes that break down tyramine, a substance formed naturally when proteins are metabolized. Tyramine is a pressor amine, a chemical that constricts blood vessel and raises blood pressure. If you eat a food that contains tyramine while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, the pressor amine cannot be eliminated from your body and the result may be a hypertensive crisis (sustained elevated blood pressure). Brandy, a distilled spirit made from wine (which is fermented) contains tyramine. All other distilled spirits may be excluded from your diet when you are taking an M AO inhibitor because the spirits and the drug, which are both sedatives, may be hazard- ous in combination.... distilled spirits

Drug Substance

An active ingredient that is intended to furnish pharmacological activity or other direct effect in diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of diseases or to effect the structure or any function of the human body... drug substance

Duchesnea Or Indian Strawberry

Duchesnea indica

Description: The duchesnea is a small plant that has runners and three-parted leaves. Its flowers are yellow and its fruit resembles a strawberry.

Habitat and Distribution: It is native to southern Asia but is a common weed in warmer temperate regions. Look for it in lawns, gardens, and along roads.

Edible Parts: Its fruit is edible. Eat it fresh.... duchesnea or indian strawberry

Discover Sarsaparilla Tea!

If you enjoy a cup of herbal tea, then sarsaparilla tea can count as a good choice for a daily beverage. The many health benefits should also tempt you to give it a try. Find out more about sarsaparilla tea. About Sarsaparilla Tea Sarsaparilla tea is made from the roots of sarsaparilla, a plant native to Central and South America. It is also known by the name Smilax regelii. In Spanish, it is called zarzaparrilla; “zarza” means “shrub” and “parrilla” means “little grape vine”. Sarsaparilla is a perennial plant which has a trailing vine with lots of wood-like stems and long thorns. It has small, greenish flowers which grow in axillary umbels. It is often used to flavor soft drinks. There is also the “false sarsaparilla”, native to South Asia. It belongs to a different plant family and genus, and it is often used in place of sarsaparilla. The false sarsaparilla is a slender shrub with woody and aromatic roots and many slender stems. It has small leaves and greenish flowers. Sarsaparilla Tea Constituents Both types of sarsaparilla have their own active constituents. The usual type includes sarsasaponin, sarsaparilloside, flavonoids, sarsapac acid, dextrose, and fatty acids. Meanwhile, the “false sarsaparilla” has some of the following constituents: coumarins, saraponins, starch, tannins, tannic acid, glucose, phenols, iron, and magnesium. Both the American type and the South Asian one can be used to make sarsaparilla tea, which gets the active constituents found in the roots. How to prepare Sarsaparilla Tea No matter the variety, you can easily prepare a cup of sarsaparilla tea. Just add about 1 gram of chopped dried root to a cup of freshly boiled water. Let it steep for about 10 minutes; then, stream to remove the root pieces. Sarsaparilla Tea Benefits The American and South Asian sarsaparilla root share a few health benefits, which are transferred to sarsaparilla tea, as well. They are used to treat various skin problems, such as eczema or psoriasis. Drinking sarsaparilla tea also helps you with arthritis, gout, and rheumatism. This tea is also included in the treatment of various sexual diseases, such as herpes, gonorrhea or syphilis. Drinking sarsaparilla tea might help improve your memory and mental concentration. It also helps with urinary tract infections, and menopausal symptoms. It can even be applied topically, to treat sores and burns. The tea made with the American sarsaparilla is believed to improve the sexual performance, and to enhance virility. If you’re using the ‘false sarsaparilla’ to make sarsaparilla tea, this can help fight various digestive problems and upper respiratory infections. Sarsaparilla Tea Side Effects It is recommended not to drink sarsaparilla tea if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding. Sarsaparilla tea can affect the baby in both cases. Also, don’t drink this tea if you’ve got asthma; it might worsen your condition. If you’re under any kind of medication (especially if you’re taking other diuretics), make sure you talk with your doctor first before you start drinking sarsaparilla tea. Also, be careful with the amount of sarsaparilla tea you drink. If you drink too much, it might cause digestive problems. Sarsaparilla tea is a pleasant everyday herbal tea. With its many health benefits, just one cup can help you stay healthy.... discover sarsaparilla tea!

Down’s (down) Syndrome

A genetic disorder in which the affected person usually carries an extra chromosome – 47 instead of the usual 46. The extra chromosome occurs in the no. 21 group, hence the disorder is described as trisomy 21. The condition was named after Dr J L H Down, the London doctor who ?rst described it in 1866. The incidence is around one in 600 births. The disorder is characterised by a particular physical appearance and learning diffculties, with the affected individuals having an INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ) ranging from 30 to 80 (normal is 100). Most people with the syndrome have eyes that slope up at the outer corners with skin folds that cover the inner ones. The face and features are smaller than normal, while the tongue is larger; the back of the head is ?attened and the hands are usually short and broad. The facial features led to the syndrome being described as ‘mongolism’, a term that is no longer used.

Children with Down’s syndrome are usually friendly and ?t in well with the family. Despite their learning disabilities, some learn to read and, if they have appropriate educational and environmental stimulation, can make the most of their abilities.

A heart defect is present in around 25 per cent of the children at birth, and deafness and acute LEUKAEMIA occur more frequently than in unaffected youngsters. Those with the syndrome are particularly prone to developing ear infections. ATHEROSCLEROSIS often develops early in adults and ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE tends to occur as early as 40 years of age. A friendly home environment helps them to enjoy life, but a few individuals with the syndrome may eventually require institutional care. Improved social and medical care means that many now live until their 60s.

Routine screening tests early in pregnancy, starting with blood analysis but going on if necessary to AMNIOCENTESIS and chorionic villus sampling (see PRENATAL SCREENING OR DIAGNOSIS), can identify fetuses likely to develop the disorder. If a sample of fetal cells con?rms the chromosome defect (triple marker test – see PREGNANCY AND LABOUR), the parents may consider termination of the pregnancy. In the UK, screening is normally o?ered to women over 35 because of their increased risk. When younger parents have a child with Down’s syndrome, the chances of a subsequent child with the disorder are relatively high as it is probable that both parents carry a chromosome abnormality insu?cient to cause ill-health until combined. So they may wish to discuss with their medical advisers the question of further pregnancies.

Parents who have a child with Down’s syndrome will understandably feel a combination of strong emotions, including anger and guilt, and constructive counselling can be valuable. Among societies o?ering advice and support is the Down’s Syndrome Association.... down’s (down) syndrome

Effort Syndrome

Also known as Da Costa’s syndrome, this is a condition in which symptoms occur, such as palpitations and shortness of breath, which are attributed by the patient to disorder of the heart. There is no evidence, however, of heart disease, and psychological factors are thought to be of importance. (See PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES.)... effort syndrome

Eisenmenger Syndrome

A condition in which the subject suffers from a defect in one of the dividing walls (septum) of the HEART and this is accompanied by PULMONARY HYPERTENSION. The defect allows blood low in oxygen to ?ow from the right to the left side of the heart and be pumped into the aorta, which normally carries oxygenated blood to the body. The patient has a dusky blue appearance, becomes breathless and has a severely restricted exercise tolerance. There is an increase in red blood cells as the body attempts to compensate for the lowered oxygen delivery. The condition may be avoided by early surgical repair of the septal defect, but once it is evident, surgery may not be possible.... eisenmenger syndrome

Discover The Spectacle Of Dragon Well Green Tea

One of the most popular drinks in China, Dragon Well tea is part of the green teas family, having an inviting and a toasty flavor. A truly enjoyable and spectacular cup of tea.

Description of Dragon Well tea

Dragon Well tea is a type of pan-fried green tea, most commonly named Longjing tea from Hangzhou, Zheijang province in China, where is produced mainly by hand. During the production process, the Dragon Well is dried under a wood-fired Chinese pan called “wok”. This process removes the green, grassy taste and also inhibits enzyme activity. Due to the widespread opinion in China that the Dragon Well tea has a cooling effect, its popularity significantly increases especially during the spring and summer seasons. Often called the national tea of China, Dragon Well tea is often served to head of states and foreign delegations during their visits in China. Presented as a tribute to many generations, it was given even to Richard Nixon during his memorable encounter with Mao Zedong. This tea is very popular because of its unique properties:  jade color, vegetative aroma, mellow chestnut flavor and singular shape. It has a buttery, nutty, rich texture and an enjoyable dry finish. Commonly, Dragon Well tea is graded using a scale of six levels from superior quality to low quality so it is advisable to chose wisely when you decide to buy it. When the flavor can barely be sensed, it is clear that you deal with a poor quality.

How to store the Dragon Well tea

If the tea is sealed, keep it in a freezer. Cover with a box to insulate from temperature change. In order to get warm, leave it to room temperature before opening. This prevents condensation. After opening the package of Dragon Well tea, it is best to keep it away from light, moisture, smell and heat in an airtight container.

Ingredients of Dragon Well tea

Like most green teas, the Dragon Well tea contains amino acids, vitamins, flavonoids, proteins, calcium, iron, fluorine, theine and has one of the highest concentrations of catechins among teas, second only to white teas.

How to brew Dragon Well tea

When it comes to brewing Dragon Well tea, the best choice is a clear glass teacup, so that you can see the beauty of the leaves as they dance and unfurl in the water. It is really spectacular. Quality of tea is related directly to the beauty of the buds. Glass is most suitable also because it disperses heat quickly and prevents over-steeping. If you see that the buds have reached the bottom, this means that the tea is ready to drink. You should infuse a small amount of leaves in high temperature water for as long as it takes. Pour hot water at approximately 80 - 90 degrees Celsius. Immerse until most of the tea buds has sink to the bottom of the glass and the tea liquor turns yellow. This will take 5 to 10 minutes for the first infusion. During soaking, the tea brings out a soft, pure aroma, a yellow-green color and a rich flavor. Decant and leave a small quantity as you may use it as the seed for the next infusion. Infuse for another 2 to 4 times with progressively shorter steeping time.

Health Benefits of Dragon Well tea

All tea comes from the same plant named Camellia sinensis. The method of production creates the different types of tea. Dragon Well tea contains the highest content of antioxidant compounds. Antioxidants are proven to fight against certain cancers, lower cholesterol levels and blood pressure, reduce the likely-hood of getting the flu and other infections, boosting the immune function of our body and help reduce the signs of aging. It is also a fat burning accelerator so let’s not forget its important benefits for diets. There’s also enough fluoride found in green tea to aid against plaque and other oral bacteria.

Side effects of Dragon Well tea

Like any other green tea, Dragon Well tea may have few side effects like restlessness, palpitations, insomnia, anxiety, irritability, increased heart rate, and elevated blood pressure due to the caffeine content. It may also cause pain in the stomach area or reduce the body’s absorption of iron by 25% so it is contraindicated to people with anemia, faintness, gastritis with hyperacidity, stomach and duodenal ulcer. In spite of few side effects, it is worth trying it and get to know its flavor. The spectacle of drinking this type of tea is truly unique and the flavor really satisfying.... discover the spectacle of dragon well green tea

Drink Sassafras Tea!

Drinking sassafras tea has both its pros and cons. The health benefits tempt you to give it a try. However, you should be aware of its side effects, as well. Find out more about both the health benefits and the side effects of sassafras tea. About Sassafras Tea Sassafras tea is made from the roots or leaves of the sassafras tree. This tree can be found in eastern North America and eastern Asia. The tree’s height varies between 9m and 18m. It has a thick trunk, with many thin branches and a smooth, orange-brown bark. The leaves have three distinct patterns (unlobed, bilobed, trilobed); they have smooth margins and can be 7-20cm long. The trees have small, yellow flowers with five petals, and a blue-black, egg-shaped fruit. The leaves are often used to season dishes. Also, rootbeer got its name from the oil extracted from sassafras tree root. How to make Sassafras Tea Both sassafras tree root and leaves can be used to make a cup of sassafras tea. Add a handful of either root or leaves to a pot of boiling water. Cover and let it steep for about 20 minutes. Once the steeping time is done, strain to clear the liquid. Sassafras Tea Benefits Sassafras tea gets many active constituents from either the root or the leaves of the sassafras tree. Some of them include safrole, tannins, mucilage, asarone, and alpha-pinene. This leads to the tea having many health benefits. Sassafras tea works both as a blood thinner and as a blood purifier. Drinking it also promotes the process of extracting toxins from your body. Drinking sassafras tea can help if you’ve got a cold or the flu. Also, it can be used in the treatment for bronchitis and gonorrhea. With sassafras tea, you can also treat liver and kidney problems, urinary tract problems, arthritis and rheumatism. Drinking it will also help reduce menstrual cramps. Sassafras Tea Side Effects Among its active constituents, sassafras tea contains saffron, which is considered to trigger liver cancer. More researches are being done, though until it is known for sure, its trade has been restricted. This is why it is recommended that you not drink sassafras tea for a long period of time. The amount of tea you drink matters, as well. Don’t drink more than 3-4 cups of sassafras tea a day. If you drink too much, you might get hallucinations, heart palpitations, headaches, or you might feel nauseous. Pregnant and breastfeeding women shouldn’t drink sassafras tea, either. It can affect the baby, and even lead to miscarriages during pregnancy. Sassafras tea has both health benefits and side effects. Before you start consuming it, it’s considered best to talk to your doctor and balance the pros and cons, based on your health. If you’re safe to drink it, then enjoy your cup of sassafras tea!... drink sassafras tea!

Drink More Oat Straw Tea!

If you haven’t heard much about oat straw tea, it’s time to find out! It has a delicious, slightly sweet taste, as well as many benefits which will help you stay healthy. Read this article to find out more about this tea! About Oat Straw Tea Oat straw tea is made from oat straw, which is the part of the oat plant, found above the ground, and which remains after the grain has been harvested. While at first it was used only to stuff mattresses, now it is much more appreciated thanks to its health benefits, which you can get by drinking oat straw tea, as well. Oat is cultivated in temperate areas on almost all continents, even in a few places in Africa. It is used, for example, to make oat flour, oat bread; in Britain, it is also used to brew beer. It can also be fed to horses or cattle. Constituents of Oat Straw Tea Oat is considered an important “health food” and quite a nutritious one too. Oat straw has important, benefic constituents which are also included in oat straw tea. The main constituents, also found in oat straw tea, are carbohydrates and silicic acid. It is also rich in calcium, potassium, and magnesium, and has a reasonable amount of proteins. As for vitamins, it includes A, B complex, C and E. How to prepare Oat Straw Tea A classic way to prepare a cup of oat straw tea is to add a teaspoon of dried oat straw to a cup of boiling water. Let it steep for about 10 minutes before you strain to remove the oat straw plant. You can add milk or honey to sweeten the taste. If you can and want to prepare oat straw tea from scratch, you can do that too. Pick up the necessary amount (or even more, which you can keep for later uses), wash and cut off any dirty parts. For two cups of oat straw tea, you can use a single stalk, which you cut into small pieces and add in each cup. Then, pour the boiling water and let it steep for 4 hours, or even overnight. When it’s done, strain it and drink it, either cold or reheated. The same steps apply if you want to use dry oat straws for a few cups of oat straw tea. Oat Straw Tea Benefits Oat straw tea is especially good for strengthening and nourishing your bones, thanks to the amount of calcium it contains. This way, it helps you fight against osteoporosis. It is good to drink oat straw tea in order to stabilize the sugar in your blood, as it reduces cholesterol levels and improve blood circulation. Oat straw tea is also good at improving your immune system, and it is good at alleviating pains. Drinking it can reduce headaches and menstrual cramps. Drinking oat straw tea can also help you relax your nervous system. It has a calming effect, and helps you fight against stress, tension, anxiety and even depression. Also, a cup of oat straw tea before bed will help you sleep better. You don’t need to consider oat straw tea only as a beverage in order to make use of its health benefits. It can also be applied externally, on the skin, in order to treat skin irritations, such as eczema or rashes. Also, a bath in oat straw tea is helpful for children with chicken pox. Oat straw Side Effects First of all, it is recommended that you not drink more than three cups of oat straw tea a day. If you do, it might become harmful. Some of the symptoms you might experience are headaches, dizziness, insomnia, irregular heartbeats, vomiting, diarrhea and loss of appetite. Make sure you reduce the amount of oat straw tea you drink if you get any of these symptoms. If you’re allergic to oat flour, you should also stay away from oat straw tea. It might lead to an allergic reaction. In this case, the symptoms you might get are difficulty in breathing, rashes, itching, or swelling of the throat or mouth. Also, if you’re suffering from celiac diseases, you should avoid drinking oat straw tea.Oat straw contains gluten, which can be harmful in this case. Oat straw tea has plenty of health benefits which should convince you to give it a try and maybe even include it in your daily diet. It can be easily prepared from scratch, and also sweetened to fit with your taste. Just be careful with its side effects, and enjoy your cup of oat straw tea!... drink more oat straw tea!

Elaeocarpus Serratus

Linn.

Synonym: E. cuneatus Wt.

Family: Elaeocarpaceae.

Habitat: Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats up to 1,000 m. English: Wild Olive tree, Ceylon Olive.

Ayurvedic: Rudraaksha (var.). Siddha/Tamil: Uttraccham, Ulankarei.

Action: Leaf—antirheumatic. Fruit—antidysenteric. Aerial parts—CVS and CNS active.

The leaves gave ellagic acid, myric- itrin, myricetin and mearnsetin. Fruit pulp gave citric acid and D-galactose. It contains pectin (2.57% fresh weight basis).... elaeocarpus serratus

Emergency Service

Service provided in response to the perceived individual need for immediate treatment or care.... emergency service

Epsom Salts

The popular name for magnesium sulphate, which was used as a saline purgative.... epsom salts

Escort Services

Transportation for older adults to services and appointments. May use buses, taxis, volunteer drivers, or van services that can accommodate wheelchairs and persons with other special needs.... escort services

Etherified Starch

Along with DEXTRAN and GELATIN, this is a substance with a large molecular structure used to treat shocked patients with burns (see BURNS AND SCALDS) or SEPTICAEMIA in order to expand and maintain their blood volume. Like other plasma substitutes, this form of starch can be used as an emergency, short-term treatment for severe bleeding until blood for transfusion is available. Plasma substitutes must be used with caution in patients who have heart disease or impairment of their kidney function. Patients should be monitored for hypersensitivity reactions and for changes in their BLOOD PRESSURE (see SHOCK).... etherified starch

Ewing’s Sarcoma

An uncommon but very malignant cancer of the bone in children and young adults, the condition was ?rst identi?ed as being di?erent from OSTEOSARCOMA by Dr J Ewing in 1921. It usually occurs in the limbs or pelvis and soon spreads to other parts of the body. Treatment is by RADIOTHERAPY and CYTOTOXIC drugs. Since the use of the latter, the number of patients who survive for ?ve years or more has much improved.... ewing’s sarcoma

Drink More Safflower Tea!

Safflower tea has a strong, but pleasant taste. As an herbal tea, it comes with many health benefits which are bound to help you stay healthy. Find out more about safflower tea! About Safflower Tea Safflower tea is made from the petals of safflower. The plant is an herbaceous, annual herb, which is cultivated in over sixty countries worldwide. It is a highly branched plant, with heights between 30cm and 150cm. Each branch has from one to five globular flower heads, with yellow, orange, or red flowers. The flower heads also contain 15-20 small seeds. The plant grows in open, arid environments; it is harvested during summertime. The plant was initially cultivated for its seeds, which are used to flavor and color food, as well as to make red and yellow dyes. Lately, the seeds are also used to make vegetable oil. How to prepare Safflower Tea You can easily prepare a cup of safflower tea. Just add a teaspoon of dried safflower petals to a cup of freshly boiled water. Let it steep for about 5 minutes, before you strain it to remove the petals. Your cup of safflower tea is ready! If the taste isn’t to your liking, you can sweeten the tea with honey or fruit juice. Safflower Tea Benefits A cup of safflower tea can help soothe your nerves, as well as relax you. Also, it can treat fevers, coughs and bronchial spasms. Generally, it is good at strengthening your immunity. Drinking safflower tea will also lower your bad cholesterol levels; this leads to preventing various heart diseases. It helps in the case of intestinal disorders, and it also facilitates bowel movement. Safflower tea can improve the conditions of cancer patients. This is why it is often included in the treatment for various types of cancer. Also, it can prevent osteoporosis, especially in the case of postmenopausal women. Safflower tea can be applied topically, as well. It is used to treat various bruises, open wounds, or rashes, as well as other skin disorders. Safflower Tea Side Effects Safflower tea doesn’t have many side effects. An important one is related to pregnant and breastfeeding women, who shouldn’t consume this tea. During pregnancy, it can even lead to miscarriages. It’s best not to drink thistea if you have bleeding problems. Safflower tea can slow down the blood clotting process, which might affect you if you’ve got hemorrhagic diseases, stomach or intestinal ulcers, or clotting disorders. Also, stop drinking it two weeks before a surgery, as it might cause bleeding during and after the surgery. Some people might be allergic to plants from the Asteraceae or Compositae family. Beside safflower, these include ragweed, chrysanthemums, marigolds, and daisies. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include swelling of the nose, lips and tongue, rashes and difficulty in breathing. If you get any of these, stop drinking safflower tea and contact your doctor.   Safflower tea is a good choice for an everyday tea. With this herbal tea, you get to enjoy both its taste and its many health benefits.... drink more safflower tea!

Emilia Sonchifolia

(L.) DC.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, ascending to 1,350 m in the hills.

Ayurvedic: Shash-shruti (non- classical).

Unani: Hirankhuri.

Folk: Sadamandi.

Action: Plant—sudorific, febrifuge, antiseptic. Used in infantile tympanitis and bowel complaints. Root—antidiarrhoeal. Leaf—used for otitis media under medical supervision.

The aerial parts contain pyrrolizi- dine alkaloids, senkirkine and doro- nine. Presence of simiaral, beta-sitos- terol, stigmasterol, palmitic and tria- contannic acids is also reported.... emilia sonchifolia

Entada Scandens

auct. non-Benth.

Synonym: E. phaseoloides Merrill. E. pursaetha DC. Mimosa entada Linn.

Family: Momosaceae.

Habitat: Eastern Himalayas, hills of Bihar, Orissa and South India.

English: Garbee Bean, Mackay Bean, Elephant Creeper.

Ayurvedic: Gil.

Siddha/Tamil: Chillu, Vattavalli.

Folk: Gil-gaachh.

Action: Seed—carminative, anodyne, spasmolytic bechic, anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, antiperiodic. Used in liver complaints, glandular swellings, debility, skin diseases. The seed, stems and bark are poisonous. A paste of the seeds is applied locally for inflammatory glandular swellings. The juice of wood and bark is used as an external application for ulcers. The leaves are reported to be free from the toxic saponins. After soaking in water and roasting toxic principles can be removed from the white kernels of the seeds.

The seeds gave saponins of entagenic acid; a triterpenoid glucoside entanin; beta-sitosterol, alpha-amyrin, querce- tin, gallic acid, cyamidin chloride, lu- peol and a saponin mixture which gave prosapogenin A. Entanin exhibits anti- tumour activity. It inhibits Walker 256 tumours in rats without deaths.

Entadamide A (the sulphur-containing amide from the seed) is a 5-lipo-xygenase inhibitor and is found to be effective in the treatment of bronchial asthma. The bark is used for hair wash.

Entagenic acid, a sapogenin of entada saponin IV, imparts antifungal activity to the bark.... entada scandens

Experimental Study

A study in which conditions are under the direct control of the investigator.... experimental study

Explanatory Study

A study where the main objective is to explain, rather than merely describe, a situation by isolating the effects of specific variables and understanding the mechanisms of action.... explanatory study

Extra Care Sheltered Housing

Housing where there is additional support (such as the provision of meals and extra communal facilities) to that usually found in sheltered housing. Sometimes called ‘very sheltered housing’.... extra care sheltered housing

Fagus Sylvatica

Linn.

Family: Fagaceae.

Habitat: Cooler regions of northern hemisphere. Distributed in Kulu and the Nilgiris.

English: European Beech, Common Beech.

Action: Seeds and fatty oil— used externally in skin diseases, rheumatism and gout. Seeds— poisonous. Saponins cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms. Leaves also contain saponins. Wood tar— antiseptic, analgesic; mixed with talc, used as a dusting powder for gangrene and bed sores.... fagus sylvatica

Drink Pau D’arco Tea From South America

Get a taste of South America by drinking pau d’arco tea. It has a pleasant, earthy taste, astringent and just a bit bitter. Find out more about its health benefits and side effects! About Pau D’Arco Tea Pau D’Arco tea uses the inner bark of the Pink Ipê tree, also known as Pink Lapacho. The tree can be found in many South American countries. The Pink Lapacho is a large tree which can grow up to 30m tall. Usually, the trunk represents a third of that height, while the rest is used by the tree’s branches. The bark is dark brown, tough and hard to peel, and its branches spring up with opposite and petiolate leaves, and large, tubular-shaped pink flowers which bloom between July and September. How to make Pau D’Arco Tea To enjoy some pau d’arco tea, add 3 tablespoons to a pot containing 1 liter of water and bring it to boiling point. Once it reaches boiling point, lower the heat to medium-low and leave it like this for about 20 minutes. Once that’s done, strain the tea and pour it into cups. Pau d’arco tea can be served both hot and cold. If you want to, you can sweeten it with honey, stevia or fruit juice. Pau D’Arco Tea Benefits The inner bark of the Pink Lapacho tea has important active constituents, such as lapachol, lapachone and isolapachone, as well as various flavonoids and tannins. They are transferred to the pau d’arco tea; this way, the beverage helps us stay healthy. Pau d’arco tea plays an important role in the help against cancer. Cancer patients who have consumed this tea have shown progress, from alleviation of chemotherapy symptoms to complete remission of the cancerous tumors. Pau d’arco tea is also useful in the treatment of other diseases, such as diabetes, fibromyalgia, and lupus. Drinking pau d’arco tea can help if you’ve got a cold or the flu. It is also useful as a remedy for smoker’s cough, and acts as an expectorant, stimulating coughing in order to get rid of mucus. It was also discovered that pau d’arco tea increases the production of red blood cells. Although researches are still being made in this area, it is recommended in the treatment for leukemia, anemia and other blood disorders. Pau d’arco tea is also useful in fighting fungi. It is used to treat yeast infection and candida, due to its antifungal nature. It can help in the treatment for stomach ulcers, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and dysentery. It also protects you against tropical diseases (malaria, schistosomiasis). Pau D’Arco Tea Side Effects Pau d’arco tea may act like a blood thinner. Don’t drink this tea at least two weeks before a surgery, otherwise it might increase the risk of bleeding both during and after the surgery, and can decrease the blood clotting speed. You also shouldn’t drink pau d’arco tea if you’ve got a bleeding disorder (hemophilia) or if you’re taking anticoagulants. If you’re taking any medication, talk to your doctor first before drinking pau d’arco tea. It may interfere with various medications, for example aspirin, enoxaparin, warfarin, and dalteparin. It is also recommended that you not drink pau d’arco tea if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding. During pregnancy, it can lead to child defects or even death of the baby. It can also affect the baby during breastfeeding. Be careful with the amount of pau d’arco tea you drink a day. The maximum amount of tea you can drink a day is 1 liter. If you drink more, it might lead to nausea, vomiting or bleeding (in which case you should consult a doctor). Other symptoms include headaches, dizziness and diarrhea. Pau d’arco tea has lots of important health benefits, but it also has a few side effects which you should remember. If you make sure it’s safe to drink this tea, you can enjoy it with no worries!... drink pau d’arco tea from south america

Eruca Sativa

Mill.

Family: Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Delhi and Madhya Pradesh.

English: Rocket-Salad.

Ayurvedic: Tuvari, Tuvarikaa, Shveta-sursaa, Bhuutaghna, Darad- harsha, Siddaartha.

Unani: Jirjeer, Taraamiraa.

Folk: Safed Sarson.

Action: Tender leaf—stimulant, stomachic, diuretic, antiscorbutic, rubefacient. Seed—vesicant, antibacterial.

Seeds and fresh plant gave glu- coerucin (4-methylthiobutyl glucosi- nolate); leaves yielded iso-rhamnetin- 3-glucoside and iso-rhamnetin. The volatile oil of the seeds contains isoth- iocyanate derivatives. The oil at 0.004 and 0.008 ml/kg exhibits diuretic activity. The ethanolic extract of the seeds is diuretic at 20 and 40 mg/kg Seeds are used to induce vomiting in place of ipecac.

Crude juice of the plant inhibited E. coli, S. typhi and B. subttis.

For eating purposes, the plant should be gathered before flowering; for medicinal use when in flower.... eruca sativa

Falling Sickness

An old name for EPILEPSY.... falling sickness

False-memory Syndrome

See REPRESSED MEMORY THERAPY.... false-memory syndrome

Feasibility Study

Preliminary study to determine the practicability of a proposed health programme or procedure, or of a larger study, and to appraise the factors that may influence its practicability.... feasibility study

Fee For Service (ffs)

Method of billing for health services under which a medical practitioner or other practitioner charges separately for each patient encounter or service rendered. Under a fee-for-service payment system, expenditures increase if the fees themselves increase, if more units of service are provided, or if more expensive services are substituted for less expensive ones. This system contrasts with salary, per capita, or other prepayment systems, where the payment to the medical practitioner is not changed according to the number of services actually used.... fee for service (ffs)

Fee Schedule

A listing of accepted fees or established allowances for specified medical or other professional procedures and services. As used in medical care plans, it usually represents the maximum amounts the programme will pay for the specified procedures.... fee schedule

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A disorder of newborn infants that is caused by the toxic effects on the growing FETUS of excessive amounts of alcohol taken by the mother. Low birth-weight and retarded growth are the main consequences, but affected babies may have hand and facial deformities and are sometimes mentally retarded.... fetal alcohol syndrome

Erythrina Stricta

Roxb.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Assam, Manipur, West Bengal and South India.

Ayurvedic: Muraa (controversial).

Siddha/Tamil: Mullu-murukku.

Action: Bark—antibilious, an- tirheumatic, febrifuge, antiasth- matic, antiepileptic, antileprotic. Flowers—antidote to poison. In Assam, the juice of the root bark is given to children in threadworm infection.

The plant gave tetracyclic alkaloids— (+)-erythraline and (+)-erythrinine.... erythrina stricta

Euphrasia Simplex

D. Don.

Synonym: E. officinalis Linn.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: The Temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim, from 1,350 to 4,000 m.

English: Eyebright.

Action: Plant—astringent, antiallergic, bechic, anticatarrhal.

Key application: Externally as lotions, eye-baths, poultices, for eye complaints associated with inflammatory conditions, and as a preventive measure against mucus of the eyes, "glued" and inflammed eyes. (Traditional uses mentioned by German Comission E.)

Orally, Eyebright is used to treat allergies, common cold, bronchial conditions and sinusitis. Ophthalmic application is not recommended. Eye- bright has been used in a British herbal tobacco product, which was smoked for cold and chronic bronchial conditions.

Aerial parts showed presence of phenol, carboxylic acid, flavones and methyl flavone derivatives. Plant gave quercetin glucoside, diosmetin, kaem- pferol, caffeic and ferulic acids, stig- masterol and beta-sitosterol. Iridoid glycosides, including aucubin, are also present. Tannins include both condensed and hydrolysable gallic acid type.... euphrasia simplex

Feijoa Sellowiana

Berg.

Synonym: Acca sellowiana Berg.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Indigenous to western Paraguay, southern Brazil, Uruguay and parts of Argentina; cultivated in South India in Nilgiris and Kodaikanal hills.

English: Feijoa, Pineapple Guava, New Zealand Banana.

Action: The fruit contains iodine and vitamin C. Iodine content varies according to locality and fluctuates from year to year, usual range is 1.64-3.9 mg/kg Fruit also contains vitamin P-active polyphenols. The fruit is found beneficial only in mild cases of thyrotoxicosis.... feijoa sellowiana

Ferula Sumbul

Hook. f.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir.

English: Narthex asafoetida.

Ayurvedic: Hingu (var.).

Unani: Hilteet, Hing.

Siddha/Tamil: Perungayam.

Action: The gum-resin is used as asafoetida.

The oil is reported to be bacteriocidal. It exhibited antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria.

The essential oil, obtained from seeds, shows antioxidant activity comparable to BHT.

The plant gave coumarin derivatives including umbelliferone and scopo- letin.

Dosage: Gum-resin—125-500 mg. (CCRAS.)... ferula sumbul

Flacourtia Sepiaria

Roxb.

Family: Flacourtiaceae.

Habitat: Kumaon and n the dry forests of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and South India.

Ayurvedic: Vikankata (related species), Kinkini (provisional classical synonym).

Folk: Kondai, Kondari.

Action: The bark of the plant, triturated in sesame oil, is used as liniment in gout and rheumatism.... flacourtia sepiaria

Flinder’s Island Spotted Fever

A tick-borne disease found on Flinder’s Island, north of Tasmania. Zoonotic and caused by Rickettsia honei.... flinder’s island spotted fever

Fibromyalgia Syndrome

Symptoms These vary, with pain and fatigue generally prominent, sometimes causing considerable disability. Patients can usually dress and wash independently but cannot cope with a job or household activities. Pain is mainly axial, but may affect any region. ANALGESICS, NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) and local physical treatments are generally ine?ective.

Patients often have a poor sleep pattern, waking exhausted. Unexplained headache, urinary frequency and abdominal symptoms are common, but no cause has been found. Patients generally score highly on measures of anxiety and DEPRESSION. Fibromyalgia is not an ideal description; idiopathic di?use-pain syndrome and non-restorative sleep disorder are increasingly preferred terms.

Clinical ?ndings are generally unremarkable; most important is the presence of multiple hyperalgesic tender sites (e.g. low cervical spine, low lumbar spine, suboccipital muscle, mid upper trapezius, tennis-elbow sites, upper outer quadrants of buttocks, medial fat pad of knees). In ?bromyalgia, hyperalgesia (excessive discomfort) is widespread and symmetrical, but absent at sites normally non-tender. Claims by patients to be tender all over are more likely to be due to fabrication or psychiatric disturbance. OSTEOARTHRITIS and periarticular syndrome are much more common and should be excluded, together with other conditions, such as hypothyroidism (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) and in?ammatory myopathy (see MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF), which may present with similar symptoms.

Cause There is no investigational evidence of in?ammatory, metabolic or structural abnormality, and the problem seems functional rather than pathological. SEROTONIN de?ciency has a signi?cant role in ?bromyalgia syndrome.

Management Controlled trials have con?rmed the usefulness of low-dose AMITRIPTYLINE or DOTHIEPIN together with a graded exercise programme to increase aerobic ?tness. How this works is still unclear; its e?cacy may be due to its normalising effects on the sleep centre or ‘pain gating’ (reduction of pain sensation) at the spinal-cord level. Prognosis is often poor. Nevertheless, suitable advice and training can help most patients to learn to cope better with their condition and avoid unnecessary investigations and drug treatments.... fibromyalgia syndrome

Follow-up Study

A study in which individuals or populations, selected on the basis of whether they have been exposed to risk, have received a specified preventive or therapeutic procedure, or possess a certain characteristic, are followed to assess the outcome of exposure, the procedure or the effect of the characteristic, e.g. occurrence of disease.... follow-up study

Food Standards Agency

An independent agency recently set up by the UK government. The aim is for the agency to protect consumers’ interests in every aspect of food safety and nutrition. The agency advises ministers and the food industry, conducts research and surveillance, and monitors enforcement of food safety and hygiene laws.... food standards agency

Fröhlich’s Syndrome

A condition in children characterised by obesity, physical sluggishness, and retarded sexual development. It is the result of disturbed PITUITARY GLAND function.... fröhlich’s syndrome

Functional Status

The extent to which an individual is able to perform activities that are associated with the routines of daily living. See “activities of daily living”; and “instrumental activities of daily living”.... functional status

Generic Drug Substitution

Generic drugs have been licensed as equivalent to brand name drugs. Generics are usually less expensive and they may be substituted by the dispenser.... generic drug substitution

Glue Sniffing

See SOLVENT ABUSE.... glue sniffing

Gonotrophic Stage

The condition of female mosquitoes during blood ingestion, ovarian development, leading to oviposition.... gonotrophic stage

Gram’s Stain

Bacteria can be stained with an iodine-based chemical dye called Gram’s stain (after the scientist who discovered the technique). Different bacteria react di?erently to exposure to the stain. Broadly, the bacterial specimens are stained ?rst with gentian violet, then with Gram’s stain, and ?nally counterstained with a red dye after a decolorising process. Bacteria that retain the gentian stain are called gram-positive; those that lose it but absorb the red stain are called gram-negative. Some species of staphylococcus, streptococcus and clostridium are gram-positive, whereas salmonella and Vibrio cholerae are gram-negative.... gram’s stain

Gilles De La Tourette’s Syndrome

Also known as Tourette’s syndrome, this is a hereditary condition of severe and multiple tics (see TIC) of motor or vocal origin. It usually starts in childhood and becomes chronic (with remissions). With a prevalance of one in 2,000, a dominant gene (see GENES) with variable expression may be responsible. The disorder is associated with explosive vocal tics and grunts, occasionally obscene (see COPROLALIA). The patient may also involuntarily repeat the words or imitate the actions of others (see PALILALIA). HALOPERIDOL, pimozide (an oral antipsychotic drug similar to CHLORPROMAZINE hydrochloride) and clonidine are among drugs that may help to control this distressing, but fortunately rare, disorder.... gilles de la tourette’s syndrome

Gloriosa Superba

Linn.

Habitat: Throughout tropical India, up to 2,350 m on the hills.

English: Glory Lily, Super Lily, Tiger's Claws.

Ayurvedic: Laangali, Laangaliki, Laangalaki, Laanglaahva, Indra- pushpi, Agnishikhaa, Anantaa, Vishaalyaa, Halini, Sirikramaa, Shukrapushpikaa, Vahnimukhi, Garbhanut, Garbhapaatani. Kali- haari (Costus specious Koen., is also used as Kalihaari), Kalikaari.

Siddha/Tamil: Kalappankizhangu.

Action: Tuberous root—anti- inflammatory, alterative, an- thelmintic, antileprotic. Used for piles, swollen joints, parasitical affections of skin. Fresh juice of plant—uterine stimulant.

The root contain colchicine 0.230.3%. Colchicine and its derivatives are present in tubers, seeds and flowers.

The seeds are used as raw material for preparing drugs for gout. They are considered a rich source of colchicine and gloriosine.

The herb is a gastrointestinal irritant.

Dosage: Detoxified tuberous root— 125-250 mg. (API Vol. III.)... gloriosa superba

Gold Salts

These are used in the treatment of RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS. Gold may be administered in various forms – for example, sodium aurothiomalate. It is injected in very small doses intramuscularly and produces a reaction in the affected tissues which leads to their scarring and healing. Aurano?n is a gold preparation that can be given orally; if no response has been achieved within six months the drug should be stopped. It is less e?ective than gold given by intramuscular injection. If gold is administered in too large quantities, skin eruptions, albuminuria (see PROTEINURIA), metallic taste in the mouth, JAUNDICE, and feverishness may be produced, so that it is necessary to prolong a course of this remedy over many months in minute doses. Routine blood and urine tests are also necessary in order to detect any adverse or toxic e?ect at an early stage.... gold salts

Group Senior Assisted Housing

See “assisted living facility”.... group senior assisted housing

Grewia Sclerophylla

Roxb. ex G. Don.

Synonym: G. scabrophylla Roxb. G. obliqua auct. non-Juss.

Family: Tiliaceae.

Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tract and outer hills from Kumaon to Bhutan up to 1,200 m and in Assam

Ayurvedic: Parushaka (related species), Dhanvana (related species)

Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Kadali.

Folk: Jangali Phaalsaa.

Action: Root—emollient, bechic. Used in irritable conditions of the intestines and bladder.... grewia sclerophylla

Guettarda Speciosa

Linn.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: Native to tropical America; occurs in tidal forests of South India and in Andaman Islands. (An extract of flowers, resembling rose-water, in sold in Travancore markets.)

Action: Bark—used in chronic dysentery; also applied to wounds and abscesses.

Siddha/Tamil: Pey Ellu, Uch Ellu.

Folk: Raam-til, Kaalaa Til, Sargujaa.

Action: Oil from seed—an- tirheumatic.

The seeds yield an oil (33%), a mixture of triglycerides, lauric, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and arachidic acids. The unsaponifiable matter is a mixture of stigmasterol, n- triacontane and lupeol. Seeds contain lysine.... guettarda speciosa

Gymnema Sylvestre

B. Br.

Family: Asclepiadaceae.

Habitat: Central and Peninsular India.

English: Australian Cow Plant, Ipecacuanha (Indian).

Ayurvedic: Meshashringi, Meshav- ishaanikaa, Meshavalli, Chhaagal- shrngi. Ajashringi (also equated with Dolichandrone falcata and Pergularia extensa).

Unani: Gurmaar Buuti.

Siddha/Tamil: Kannu Minnayam- kodi, Passaam, Shirukurinja.

Action: Leaf—antidiabetic. Stimulates the heart and circulatory system, activates the uterus. Used in parageusia and furunculosis. Plant—diuretic, antibilious. Root— emetic, expectorant, astringent, stomachic.

Gymnemagenin, the main sapoge- nin in the leaves, yielded 3.9-4.6% of total gymnemic acids.

Gymnemic acids are antisweet principles and exhibit inhibitory effect on levels of plasma glucose.

The extract of dried leaves, given to diabetic rats at a dose of 20 mg/day per rat for 8 weeks, was found to bring about blood glucose homoeostasis by increasing serum insulin levels. Increased glycoprotein level and the resultant nephropathy, retinopathy and micro-and macro-angiopathy were also controlled.

The leaf extract (25-100 mg/kg), when orally administered to experimentally induced hyperlipidaemic rats for 2 weeks, reduced the elevated serum triglyceride and total cholesterol in a dose-dependent manner. The efficacy and antiatherosclerotic potential of the extract (100 mg/kg) were comparable to that of a lipid lowering agent, clofibrate.

In homoeopathy, a drug obtained from the leaves and roots is prescribed for both diabetes mellitus and insipidus Gymnemic acid is reported to inhibit melanin formation in vitro. It also inhibits dental plaque formation.

Dosage: Root, leaf-3-5 g powder; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... gymnema sylvestre

Hartmann’s Solution

A solution commonly used as a means of ?uid replacement in dehydrated patients (see also DEHYDRATION). Each litre contains 3·1 grams of sodium lactate, 6 grams of sodium chloride, 0·4 grams of potassium chloride, and 0·7 grams of calcium chloride.... hartmann’s solution

Health And Safety Executive (hse)

The statutory body in Britain responsible for the health and safety of workers. The address of the HSE can be found in APPENDIX 7: STATUTORY ORGANISATIONS.... health and safety executive (hse)

Health Care Delivery System

See “health system”.... health care delivery system

Health Communication Strategy

A communication strategy to inform the public or communities about health issues with the objective of reducing health risks and improving health status.... health communication strategy

Health Information System

The generation and the use of appropriate health information to support decision-making, health care delivery and management of health services at national and subnational level.... health information system

Health Sector

The sector consisting of organized public and private health services (including health promotion, disease prevention, diagnostic, treatment and care services), the policies and activities of health departments and ministries, health-related nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and community groups, and professional associations.... health sector

Gymnema Tea - The Destroyer Of Sugar

Gymnema tea is known for its sugar killing properties. Gymnema (gymnema sylvestre) is a woody plant that grows mainly in the forests of central and southern India. The plant climbs on bushes and trees, has elliptical leaves and small flowers with a yellow corolla. Gymnema is also known as the “destroyer of sugar”. In ancient times, some physicians noticed that chewing gymnema leaves can suppress the taste of sugar. Currently, gymnena is being administrated in India to those who suffer from diabetes, for increasing insulin levels and controlling the blood sugar levels. The constituents of gymnema tea are gymnemic acid, parabin, glucose and carbohydrates. How To Make Gymnema Tea Brewing gymnema tea is a very simple process. You can make it by combining dried gymnema leaves with green tea loose leaf and placing them into boiled water. Let the mix steep for about 5-7 minutes. The more you let it steep, the more intensified the flavor will be. Gymnema Tea Benefits
  • Helps reducing blood sugar levels.
  • Is a strong allied in the process of weight loss.
  • May help treat swollen glands.
  • Has anti-inflammatory properties.
  • Helps treating snakebites.
  • Reduces the craving for sugar.
Gymnema Tea Side Effects
  • Pregnant and breastfeeding women should not drink gymnema tea. Not enough is known about consuming gymnema tea during pregnancy so, it is better to avoid it.
  • Gymnema tea may interfere with blood sugar control during and after surgical procedures.
Ass you can see, gymnema tea has a lot of health benefits. Just make sure you stay away from its side effects and, also, avoid over-consumption! No more than 1-2 cups of gymnema tea per day!... gymnema tea - the destroyer of sugar

Gymnosporia Spinosa

(Forsk.) Fiori.

Synonym: G. Montana (Roth) Benth.

Maytenus senegulensis Exell. M. emarginata Ding Hou.

Family: Celastraceae.

Habitat: Throughout the drier parts of India.

Ayurvedic: Vikankata (substitute) Sruva-Vrksha (substitute), Vyaaghrapaadi.

Siddha/Tamil: Kattangi, Nandunarai, Valuluvai.

Folk: Baikal.

Action: Plant—antispasmodic. Root—used in gastroenteritis and dysentery.

The bark is ground to a paste and applied with mustard oil to kill lice in the hair. A decoction of leafy twigs is used as a mouth wash to relieve toothache.

The leaves contain celacinnine, al- pha-and beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone, beta-sitosterol and its 3'-O-glucoside and kaempferol. The extracts of the plant show cytotoxic effect on some cancers. An ointment, prepared by mixing leaf ash and purified butter, is used for sores.... gymnosporia spinosa

Have Some Schizonepeta Tea!

Schizonepeta tea is a pretty aromatic herbal tea, which can work as a perfect daily hot beverage. It has plenty of health benefits which should convince you to give it a try. Find out more about this herbal tea. About Schizonepeta Tea Schizonepeta tea is made from the leaves, stems and/or flowers of the schizonepeta plant. Also known as Japanese catnip, it grows especially in China and Japan. Schizonepeta is an annual plant that has a scent similar to that of pine. The plant has small, lavender flowers that grow together in bunches. The plants are usually harvested during autumn and winter. The useful parts (stems, leaves and flowers) are dried in the shade and cut into pieces. How to prepare Schizonepeta Tea To enjoy schizonepeta tea, add stems, leaves or flowers to a cup of freshly boiled water. Let it steep for 5-7 minutes, then strain to remove the herbs. If you want your tea to have a stronger flavor, let it steep for about 10 minutes. Schizonepeta Tea Benefits Schizonepeta tea has plenty of health benefits, thanks to the active constituents of the plant. These include menthol, menthone, caffeic acid, schizonodiol, cineole, and hesperidin. Schizonepeta tea is useful when you’re dealing with hemorrhages. It can be generally used to help with post-natal bleeding and excessive menstruation. Also, it can be used to treat uterine hemorrhage, vomiting blood, and hemafecia. This tea can help with itchiness, especially in the nose, throat, and palate. It is useful when you’ve got an allergic reaction, as well, and can treat fevers. Schizonepeta tea can also be applied topically. It can be used when you’ve got skin conditions, such as psoriasis, boils and rashes. Also, together with honeysuckle, forsythia, and ledebouriella root, it can treat pus-generating infections. Drinking schizonepeta tea can also help you when you’re dealing with mastitis and carbuncle. It is also used to lessen inflammations and swellings. Schizonepeta Tea Side Effects When it comes to schizonepeta tea side effects, there aren’t too many to mention. It is recommended that pregnant and breastfeeding women shouldn’t drink this tea, as it might affect the baby in both cases. Also, if you’ve got liver problems, you should stay away from schizonepeta tea, as well. It might cause more damage.   Schizonepeta tea definitely has more health benefits than side effects. This should convince you to give it a try and maybe include it in your daily diet.... have some schizonepeta tea!

Health Service

Service performed by health care professionals, or by others under their direction, for the purpose of promoting, maintaining or restoring health.... health service

Health Service Area

A geographic area designated on the basis of such factors as geography, political boundaries, population and health resources, for the effective planning and development of health services.... health service area

Health Service Commissioner

An o?cial, responsible to the United Kingdom’s parliament, appointed to protect the interests of National Health Service patients in matters concerning the administration of the health service and the delivery of health care (excluding clinical judgements). Known colloquially as the health ombudsman, the Commissioner presents regular reports on the complaints dealt with.... health service commissioner

Health Services Research

The multidisciplinary field of scientific investigation that studies how social factors, financing systems, organizational structures and processes, health technologies, and personal behaviours affect access to health care, the quality and cost of health care, and ultimately health and well-being. Its research domains are individuals, families, organizations, institutions, communities and populations.... health services research

Health Situation

An overall picture of the health status of a region, community or population, which includes measures taken to improve health, the resources devoted to health, an appreciation of specific health problems that require particular attention, and the degree of people’s awareness about their health and ways of improving it.... health situation

Health Status

The state of health of an individual, group or population. It may be measured by obtaining proxies, such as people’s subjective assessments of their health; by one or more indicators of mortality and morbidity in the population, such as longevity; or by using the incidence or prevalence of major diseases (communicable, chronic or nutritional).... health status

Health Survey

A survey designed to provide information on the health status of a population. It may be descriptive, exploratory or explanatory.... health survey

Health System

The people, institutions and resources, arranged together in accordance with established policies, to improve the health of the population they serve, while responding to people’s legitimate expectations and protecting them against the cost of ill-health through a variety of activities, the primary intent of which is to improve health. Health systems fulfil three main functions: health care delivery, fair treatment of all, and meeting non-health expectations of the population. These functions are performed in the pursuit of three goals: health, responsiveness and fair financing. A health system is usually organized at various levels, starting at the community level or the primary level of health care and proceeding through the intermediate (district, regional or provincial) to the central level.... health system

Health System Infrastructure

Services, facilities, institutions, personnel or establishments, organizations and those operating them for the delivery of a variety of health programmes.... health system infrastructure

Health Systems Research

Research dealing with the entire health system or only part of it, the object being to ensure that the system is optimally planned and organized and that programmes are carried out by the health system infrastructure efficiently and effectively and with appropriate technology.... health systems research

Health-service Management

The administrative machinery for planning, delivering and monitoring health care provided by health professionals and their supporting sta?. This may range from running a small primary-care centre to organising a large hospital or being responsible for meeting the health needs of a region or a nation. Whether the overall structure for proving care is state-funded, insurance-based, private-practice or a mixture of these, health-service management is essential in an era of rapidly evolving and expensive scienti?c medicine. Health-service managers are administrators with special training and skills in managing health care; sometimes they are doctors, nurses or other health professionals, but many have been trained in management in commercial, civil service or industrial environments.... health-service management

Heat Spots

A vague term applied to small in?amed and congested areas which appear especially upon the skin of the face, neck and chest or other parts of the body in warm weather.... heat spots

Henoch-schönlein Purpura

This is an in?ammatory condition of the small blood vessels, the cause of which is not known but may be an allergic response to food or drugs. Most common among young children, the in?ammation causes blood to leak into joints, kidneys, intestine and skin. The child presents with a purpuric rash and stomach pains which may come and go for weeks. Paracetamol alone is often su?cient to alleviate the condition, but severely ill patients may need corticosteroid drugs. All sufferers need follow-up for 12 months to ensure that they have not developed kidney disease.... henoch-schönlein purpura

Heat Stroke

A condition resulting from environmental temperatures which are too high for compensation by the body’s thermo-regulatory mechanism(s). It is characterised by hyperpyrexia, nausea, headache, thirst, confusion, and dry skin. If untreated, COMA and death ensue. The occurrence of heat stroke is sporadic: whereas a single individual may be affected (occasionally with fatal consequences), his or her colleagues may remain unaffected. Predisposing factors include unsatisfactory living or working conditions, inadequate acclimatisation to tropical conditions, unsuitable clothing, underlying poor health, and possibly dietetic or alcoholic indiscretions. The condition can be a major problem during pilgrimages – for example, the Muslim Hadj. Four clinical syndromes are recognised:

Heat collapse is characterised by fatigue, giddiness, and temporary loss of consciousness. It is accompanied by HYPOTENSION and BRADYCARDIA; there may also be vomiting and muscular cramps. Urinary volume is diminished. Recovery is usual.

Heat exhaustion is characterised by increasing weakness, dizziness and insomnia. In the majority of sufferers, sweating is defective; there are few, if any, signs of dehydration. Pulse rate is normal, and urinary output good. Body temperature is usually 37·8–38·3 °C.

Heat cramps (usually in the legs, arms or back, and occasionally involving the abdominal muscles) are associated with hard physical work at a high temperature. Sweating, pallor, headache, giddiness and intense anxiety are present. Body temperature is only mildly raised.

Heat hyperpyrexia is heralded by energy loss and irritability; this is followed by mental confusion and diminution of sweating. The individual rapidly becomes restless, then comatose; body temperature rises to 41–42 °C or even higher. The condition is fatal unless expertly treated as a matter of urgency.

Treatment With the ?rst two syndromes, the affected individual must be removed immediately to a cool place, and isotonic saline administered – intravenously in a severe case. The fourth syndrome is a medical emergency. The patient should be placed in the shade, stripped, and drenched with water; fanning should be instigated. He or she should be wrapped in a sheet soaked in cool water and fanning continued. When rectal temperature has fallen to 39 °C, the patient is wrapped in a dry blanket. Immediately after consciousness returns, normal saline should be given orally; this usually provokes sweating. The risk of circulatory collapse exists. Convalescence may be protracted and the patient should be repatriated to a cool climate. Prophylactically, personnel intended for work in a tropical climate must be very carefully selected. Adequate acclimatisation is also essential; severe physical exertion must be avoided for several weeks, and light clothes should be worn. The diet should be light but nourishing, and ?uid intake adequate. Those performing hard physical work at a very high ambient temperature should receive sodium chloride supplements. Attention to ventilation and air-conditioning is essential; fans are also of value.... heat stroke

Hedychium Spicatum

Ham. ex Smith.

Synonym: H. album Buch-Ham. Ex Wall.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Central Himalaya at 1,1002,500 m, East India and hills of South India.

English: Spiked Ginger Lily.

Ayurvedic: Shathi, Shati, Gand- hashathi, Gandhapalaashi, Kapu- urkachari, Suvrataa, Gandhaarikaa, Gandhavadhuu, Gandhamuulikaa.

Unani: Kapuurkachari.

Siddha/Tamil: Poolankizangu, Kichilikizangu.

Folk: Ban-haldi (Kumaon).

Action: Rhizome—carminative, spasmolytic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antiemetic, antidiarrhoeal, analgesic, expectorant, antiasthmatic, emmenagogue, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, insect- repellent.

The rhizome shows hypotensive effect in dogs at low doses, lowers blood pressure in high doses.

EtOH (50%) extract—anti-inflammatory and hypoglycaemic; gave encouraging results in tropical pulmonary eosinophilia in clinical studies. Alcoholic extract of the plant—vasodilator, mild hypotensive and antiseptic in animals. Essential oil from rhizome—mild tranquilizer in male albino rats; antimicrobial.

Rhizome gave sitosterol and its glu- coside, a furanoid diterpene—hedy- chenone and 7-hydroxyhedychenone. The essential oil contains cineole, gamma-terpinene, limonene, beta- phellandrene, p-cymene, linalool and beta-terpineol as major constituents.

The oil inhibits the growth of several fungi. The ethanol (95%) extract showed antibacterial activity. The 50% extract showed antimalarial activity in vitro against Plasmodium berghei strain.

Dosage: Rhizome—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... hedychium spicatum

Herpes Simplex Virus

Causative virus of genital herpes and herpes labalis or cold sores.... herpes simplex virus

Hibiscus Surattensis

Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the warmer parts of India.

Ayurvedic: Ran Bhindi.

Folk: Kishli-Keerai (Tamil Nadu).

Action: Flower—emollient, pectoral. Stem and leaf—used in urethritis and venereal diseases.

Petals (yellow part) gave gossypitrin and gossypetin; the purple part gave cyanidin, delphinidin and pelargoni-... hibiscus surattensis

Home And Community-based Services; Home And Community Care Programme

See “community-based care”.... home and community-based services; home and community care programme

Home-from-hospital / Hospital After-care Schemes

Schemes providing nursing care, personal care or practical help for older people who have returned home after a stay in hospital.... home-from-hospital / hospital after-care schemes

Homemaker Service

A home help service for meal preparation, shopping, light housekeeping, money management, personal hygiene and grooming, and laundry.... homemaker service

Horner’s Syndrome

This is the description given to a combination of changes resulting from paralysis of the sympathetic nerve in the neck. They are: a small pupil; a drooping upper lid; and an apparently (though not actually) sunken eye.... horner’s syndrome

Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis

Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Native of China; grown in gardens throughout India.

English: Rose-of-China, Shoe- flower, Chinese Hibiscus.

Ayurvedic: Japaa, Javaa, Odrapush- pa, Rudrapushpa, Arunaa.

Unani: Gul-e-Gurhal.

Siddha/Tamil: Semparuthi.

Action: Flower—used in impo- tency, bronchial catarrh. Flower and bark—emmenagogue. Leaf— stimulates expulsion of placenta after childbirth; laxative, anodyne. Flower and root—used in menorrhagia.

The plant contains the cyclopro- panoids, methyl sterculate, methyl- 2-hydroxysterculate, 2-hydroxystercu- late, malvalate and beta-sitosterol.

The major anthocyanin in the flower is cyanidin 3-sophoroside. The flower nectar is rich in amino acids, mainly aspartic acid and asparagin. During pollination, the amino acid concentration increases substantially.

Flower powder exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in male albino rats with carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema. The aqueous extract of the plant showed antitumour activity against sarcoma 180 ascites.

An aqueous extract of flowers reduced the duration of oestrus cycle in experimental albino rabbits. The alcoholic extract of flowers showed antiimplantation activity. The benzene extract of flowers, on oral administration, terminated pregnancy in experimental animals.

Flower buds are used in the treatment of vaginal and uterine discharges.

Oral administration of flower extract to rats affected spermatogenesis and endocrine function of testis.

In diabetic patients, a flower bud is given daily up to 10 days or until the level of blood sugar is reduced to tolerable limits.

The white-flowered var. of Japan (cultivated all over India in garden) is equated with Hibiscus syriacus Linn. (Rose of Sharon, Shrubby Althaea). The white flower is an oriental drug used as demulcent and antidiarrhoeal. The bud yields mucilage which consists mainly of partially acetylated acidic polysaccharides. The aqueous extract of the petals causes vasorelaxation of the isolated rat arota via both endo- thelium-dependent and -independent mechanisms. The petals contain anthocyanin pigments.

The cortex and bark exhibit antifun- gal acitivity.

The bark gave canthin-6-one and a fatty acid fraction consisting of lauric, myristic and palmitic acids.

Dosage: Flower—10-20 g paste. (CCRAS.)... hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hospital Discharge Scheme

A scheme which ensures a smooth transition from hospital to home.... hospital discharge scheme

Hospital-at-home Scheme

Home-based specialist medical care used to shorten hospital stays or prevent hospital admission.... hospital-at-home scheme

Hour-glass Stomach

The term given to the X-ray appearance of a stomach which is constricted in its middle part due either to spasm of the stomach muscle or to contraction of scar tissue from a gastric ulcer.... hour-glass stomach

Hurler’s Syndrome

See GARGOYLISM.... hurler’s syndrome

Hydatid Sand

Free protoscolices lying inside a hydatid.... hydatid sand

Hydradenitis Suppurativa

A chronic in?ammatory disease of the apocrine sweat glands (see PERSPIRATION). It is more common in women – in whom it usually occurs in the armpit – than in men, in whom it is most common in the perineum of the drivers of lorries and taxis. It occurs in the form of painful, tender lumps underneath the skin, which burst often in a week or so. Treatment consists of removal by operation.... hydradenitis suppurativa

Hyperkinetic Syndrome

See HYPERACTIVITY.... hyperkinetic syndrome

In Home Health Service

A service provided in the home by a home health agency or a residential services agency. It may be provided by personal care attendants or home health aides hired privately and informally, or through staff agencies or registries.... in home health service

Independent Sector

Umbrella term describing the private and voluntary sectors. The private sector consists of individuals or organizations that run services for a profit. The voluntary sector covers a range of not-for-profit organizations, such as charities, housing associations, some religious organizations and some self-help groups.... independent sector

Hibiscus Sabdariffa

Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Native to the West Indies; now cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Assam and Tamil Nadu.

English: Roselle, Jamaican Sorrel, Natal Sorrel, Red Sorrel.

Ayurvedic: Ambashtthaki.

Siddha/Tamil: Sivappu Kashmakki, Pulichai-keerai, Gogu, Seemai Kaseru.

Folk: Laal-ambaadi, Patavaa, Patsan.

Action: Digestive, choleretic, antibilious, laxative, diuretic, hypotensive, antiscorbutic. Used as a cardiac and nervine tonic for disorders of circulation, also for calcified arteries.

Key application: Flowers—used for loss of appetite, for colds, catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract and stomach, for disorders of circulation. (Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.)

The seeds contain sterols, including 3.2% ergosterol; leaves contain sitosterol-beta-D-galactoside. Flowers contain myricetin, kaempferol and quercetin, but did not contain free mutagenic flavonol aglycons.

The aqueous extract of flower buds has been reported to decrease blood pressure, cause relaxation of rat uterus. Succulent sepals and leaves—hypoten- sive, antimicrobial and anthelmintic.

Oil and unsapanofiable matter—antibacterial, antifungal.

Dosage: Root—5-10 g. (API Vol. III.)... hibiscus sabdariffa

Hyptis Suaveolens

(Linn.) Poit.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Native to tropical America. Distributed throughout India.

Ayurvedic: Tumbaaka (provisional synonym).

Folk: Gangaa Tulasi, Vilaayati Tulasi, Bhunsari.

Action: Carminative, antispasmodic, antisoporific, antirheumatic, anticephalalgic, lactagogue. Used in catarrhal and uterine affections, parasitical cutaneous diseases, epistaxis.

The plant gave lupeol, lupeol acetate and friedelin, leaves and flowers gave campesterol and fucosterol; roots contained beta-sitosterol, oleanolic and alpha-peltoboykinolic acids.

The plant gave an essential oil containing l-sabinene. l-limonene and azulenic sesquiterpenes as major constituents. The oil inhibits the growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, particularly, Staphylococcus aureus; also exhibits fungitoxicity.

Alcoholic extract (50%) of the whole plant exhibited hypoglycaemic and anticancer activity.... hyptis suaveolens

Information And Referral Service

A designated site or contact for locating needed services or care for older adults.... information and referral service

Institutional (care) Health Services

Health services delivered on an inpatient basis in hospitals, nursing homes or other inpatient institutions. The term may also refer to services delivered on an outpatient basis by departments or other organizational units of such institutions, or sponsored by them.... institutional (care) health services

Integrated Delivery System / Integrated Services Network (isn)

A network of organizations, usually including hospitals and medical practitioner groups, that provides or arranges to provide a coordinated continuum of services to a defined population and is held both clinically and financially accountable for the outcomes in the populations served.... integrated delivery system / integrated services network (isn)

Indian Sarasaparilla

Hemidesmus indicus

Asclepiadaceae

San: Anantamulah, Sariba;

Hin: Anantamul, Magrabu;

Ben: Anantamul;

Mal: Nannari, Naruninti, Narunanti;

Tam: Nannari, Saribam;

Tel: Sugandipala;

Kan: Namadaballi

Importance: Indian Sarasaparilla or Country Sarasaparilla is a climbing slender plant with twining woody stems and a rust-coloured bark. The roots are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, burning sensation, leucoderma, leprosy, skin diseases, pruritus, asthma, bronchitis, hyperdipsia, opthalmopathy, hemicrania, epileptic fits, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids, strangury, leucorrhoea, syphilis, abcess, arthralgia, fever and general debility. The leaves are useful in vomiting, wounds and leucoderma. The stems are bitter, diaphoretic and laxative and are useful in inflammations, cerebropathy, hepatopathy, nephropathy, syphilis, metropathy, leucoderma, odontalgia, cough and asthma. The latex is good for conjunctivitis (Warrier et al, 1995). The important formulations using the drug are Saribadyasava, Pindataila, Vidaryadi lehya, Draksadi kasaya, Jatyadi ghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The Hemidesmus root powdered and mixed with cow’s milk is given with much benefit in the case of strangury. In the form of syrup, it has demulcent and diuretic proportions. The root, roasted in plantain leaves, then beaten into a mass with cumin and sugar and mixed with ghee is a household remedy in genito-urinary diseases. The hot infusion of the root-bark with milk and sugar is a good alterative tonic especially for children in cases of chronic cough and diarrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). It has been successfully used in the cure of venereal diseases where American Sarasaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis Linn.) has failed. Native doctors utilize it in nephritic complaints and for sore mouths of children (Grieve and Leyel, 1992).

Distribution: Hemidesmus is distributed throughout India, the Moluccas and Sri Lanka.

Botany: Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. syn. Periploca indica Linn. belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. It is a perennial, slender, laticiferous, twining or prostrate, wiry shrub with woody rootstock and numerous slender, terete stems having thickened nodes. Leaves are simple, opposite, very variable from elliptic-oblong to linear-lanceolate, variegated with white above and silvery white and pubescent beneath. Flowers are greenish purple crowded in sub-sessile cymes in the opposite leaf-axils. Fruits are slender follicles, cylindrical, 10cm long, tapering to a point at the apex. Seeds are flattened, black, ovate-oblong and coma silvery white. The tuberous root is dark-brown, coma silvery white, tortuous with transversely cracked and longitudinally fissured bark. It has a strong central vasculature and a pleasant smell and taste (Warrier et al, 1995).

The Ayurvedic texts mention two varieties, viz. a krsna or black variety and a sveta or white variety (Aiyer, 1951) which together constitute the pair, Saribadvayam. The drug is known as Sariba. Svetasariba is H. indicus. Two plants, namely, Ichnocarpus fructescens (Apocynaceae) known as pal-valli in vernacular and Cryptolepis buchanani (Asclepidaceae) known as Katupalvalli (Rheeds, 1689) are equated with black variety or Krsnasariba (Chunekar, 1982; Sharma, 1983).

Agrotechnology: Hemidesmus is propagated through root cuttings. The root cuttings of length 3-5cm can be planted in polybags or in the field. They can be planted in flat beds or on ridges. Planting is done usually at a spacing of 50x20cm. Heavy application of organic manure is essential for good growth and root yield. Inorganic fertilizers are not usually applied. Frequent weeding and earthing up are required, as the plant is only slow growing. Provision of standards for twining will further improve the growth and yield of the plant.

Properties and activity: The twigs of the plant give a pregnane ester diglycoside named desinine. Roots give -sitosterol, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzaldehyde, -amyrin, -amyrin and its acetate, hexatriacontane, lupeol octacosonate, lupeol and its acetate. Leaves, stem and root cultures give cholesterol, campesterol, -sitosterol and 16-dehydro-pregnenolone. Leaves and flowers also give flavonoid glycosides rutin, hyperoside and iso-quercitin (Husain et al,1992). “Hemidesmine”- a crystallizible principle is found in the volatile oil extracted from roots. Some suggest that it is only a stearoptene. It also contains some starch, saponin and in the suberous layer, tannic acid (Grieve and Leyel, 1992). The root is alterative, febrifuge, antileucorrhoeic, antisyphilitic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, tonic, galactogenic, antidote for scorpion-sting and snake-bite, antidiarrhoeal, blood purifier, antirheumatic and aperitive. Essential oil from root is anti-bacterial and the plant is antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).... indian sarasaparilla

Integrative Study

See “synthetic study”.... integrative study

International Statistical Classification Of Diseases And Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (icd-10)

A list of diagnoses and identifying codes used by medical practitioners and other health care providers. The coding and terminology provide a uniform language that permits consistent communication on claim forms. Data from earlier time periods were coded using the appropriate revision of the ICD for that time period. Changes in classification of causes of death in successive revisions of the ICD may introduce discontinuities in cause of death statistics over time.... international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, tenth revision (icd-10)

Interval Scale

See “measurement scale”.... interval scale

Intervention / Intervention Strategy

An activity or set of activities aimed at modifying a process, course of action or sequence of events in order to change one or several of their characteristics, such as performance or expected outcome. For example, it is used in public health to describe a programme or policy designed to have an impact on an illness or disease.... intervention / intervention strategy

Interview Schedule

The precisely designed set of questions used in an interview.... interview schedule

Intracoronary Artery Stenting

A narrowed or blocked coronary artery (see ARTERIES) can compromise the blood supply to the heart muscle (see HEART, DISEASES OF). A supportive tube or stent passed into each affected artery can restore the blood supply. The stent has a HEPARIN coating to stop blood clots from forming. Since it was ?rst performed in 1987, intracoronary stents have cut the reblockage rate from one in three patients who have had coronary ANGIOPLASTY to fewer than one in ten in cases where a stent was used with angioplasty.... intracoronary artery stenting

Ionidium Suffruticosum

Ging.

Synonym: Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.) F. Muell.

Family: Violaceae.

Habitat: The warmer parts of India from Delhi to Bengal and throughout Deccan Peninsula.

Ayurvedic: Amburuha.

Siddha/Tamil: Orilaithamarai.

Folk: Ratna-purush.

Action: Diuretic, antigonorrhoetic and demulcent. Root—given in urinary infections, for bowel complaints of children.

The plant gave a dipeptide alkaloid, aurantiamide acetate and a triterpene, iso-arborinol, and beta-sitosterol.... ionidium suffruticosum

Ipomoea Sepiaria

Koen. ex Roxb.

Synonym: I. maxima (Linn. f.) G. Don.

Family: Convolvulaceae.

Habitat: Throughout greater part of India.

Ayurvedic: Banakalami, Hanumaan- Vel, Manjika. (Also equated with Lakshmanaa.)

Siddha/Tamil: Thaalikeerai (Laksh- manaa of the South).

Action: Juice of the plant—de- obstruent, diuretic, hypotensive, uterine tonic, antidote to arsenic poisoning. Seeds—cardiac depressant, hypotensive, spasmolytic.... ipomoea sepiaria

Katayama Syndrome

A syndrome characterised by allergic symptoms and involving the respiratory tract (i.e. fever, cough, rash and marked eosinophilia) sometimes seen in patients who have had exposure to a large number of schistosome cercariae, especially Schistosoma japonicum, sometimes S. mansoni, rarely S. haematobium. Sydrome occurs during the invasive stage of schistosomiasis from the time of cercarial penetration of the skin to the time of early egg laying in the veins.... katayama syndrome

Ischaemic Stroke

A STROKE that occurs when the ?ow of blood to a part of the brain is interrupted by a partial or complete THROMBOSIS of the supplying artery or ARTERIES, or by a clot of blood that has detached itself from elsewhere in the circulatory system – for instance, a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) – and blocked a cerebral artery. Stroke is the second most common cause of death worldwide. Its treatment is di?cult and prevention is best targeted at those who are at the highest absolute risk of stroke, because such people are likely to derive the greatest bene?t. They generally have a history of occlusive vascular diseases such as previous ischaemic stroke or a transient ischaemic attack (TIA), coronary heart disease (see HEART, DISEASES OF) or PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE. In the UK strokes affect about 200 people per 100,000 population annually, with the incidence rising sharply after the age of 55. At the age of 70 the incidence is around 15 people per 1,000 of population; at 80 the ?gure is double that.

About 80 per cent of patients survive an acute stroke and they are at risk of a further episode within a few weeks and months; about 10 per cent in the ?rst year and 5 per cent a year after that. HYPERTENSION, smoking, HYPERLIPIDAEMIA and raised concentration of blood sugar, along with OBESITY, are signi?cant pointers to further strokes and preventive steps to reduce these factors are worthwhile, although the reduction in risk is hard to assess. Even so, the affected person should stop smoking, greatly reduce alcohol intake, check for and have treated diabetes, reduce weight and exercise regularly. In any case, a diet rich in fresh fruit and vegetables and low in fat and salt, exercise and the avoidance of smoking may reduce the risk of having a ?rst stroke.

The evidence is inconclusive that patients with ischaemic stroke should be treated with antihypertensives. Furthermore, neither the starting blood pressure nor the best drug regimen or its starting time are generally agreed. Studies on the most e?ective methods of preventing and treating stroke are continuing; meanwhile available evidence suggests that an active approach to prevention of primary and secondary hypertension will bene?t patients and usually be cost-e?ective.... ischaemic stroke

Jasmine Tea - A Famous Chinese Scented Tea

Jasmine tea is a Chinese tea made from jasmine flowers. This tea is one of the most popular teas in China, being a specialty for over 800 years. It is basically used as a green, white or oolong tea having a subtle sweet flavor. How To Make Jasmine Tea Brewing jasmine tea is not such a difficult process. First of all you will need to boil the water. Add 1 tablespoon of jasmine leaves into your teapot or infuser and pour the hot water over it. Cover it and let it steep for about 3 minutes, but no longer than 5 minutes because you may obtain a bitter taste. If you didn’t use an infuser, make sure you use a strainer when you pour the tea into your cup to catch the jasmine blooms. Since it already has a sweet, floral taste it is advised not to put any sweetener, but if you want you can add some sugar or honey. Jasmine Tea Benefits Jasmine tea is full of antioxidants that protect your body against the damage that free radicals can cause to your body cells. Jasmine tea helps you lose weight thanks to the combination between caffeine and antioxidants. Also, this tea reduces fat and encourages cholesterol absorption. Some studies revealed that jasmine tea may help prevent cancer. Jasmine is also used for its calming effects in aromatherapy as an essential oil. Judging by this fact, drinking a cup of jasmine tea also provides you relaxation. Jasmine Tea Side Effects Over consumption may lead to certain side effects. For example, jasmine tea has caffeine content that heightens alertness and reduces sleepiness. Also, caffeine increases secretion of stress hormones, insomnia and dehydration so try not to drink too much jasmine tea. One or two cups of jasmine tea a day! Needless to say, pregnant and breastfeeding woman are advised not to drink jasmine tea, also because of its caffeine content. Enjoy this wonderful scented tea and all its benefits! Do not drink more than 2 cups of jasmine tea per day, this way making sure you won’t experience any of its side effects.... jasmine tea - a famous chinese scented tea

Jasminum Sambac

(Linn.) Ait.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India, especially in Uttar Pradesh, on a large scale in Jaunpur, Kannauj, Ghazipur and Farrukhabad for its fragrant flowers.

English: Arabian Jasmine, Tuscan Jasmine, Double Jasmine.

Ayurvedic: Mallikaa, Madayanti, Madyantikaa, Nava-Mallikaa, Shita-bhiru, Vaarshiki.

Unani: Mograa.

Siddha: Malligai.

Folk: Belaa, Motiaabelaa; Mogaraa (Maharashtra).

Action: Root—emmenagogue, blood purifier. Flowers—lactifuge. Alcoholic extract—hypotensive. Leaves—antibacterial; used against indolent and breast tumours.

The leaves contain the secoiridoid glycosides, jasminin, quercitrin, iso- quercitrin, rutin, quercitrin-3-dirham- noglycoside, kaempferol-3-rhamno- glycoside, mannitol, alpha-amyrin, beta-sitosterol and an iridoid glyco- side, sambacin. The absolute contains several pyridine and nicotinate derivatives.

Dosage: Decoction—50-100 ml. (CCRAS.)... jasminum sambac

Kernig’s Sign

This is found in MENINGITIS. A healthy person’s thigh can be bent to a right-angle with the body when the knee is straight; in cases of meningitis the knee cannot be straightened when the thigh is bent this way – not without causing the patient intense pain.... kernig’s sign

Kinaesthetic Sensations

A term used to describe those sensations which underlie muscle tension and position of joint and muscle. These sensations send impulses along nerves to the brain, and thus inform it of the position of the limb in space and of the relative position to each other of individual muscles and muscle-groups and of joints.... kinaesthetic sensations

Jussiaea Suffruticosa

Linn.

Synonym: Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven. Oenothera octovalis Jacq.

Family: Onagraceae.

Habitat: A native of the New World; found in marshy fields in India.

Ayurvedic: Jala-lavanga, Bhuu- lavanga, Bana-laung.

Siddha/Tamil: Nirkkrambu.

Action: Cooling, diuretic, astringent, mild laxative. Used in catarrhal affections of children; applied externally for burns and scalds. Pulp of the plant, steeped in buttermilk, is used for dysentery. Root—febrifuge.... jussiaea suffruticosa

Khaya Senegalensis

A. Juss.

Synonym: Melia dubia Cav.

Family: Meliaceae.

Habitat: Native to South Africa. Planted in forest nurseries and plantation at Pune and Vada (Maharashtra).

English: African Mahogany.

Action: Anti-inflammatory, cardiogenic.

Methanolic extract of the stem bark showed cardiovascular (cardiogenic) effect in rodents by increasing blood pressure and vasoconstriction of the arota partly due to the stimulation of beta-receptors and alpha-adreno- ceptors.

Alcoholic extract of the stem bark showed anti-inflammatory activity... khaya senegalensis

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

The original syndrome described by Klinefelter consisted of GYNAECOMASTIA, testicular ATROPHY and INFERTILITY. Intelligence was unimpaired. Patients have been described who have associated mental defects and striking tallness of stature, but the only constant feature of the syndrome is testicular atrophy with resulting azoospermia and infertility.

The atrophy of the testis is the result of ?brosis, which begins to appear in childhood and progresses until all the seminiferous tubules are replaced by ?brous tissue. Gynaecomastia, mental retardation and eunuchoidism (see EUNUCH; loss of male secondary sexual characteristics – small penis, loss of body hair and a high-pitched voice) may be present. Most patients with Klinefelter’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes instead of the normal 46. The extra chromosome is an X chromosome, so that the sex chromosome constitution is XXY instead of XY. Klinefelter’s syndrome is one of the most common chromosome abnormalities and occurs in 1 in 300 of the male population. Patients with this syndrome show that the Y chromosome is strongly sex-determining: thus, a patient who has an XXY chromosome constitution may have the appearance of a normal male, with infertility the only incapacity, while the loss of a Y chromosome leads to the development of a bodily form which is essentially feminine (see TURNER’S SYNDROME).... klinefelter’s syndrome

Koplik’s Spots

Bluish-white spots appearing on the mucous membrane of the mouth in cases of MEASLES about the third day, and forming the ?rst part of the rash in this disease.... koplik’s spots

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A form of mental disturbance occurring in chronic alcoholism and other toxic states, such as URAEMIA, lead poisoning and cerebral SYPHILIS. Its special features are talkativeness with delusions in regard to time and place – the patient, although clear in other matters, imagining that he or she has recently made journeys.... korsakoff’s syndrome

Lactuca Sativa

Linn.

Synonym: L. scariola Linn. var. sativa C.B. Clarke.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Native to Southern and West Asia. Cultivated throughout India as a cold weather crop.

English: Garden Lettuce.

Unani: Kaahuu Bustaani, Salaad Pattaa, Salaad Baaghi.

Siddha/Tamil: Salattu.

Action: Plant—used in painful ulcers and burns.

The leaves contain calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, carotine, iodine, fluorine. A. dietary allowance of 10 g of lettuce is adequate to meet the vitamin K requirement of the body.

Aqueous extract of roots gave a gua- iene-type sesquiterpene glycoside, lac- toside C, along with known glycosides, lactoside A and macro-cliniside A.... lactuca sativa

Ladys Slipper

Protection ... ladys slipper

Larval Survey

The process of searching for mosquito larvae in a defined area. Larvae are collected and taken to the laboratory for identification and enumeration.... larval survey

Latent Stage

Resting or inactive stage found in some viral infections such as the herpes viruses.... latent stage

Laundry Services

The provision of assistance with laundry tasks for someone in his or her own home, either through a central facility or by a home help in the home.... laundry services

Left To Right Shunt

A term used when a hole in the septum (internal wall) of the HEART allows blood to ?ow from the systemic circulation properly con?ned to the left side of the heart to the pulmonary circulation, con?ned to the right. The shunt is usually detected by hearing a murmur, and the diagnosis con?rmed by ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY (see also SEPTAL DEFECT).... left to right shunt

Length Of Stay (los)

The number of days between a patient’s admission and discharge. This abbreviation is often misused when the intent is to refer to average length of stay (ALOS).... length of stay (los)

Life Satisfaction

See “well-being”.... life satisfaction

Life Span

The longest period over which the life of any plant or animal organism or species may extend, according to the available biological knowledge concerning it.... life span

Lactuca Serriola

Linn.

Synonym: L. scariola Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: The Western Himalayas, between 1,800 and 3,300 m. Found wild.

English: Wild Lettuce, Prickly Lettuce.

Ayurvedic: Salaad, Vanya-Kaahuu.

Unani: Kaahuu Saharai, Kaahuu Barri.

Siddha/Tamil: Salattu.

Action: Plant—mild sedative, diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant, antiseptic. Seed—demulcent. The seeds are used in the form of powder for coughs and as a decoction for insomnia.

Seeds contain protein, amino acids; Mg Al and K as major elements besides Na, Ca, Si, Ti, Mn, Fe and Cu.

Arachidic, caproic, linoleic, ole- ic, palmitic, stearic acids and sitos- terol (from the root); ascorbic acid, beta-carotene, 8-deoxylactucin, lac- ticin, jacquilenin, lactupicrin, ubiqui-... lactuca serriola

Ladies' Slipper

Cypripedium pubescens. N.O. Orchidaceae.

Synonym: American Valerian, Mocassin flower, Nerveroot, Noah's Ark.

Habitat: United States of America.

Features ? Flower supposed to resemble a lady's shoe in form. Rhizome about quarter- inch diameter, many cupshaped scars on top surface; wavy, thickly-matted roots underneath. Fracture short and white.

Part used ? Rhizome.

Action: Antispasmodic, tonic, nervine.

Combined with other tonics in the relief of neuralgia, and to allay pain

generally. Of use in hysteria and other nervous disorders. Dose, 1 drachm of the powdered rhizome. Like other medicines of a similar nature, it is of little use unless the cause of the nervous excitement is traced and removed.

The remarks of Rafinesque, then Professor of Medical Botany in the University of Transylvania, are interesting in view of the "orthodox" attitude towards remedies of the herbalists ? "I am enabled to introduce, for the first time, this beautiful genus into our materia medica ; all the species are equally remedial. They have long been known to the Indians, who called them moccasin flower, and were used by the empyrics of New England, particularly Samuel Thomson. Their properties, however, have been tested and confirmed by Dr. Hales, of Troy; Dr. Tully, of Albany, etc.

. . . They produce beneficial effects in all nervous diseases and hysterical affections by allaying pain, quieting the nerves and promoting sleep. They are preferable to opium in many cases, having no baneful or narcotic effect."

Professor Rafinesque, however, goes even further than would Thomson and his successors when he announces that "all the species are equally remedial."... ladies' slipper

Lasia Spinosa

(L.) Thw.

Synonym: Lasia aculeata Linn.

Family: Araceae.

Habitat: Tropical Sikkim Himalayas, Assam, Bengal and Southwards to Sri Lanka.

Siddha: Kantakachoramu, Mulasari (Telugu.)

Folk: Kantakachu (Bengal), Kaantaasaru. Lakshmanaa and Indiver-kand are doubtful synonyms.

Action: Plant—used for colic and intestinal diseases. Leaves—used for stomachache. Rootstock and fruits—for affections of the throat.... lasia spinosa

Lathyrus Sativus

Linn.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated chiefly in Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.

English: Chickling Vetch, Grass Pea.

Folk: Khesaari, Latari, Kalaaya.

Action: Seeds—toxic. Prolonged consumption results in paralysis of legs, both in animals and human beings, known as lathyrism. The toxic substance responsible for lathyrism had been identified as selenium. Peritoneal injection of beta-N-oxalylaminoalanine (isolated from the seeds) produced acute neurolathyrism at LD50 doses (748.8 mg/kg) in mice and (694.9 mg/kg) in chicken; liver and kidney cells showed denaturation, vacuolar and fatty degeneration. (It is a neuropoison, which mainly affects central nervous system.)

Related species include, Lathyrus aphaca Linn., L. sphaericus Retz. and L. tingitanus Linn., known as Kalaaya or Khesaari.... lathyrus sativus

Life-sustaining Treatment

Drugs, medical devices, or procedures that can keep alive a person who would otherwise die within a foreseeable, though usually uncertain, time. Examples include cardiopulmonary resuscitation, mechanical ventilation, renal dialysis, nutritional support (i.e. tube or intravenous feeding) and provision of antibiotics to fight life-threatening infections.... life-sustaining treatment

Likert Scale

An ordinal scale of responses to a question or statement ordered in a hierarchical sequence, such as from “strongly agree” through “no opinion” to “strongly disagree”.... likert scale

Litsea Stocksii

Hook. f.

Family: Lauraceae.

Habitat: The hills of western Deccan Peninsula.

Folk: Pisi, Posha (Maharashtra).

Action: Leaves—an infusion is given in irritation of bladder and urethra.

The seeds yield a fat consisting mostly of lauric acid with a small amount of oleic acid.

The leaves are mucilaginous.... litsea stocksii

Little Mauve Stinger

Colloquial term for Pelagia noctiluca.... little mauve stinger

Lavandula Stoechas

Linn.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Mediterranean region and Asia Minor. Dried plant and flowers are imported into Mumbai from Persian Gulf.

English: Arabian or French Lavender.

Unani: Ustukhuddus, Alfaajan.

Folk: Dhaaru.

Action: Flowers—antidepressive, sedative, anticonvulsant, carminative, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antiseptic. Used in depression, nervous headache, sluggish circulation, physical and mental exhaustion, insomnia, epilepsy, neuralgia and rheumatic affections.

Oil—rubefacient, antimicrobial. Used for nervous palpitations, giddiness, spasm and colic. Relieves sprains, neuralgia and rheumatism; rubbed for stimulating paralysed limbs. Applied to sores, burns, scalds and varicose veins.

Plant—used for the treatment of epilepsy and chronic sinusitis in Unani medicine.

Aerial parts of the plant contain oleanolic, ursolic and vergatic acid, beta-sitosterol, alpha-amyrin and its acetate, lupeol, erythrodiol, luteolin, acacetin and vitexin.

The leaves contain polyphenols, api- genin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside, luteolin andits7-O-beta-D-glucoside, and7-O- beta-D-glucuronide, rosmarinic acid, and 6-O-caffeoyl glucose.

For depression, tincture of lavender flower (1: 5 in 50% alcohol), 60 drops per day, has been used for 4 weeks in Western herbal. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... lavandula stoechas

Lepidium Sativum

Linn.

Family: Curciferace, Brassicaceae.

Habitat: Native to West Asia; cultivated throughout India as a salad plant.

English: Garden Cress, Water Cress.

Ayurvedic: Chandrashuura, Chan- drikaa, Vaas-pushpaa, Pashume- hankaarikaa, Nandini, Suvaasaraa, Aashaalim.

Unani: Habb-ul-rashaad, Tukh-e- Taratezak, Haalim, Sipandaan.

Siddha/Tamil: Alivirai.

Action: Used in asthma, bronchial affections and bleeding piles. Seeds—lactagogue, diuretic, and emmenagogue. Used for treating skin disorders, fever, amoebic dysentery and asthma. Leaf— stimulant, antiscorbutic, diuretic. Roots—used in secondary syphilis and in tenesmus.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of dried seeds, in powder form, in gout.

The seeds are a good source of iron, but its bioavailability is poor (5.4% of total iron). They are used for rapid healing ofbone fractures. The ethano- lic extract of seeds significantly increased collagen synthesis and its deposition at bone fracture portion in the treated rats. The tensile strength of the broken tibiae also increased.

The seeds contain an alkaloid (0.19%), glucotropaeolin, sinapin (cho- line ester of sinapic acid), sinapic acid, mucilaginous matter (5%) and uric acid (0.108 g/kg). The seed oil exhibits pronounced oestrogenic activity.

The seed mucilage allays the irritation of the mucous membrane of intestines in dysentery and diarrhoea. It consists of a mixture of cellulose (18.3%) and uronic acid-containing polysaccharides; acid hydrolysis yield L-arabinose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose, D-glacturonic acid and D-glucose.

The plant contains pantothenic acid, pyridoxin and rutin. Ethanolic extract of the plant showed antiviral activity against rinderpest virus.

Dosage: Seed—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... lepidium sativum

Leptadenia Spartium

Wight.

Synonym: L. pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decne.

Family: Asclepiadaeae.

Habitat: Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and northern parts of Mumbai along the sea coast.

Folk: Kheemp (Rajasthan), Kheep (Gujarat). Prasaarani is a doubtful synonym.

Action: Antiseptic. Plant used for the treatment of burns and wounds.

The plant contains a triterpenoid, leptadenol; also 2.32 g/100 g tannin.... leptadenia spartium

Long-sight

Also known as hypermetropia: see under EYE, DISORDERS OF – Errors of refraction.... long-sight

Love Seed

Love, Friendship... love seed

Lugol’s Solution

A compound solution of iodine and potassium iodide used in the preoperative preparation of patients with thyrotoxicosis (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF). The solution is taken orally.... lugol’s solution

Lumbar Sympathectomy

Destruction of the LUMBAR chain of sympathetic nerves (see NERVOUS SYSTEM) by means of surgery, DIATHERMY or injection of chemicals (phenol or alcohol). The technique is used to improve the blood ?ow to the leg in patients with peripheral vascular disease, and to treat some types of chronic leg pain. It has only limited success.... lumbar sympathectomy

Long-term Supportive Psychotherapy

is needed for patients with personality disorders or recurrent psychotic states, where the aim of treatment is to prevent deterioration and help the patient to achieve an optimal adaptation, making the most of his or her psychological assets. Such patients may ?nd more profound and unstructured forms of therapy distressing.

Behavioural therapy and cognitive therapy, often carried out by psychologists, attempt to clarify with the patient speci?c features of behaviour or mental outlook respectively, and to identify step-by-step methods that the patient can use for controlling the disorder. Behaviour therapy is commonly used for AGORAPHOBIA and other phobias, and cognitive therapy has been used for depression and anxiety. (See MENTAL ILLNESS.)... long-term supportive psychotherapy

Luvunga Scandens

(Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wight.

Family: Rutaceae.

Habitat: Bengal, Assam and Khasi Hills.

Ayurvedic: Lavanga-lataa. Folk: Sugandh-kokilaa (Bengal).

Action: Essential oil—antifungal.

Mature berries contain coumarins. The essential oil from berries contains cinnamyl cinnamate, cineole, d- camphor and methyl cinnamate as major components.

Dried fruits are used in medicinal hair oils, prescribed for treating baldness.

The bark contains myricadiol, tara- xerol and myricolal.... luvunga scandens

Malva Sylvestris

Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Punjab to Kumaon, up to 2,400 m; Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

English: Common Mallow, Blue Mallow, High Mallow.

Ayurvedic: Suvarchalaa (var.).

Unani: Khubbaazi, Bhubhaazi Bustaani, Gul-Khair.

Action: Mucilaginous, emollient, laxative, antitussive, pectoral, antibacterial. Infusion is used for coughs and colds, irritation of the bronchi. Phagocyte stimulant.

Key application: In irritation of the mucosa and throat and dry, irritative cough. (German Commission E.)

The herb contains sulphated flavo- nol glycosides, mucilage and tannins.

Flowers contain malvin (an antho- cyanin), malvidin diglucoside, tannins, carotene and ascorbic acid.

Malva coromandeliana Linn. (also malvastrum) is anti-inflammatory, pectoral, antidysenteric and diaphoretic.... malva sylvestris

Management Information System

A system of databases designed to process and exchange information to support decision-making as well as implementation, monitoring and evaluation of programmes, activities and projects. See also “health information system”.... management information system

Marfan’s Syndrome

An inherited disorder affecting about one person in 50,000 in which the CONNECTIVE TISSUE is abnormal. The result is defects of the heart valves, the arteries arising from the heart, the skeleton and the eyes. The victims are unusually tall and thin with a particular facial appearance (the US President Abraham Lincoln was said to have Marfan’s) and deformities of the chest and spine. They have spider-like ?ngers and toes and their joints and ligaments are weak. Orthopaedic intervention may help, as will drugs to control the heart problems. As affected individuals have a 50 per cent chance of passing on the disease to their children, they should receive genetic counselling.... marfan’s syndrome

Measurement Scale

The complete range of possible values for a measurement (e.g. the set of possible responses to a question, the physically possible range for a set of body weights). Measurement scales are sometimes classified into five major types, according to the quantitative character of the scale: dichotomous scale: One that arranges items into either of two mutually exclusive categories. nominal scale: Classification into unordered qualitative categories, such as race, religion, and country of birth, as measurements of individual attributes are purely nominal scales, as there is no inherent order to their categories. ordinal scale: Classification into ordered qualitative categories, such as social class, where the values have a distinct order, but their categories are qualitative in that there is no natural (numerical) distance between their possible values. interval scale: An (equal) interval involving assignment of values with a natural distance between them, so that a particular distance (interval) between two values in one region of the scale meaningfully represents the same distance between two values in another region of the scale. An example is date of birth. ratio scale: A ratio is an interval scale with a true zero point, so that ratios between values are meaningfully defined. Examples are weight, height, blood count and income, as in each case it is meaningful to speak of one value as being so many times greater or less than another.... measurement scale

Menopause, Surgical

A term rather callously used to describe the cessation of ovarian hormones as a result of a radical hysterectomy...or what the British more honestly refer to as castration.... menopause, surgical

Medial Tibial Syndrome

The term applied by athletes to a condition characterised by pain over the inner border of the shin, which occurs in most runners and sometimes in joggers. The syndrome, also known as shin splints, is due to muscular swelling resulting in inadequate blood supply in the muscle: hence the pain. The disorder may be the result of compartment syndrome (build-up of pressure in the muscles), TENDINITIS, muscle or bone in?ammation, or damage to the muscle. It usually disappears within a few weeks, responding to rest and PHYSIOTHERAPY, with or without injections. In some cases, however, it becomes chronic and so severe that it occurs even at rest. If the cause is the compartment syndrome, relief is usually obtained by a simple operation to relieve the pressure in the affected muscles.... medial tibial syndrome

Medicago Sativa

Linn.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, as a farm crop.

English: Alfalfa, Lucerne.

Ayurvedic: Alfalfa, Vilaayati- gawuth, Lasunghaas, Lusan.

Unani: Barsem.

Action: Anticholesterolemic, rich in essential enzymes, minerals and vitamins; a preventive of high blood pressure, diabetes, peptic ulcer.

Alfalfa tea is used to strengthen the digestive system. Sprouts (of seeds) are used by diabetics.

The herb contains carotinoids (including lutein), triterpene saponins, isoflavonoids coumarins, triterpenes (including sitgmasterol, spinasterol); also cyanogenic glycosides (corresponding to less than 80 mg HCN/ 100 g); pro-vitamins A, B6, B12, D, K, E and P; calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, magnesium, choline, sodium, silicon and essential enzymes.

The seeds contain 33.2% protein and 4.4% mineral matter; saponins with the aglycones, soyasapogenol B and E and polymines, diaminopropane and norspermine. Two storage globulins, alfin and medicagin are found in the seeds.

The flowers contain flavonoids, kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin and laricytrin. The fruits contain beta- amyrin, alpha- and beta-spinasterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, myrselli- nol, scopoletin and esculetin.

The saponin, medicagenic acid, is found in leaves and roots (leaves 1.49%, roots 2.43% of dry matter).

Alfalfa seed extracts prevented hy- percholesterolemia, triglyceridaemia and atherogenesis in cholesterol-fed rabbits and cynomologus monkeys. The saponins in the extract reduce intestinal absorption of cholesterol in rabbits.

Human trials have indicated the use of the herb in menopause. (Sharon M. Herr.)... medicago sativa

Mental Health Services

Comprehensive mental health services, as generally defined under some national (or state) laws and statutes, include: inpatient care, outpatient care, day care and other partial hospitalization and emergency services; specialized services for the mental health of the elderly; consultation and education services and specialized programmes for the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of alcohol and drug abusers. They generally include a variety of services provided to people of all ages, including counselling, psychotherapy, psychiatric services, crisis intervention and support groups. Issues addressed include depression, grief, anxiety and stress, as well as severe mental illnesses.... mental health services

Mentha Spicata

Linn. emend. Nathh.

Synonym: M. viridis Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.

English: Spearmint, Garden Mint.

Ayurvedic: Pudinaa, Podinaka, Puutihaa, Rochini.

Unani: Nanaa. Pudinaa Kohi.

Action: Carminative, stimulant, antispasmodic, antiemetic, diaphoretic, antiseptic. A tea of dry flowers and leaves is prescribed for tracheobronchitis and hypertension.

The chief constituents of the essential oil are carvone (55-75%) and limonene (up to 21.4%). The herb gave flavonoids, diosmin and diosmetin. Caffeic acid derivatives include ros- marinic acid in the volatile oil.

Dosage: Leaf—5-10 ml juice; 35 ml extract. (CCRAS.)... mentha spicata

Multipurpose Service

A service delivery model that consists of a comprehensive range of services meeting the aged and health care needs of a community. Multipurpose centres could bring together existing health services and develop additional services from a single base.... multipurpose service

Myxopyrum Serratulum

A. W. Hill.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats.

Folk: Chathuravalli, Chathuramulla (Kerala). Hem-maalati.

Action: Leaves—used with clarified butter in cough, asthma, chest diseases; also in nervous complaints and rheumatism. Oil extract of the leaves is used for massage in fever, headache and backaches.... myxopyrum serratulum

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (mrsa)

Most staphylococci (see STAPHYLOCOCCUS) have now evolved resistance to benzylpenicillin (see PENICILLIN) because of their ability to produce PENICILLINASE. Cloxacillin and ?ucloxacillin are antibiotics still e?ective against most staphylococci; at one time methicillin was used to combat resistant strains, but in hospital environments bacteria acquired immunity to this powerful drug (now withdrawn from use) and to cloxacillin. RIFAMPICIN, VANCOMYCIN, TEICOPLANIN and temocillin are still active against most penicillinase-producing gram-negative bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN). There is, however, a growing threat to health because of the rise in the number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, particularly in hospitals. The bacteria themselves are not more virulent than others, but the di?culty in treating them with a safe and e?ective antibiotic mean that they are more dangerous. It is likely that lapses in normal hygienic practice – such as frequent hand-washing – has resulted in an increase in MRSA disease.... methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (mrsa)

Minimally Invasive Surgery (mis)

More popularly called ‘keyhole surgery’, MIS is surgical intervention, whether diagnostic or curative, that causes patients the least possible physical trauma. It has revolutionised surgery, growing from a technique used by gynaecologists, urologists and innovative general surgeons to one regularly used in general surgery, GYNAECOLOGY, UROLOGY, thoracic surgery, orthopaedic surgery (see ORTHOPAEDICS) and OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY.

MIS is commonly carried out by means of an operating laparoscope (a type of ENDOSCOPE) that is slipped through a small incision in the skin. MIS now accounts for around 50 per cent

of all operations carried out in the UK. A small attachment on the end of the laparoscope provides an image that can be magni?ed on a screen, leaving the surgeon’s hands free to operate while his assistant operates the laparoscope. Halogen bulbs, ?breoptic cables and rod lenses have all contributed to the technical advancement of laparoscopes. Operations done in this manner include extracorporeal shock-wave LITHOTRIPSY for stones in the gall-bladder, biliary ducts and urinary system; removal of the gall-bladder; appendicectomy; removal of the spleen and adrenal glands; and thoracic sympathectomy. MIS is also used to remove cartilage or loose pieces of bone in the knee-joint.

This method of surgery usually means that patients can be treated on a day or overnight basis, allowing them to resume normal activities more quickly than with conventional surgery. It is safer and lessens the trauma and shock for patients needing surgery. MIS is also more cost e?ective, allowing hospitals to treat more patients in a year. Surgeons undertake special training in the use of MIS, a highly skilled technique, before they are permitted to use the procedures on patients. The use of MIS for hernia repair, colon surgery and repairs of duodenal perforations is under evaluation and its advantages will be enhanced by the development of robotic surgical techniques.... minimally invasive surgery (mis)

Mollugo Spergula

Linn.

Synonym: M. oppositifolia Linn. Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A. DC.

Family: Aizoaceae, Molluginaceae.

Habitat: Greater part of India, especially in Assam, Bengal and Deccan Peninsula.

Ayurvedic: Grishma-sundara, Parpata (Kerala).

Siddha/Tamil: Thurapoondu.

Folk: Jala-papr (Bihar), Jeem Shaak.

Action: Plant—stomachic, aperient and antiseptic. Used as a bitter tonic for liver disorders.

Aerial parts gave vitexin, vitexin-7- glucoside and 2"-p-coumaroylvitexin- 7-glucoside.

Mollugo stricta Linn., synonym M. pentaphylla Linn. (throughout the plains and Ghats of India), is also known as Parpatakam in the South, Jala-papr in Bihar and Kharas in Maharashtra. The plant is stomachic, aperient, emmenagogue and antiseptic. Its biological activity is spermiostatic.... mollugo spergula

Motion (travel) Sickness

A characteristic set of symptoms experienced by many people when subjected to the constant changes of position caused, for example, by the pitching and rolling motion of a vessel at sea.

Depression, giddiness, nausea and vomiting are the most prominent.

Causes Although the vast majority of people appear to be liable to this ailment at sea, they do not all suffer alike. Many endure acute distress, whilst others are simply conscious of transient feelings of nausea and discomfort. A smaller proportion of people suffer from air and car sickness. The symptoms are a result of over-stimulation of the organs of balance in the inner EAR by continuous changes in the body’s position. The movements of the horizon worsen this situation.

Symptoms The symptoms generally show themselves soon after the journey has started, by the onset of giddiness and discomfort in the head, together with a sense of nausea and sinking at the stomach, which soon develops into intense sickness and vomiting. Most people recover quickly when the motion stops.

Treatment Innumerable preventives and remedies have been proposed. Cinnarizine 30 mg orally is useful 2 hours before travel, then 15 mg every 8 hours during the journey if necessary. Dimenhydrinate and promethazine are also commonly taken for motion sickness.... motion (travel) sickness

National Care Standards Commission

This was set up under the CARE STANDARDS ACT 2000 as an independent regulator in respect of homes for the elderly, the disabled and children in the state and private sectors in the UK.... national care standards commission

National Health Service (nhs)

The United Kingdom’s National Health Service was created by Act of Parliament and inaugurated on 5 July 1948. Its original aim was to provide a comprehensive system of health care to everyone, free at the point of delivery. Scotland had its own, similar legislation, as did Northern Ireland. The service is funded by National Insurance contributions and from general taxation, with a small amount from patient charges. The structure, functioning and ?nancing of the NHS have been – and still are – undergoing substantial changes.... national health service (nhs)

National Strategy

Based on national health policy, a set of decisions that includes the broad lines of action required in all sectors involved to give effect to the national health policy and indicates the problems and ways of dealing with them.... national strategy

Multiple Sclerosis (ms)

Multiple sclerosis is a progressive disease of the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD, which, although slow in its onset, in time may produce marked symptoms such as PARALYSIS and tremors (see TREMOR), and may ultimately result in a severely disabled invalid. The disorder consists of hardened patches, from the size of a pin-head to that of a pea or larger, scattered here and there irregularly through the brain and spinal cord. Each patch is made up of a mass of the CONNECTIVE TISSUE (neuroglia), which should be present only in su?cient amount to bind the nerve-cells and ?bres together. In the earliest stage, the insulating sheaths (MYELIN) of the nerve-?bres in the hardened patches break up, are absorbed, and leave the nerve-?bres bare, the connective tissue being later formed between these.

Cause Although this is one of the most common diseases of the central nervous system in Europe – there are around 50,000 affected individuals in Britain alone – the cause is still not known. The disease comes on in young people (onset being rare after the age of 40), apparently without previous illness. The ratio of women-to-men victims is 3:2. It is more common in ?rst and second children than in those later in birth order, and in small rather than big families. There may be a hereditary factor for MS, which could be an autoimmune disorder: the body’s defence system attacks the myelin in the central nervous system as if it were a ‘foreign’ tissue.

Symptoms These depend greatly upon the part of the brain and cord affected by the sclerotic patches. Temporary paralysis of a limb, or of an eye muscle, causing double vision, and tremors upon exertion, ?rst in the affected parts, and later in all parts of the body, are early symptoms. Sti?ness of the lower limbs causing the toes to catch on small irregularities in the ground and trip the person in walking, is often an annoying symptom and one of the ?rst to be noticed. Great activity is shown in the re?ex movements obtained by striking the tendons and by stroking the soles of the feet. The latter re?ex shows a characteristic sign (Babinski sign) in which the great toe bends upwards and the other toes spread apart as the sole is stroked, instead of the toes collectively bending downwards as in the normal person. Tremor of the eye movements (nystagmus) is usually found. Trembling handwriting, interference with the functions of the bladder, giddiness, and a peculiar ‘staccato’ or ‘scanning’ speech are common symptoms at a later stage. Numbness and tingling in the extremities occur commonly, particularly in the early stages of the disease. As the disease progresses, the paralyses, which were transitory at ?rst, now become con?rmed, often with great rigidity in the limbs. In many patients the disease progresses very slowly.

People with multiple sclerosis, and their relatives, can obtain help and guidance from the Multiple Sclerosis Society. Another helpful organisation is the Multiple Sclerosis Resources Centre. Those with sexual or marital problems arising out of the illness can obtain information from SPOD (Association to Aid the Sexual and Personal Relationships of People with a Disability). (See APPENDIX 2: ADDRESSES: SOURCES OF INFORMATION, ADVICE, SUPPORT AND SELFHELP.)

Treatment is di?cult, because the most that can be done is to lead a life as free from strain as possible, to check the progress of the disease. The use of INTERFERON beta seems to slow the progress of MS and this drug is licensed for use in the UK for patients with relapsing, remitting MS over two years, provided they can walk unaided – a controversial restriction on this (expensive) treatment. CORTICOSTEROIDS may be of help to some patients.

The NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL EXCELLENCE (NICE) ruled in 2001 that the use of the drugs interferon beta and glatiramer acetate for patients with multiple sclerosis was not cost-e?ective but recommended that the Department of Health, the National Assembly for Wales and the drug manufacturers should consider ways of making the drugs available in a cost-e?ective way. Subsequently the government said that it would consider funding a ‘risk-sharing’ scheme in which supply of drugs to patients would be funded only if treatment trials in individuals with MS showed that they were e?ective.

The Department of Health has asked NICE to assess two CANNABIS derivatives as possible treatments for multiple sclerosis and the relief of post-operative pain. Trials of an under-thetongue spray and a tablet could, if successsful, lead to the two drugs being available around 2005.

It is important to keep the nerves and muscles functioning, and therefore the patient should remain at work as long as he or she is capable of doing it, and in any case should exercise regularly.... multiple sclerosis (ms)

Natural History Of Di Sease

The progressive development of a disease that runs its course without treatment. 1. Stage of susceptibility2. Stage of presymptomatic 3. Stage of clinical disease 4. Stage of disability/resolution Necator americanus See hookworm.... natural history of di sease

Near Sight

Myopia. See under EYE, DISORDERS OF – Errors of refraction.... near sight

Nervous System, Disorders Of

The following conditions are discussed under their individual headings: APHASIA; BRAIN, DISEASES OF; CATALEPSY; CHOREA; CRAMP; EPILEPSY; HYSTERIA; LEARNING DISABILITY; MEMORY; MENTAL ILLNESS; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS); NERVES, INJURIES TO; NEURALGIA; NEURITIS; PARALYSIS; PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES; SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF; STROKE; TABES.... nervous system, disorders of

Neuracanthus Sphaerostachyus

Dalz.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats, Deccan and Gujarat.

Folk: Ganther (Gujarat and Maharashtra), Ghosa-vel (Maharashtra).

Action: Root-paste applied to ringworm.... neuracanthus sphaerostachyus

Night Sweats

Copious PERSPIRATION occurring in bed at night and found in conditions such as TUBERCULOSIS, BRUCELLOSIS and lymphomas (see LYMPHOMA), as well as thyrotoxicosis (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), anxiety states and menopausal ?ushes (see MENOPAUSE).... night sweats

Munchausen’s Syndrome

Munchausen’s syndrome, also known as ‘hospital addiction’ syndrome, is a disorder in which the patient presents repeatedly to hospitals with symptoms and signs (often simulated) suggestive of serious physical illness. More common among men than women, it differs from MALINGERING in that no obvious reward results from the imagined or simulated symptoms. Patients may simulate signs and symptoms in a bizarre way – for instance, by swallowing blood or inserting needles into the chest. Abdominal symptoms are particularly common. They often have a history of multiple hospital admissions and operations, and show extensive pathological lying and lack of personal rapport. Although the cause is unclear, it is thought to be a form of hysterical behaviour in a severely disordered personality. Patients are often masochistic, attention-seeking, and constantly trying to obtain ANALGESICS. Occasionally there may be a degree of treatable DEPRESSION, but on the whole management is very di?cult as patients often abscond from psychiatric treatment.

A variation of the syndrome – Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, better termed ‘fabricated and induced illness’ – has been identi?ed, in which the persons affected in?ict damage upon others, usually children (or even animals) in their care. Factitious illness refers to simulating symptoms, such as stating that the child has blood in its urine when it is actually the parent’s blood. Induced illness includes such events as injecting dirty water into a baby’s muscles, dropping mild caustic into their eyes, adding salt to a baby’s milk or diluting it 50–50 with water, and so on. Much debate has ensued about the suggestion that some sudden infant deaths are due to smothering rather than natural causes, as a type of induced illness. As a consequence of two successful appeals against conviction for murder in 2004, the UK attorney general ordered a review of all criminal and family court cases in which disputed medical evidence had formed the basis of the decision. Paediatricians are concerned that one result is likely to be an increase in undetected child abuse.... munchausen’s syndrome

Murdannia Scapiflora

(Roxb.) Royle.

Synonym: Anilema scapiflorum Wt. A. tuberosum Buch.-Ham.

Family: Commelinaceae.

Habitat: Temperate and tropical Himalaya, upper Gangetic plains and Peninsular India.

Folk: Siyaah Musli; Sismulia (Gujarat); Kureli.

Action: Root—astringent, febrifuge; used in headache, giddiness, jaundice. Root bark—diuretic, antispasmodic, (used in asthma, colic, infantile convulsions.)... murdannia scapiflora

Nigella Sativa

Linn.

Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab, Bengal, Assam and Bihar.

English: Black Cumin, Small Fennel.

Ayurvedic: Kaalaajaaji, Kalikaa, Prthvikaa, Sthulajiraka, Sushavi, Upkunchikaa (the plant bears seeds of bigger size).

Unani: Kalonji, Kamaazaruus.

Siddha/Tamil: Karum seeragm.

Action: Seeds—stimulant, carminative, diuretic, lactiferous, em- menagogue (stimulate uterine contractions). Used in puerperal fever. Powdered seeds externally applied to boils. Essential oil— used in common cold, cough and bronchospasm.

The essential oil from seeds contains nigellone and 2-methyl-4-isopropyl-p- quinone. The oil contains carvone (4560%), d-limonene and cymene. Seeds contain fatty acids including palmitic, myristic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic. Beta-sitosterol is also present in the seeds.

Low concentration of nigellone has been shown to inhibit the release of histamine from mast cells in animals. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

The ethanolic extract of the seeds and the volatile oil from seeds showed antispasmodic activity in experimental animals, possibly due to a calcium antagonistic effect.

The oil exhibited CNS depressant and potent analgesic effects on experimental animals, possibly due to the presence of an opioid principle in the oil.

Dosage: Seed—1-3 g powder (API, Vol. I); 3-5 g powder (CCRAS).... nigella sativa

Night-sitting Service

A service that enables a caregiver night rest (e.g. where night disturbances of the older person receiving care are frequent).... night-sitting service

Nominal Scale

See “measurement scale”.... nominal scale

Nonparametric Statistics

Statistical techniques designed to be used when the data being analysed depart from the distribution that can be analysed with parametric statistics.... nonparametric statistics

Norwegian Scabies

A severe form of scabies presenting often in immunosuppressed individuals, often presenting with a generalised dermatitis, extensive scaling and occasionally vesiculation and crusting. The severe itch may be reduced or absent. Secondary infection can develop. See also Scabies.... norwegian scabies

Nymphaea Stellata

Willd.

Family: Nymphaeaceae.

Habitat: A native to Southeast Asia; found in ponds and ditches throughout India.

English: Indian Blue Water-lily.

Ayurvedic: Nilotpala (blue or voilet-flowered var.).

Unani: Nilofar.

Siddha/Tamil: Neelothpalam.

Action: See N. alba.... nymphaea stellata

Non-specific Urethritis (nsu)

An in?ammatory condition of the URETHRA due to a cause or causes other than GONORRHOEA. The most common is CHLAMYDIA trachomatis – there has been a rise of over 75 per cent in the incidence in the UK over the past ?ve years to around 70,000 a year. It produces pelvic in?ammatory disease in women, which often results in sterility, the risk of ECTOPIC PREGNANCY, and recurrent pelvic pain. Most cases respond well to TETRACYCLINES. Abstinence from sexual intercourse should be observed during treatment and until cure is complete. Children born to infected mothers may have their eyes infected during birth, producing the condition known as ophthalmia neonatorum. This is treated by the application to the eye of chlortetracycline eye ointment. The lungs of such a child may also be infected, resulting in pneumonia.... non-specific urethritis (nsu)

Observational Study

A study in which the investigators do not manipulate the use of an intervention (e.g. do not randomize people to treatment and control groups) but only observe people who are (and sometimes people who are not) exposed to the intervention, and interpret the results.... observational study

Occupational Health Services

Health services concerned with the physical, mental and social well-being of an individual in relation to his/her working environment and with the adjustment of individuals to their work. The term applies to more than the safety of the workplace and includes health and job satisfaction.... occupational health services

Oral And Maxillo-facial Surgeons

Perform surgery to the mouth and face. This not only includes removal of buried teeth but also treatment for fractured facial bones, removal of cancers and the repair of missing tissue, and the cosmetic restoration of facial anomalies such as CLEFT PALATE or large or small jaws.... oral and maxillo-facial surgeons

Ordinal Scale

See “measurement scale”.... ordinal scale

Organic Substances

Those which are obtained from animal or vegetable bodies, or which resemble in chemical composition those derived from this source. Organic chemistry has come to mean the chemistry of the carbon compounds.... organic substances

Organized Delivery System

See “integrated delivery system”.... organized delivery system

Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (nsaids)

These act by inhibiting the formation of PROSTAGLANDINS which are mediators of INFLAMMATION. They act both as ANALGESICS to relieve pain, and as inhibitors of in?ammation. Aspirin is a classic example of such a compound. Newer compounds have been synthesised with the aim of producing fewer and less severe side-effects. They are sometimes preferred to aspirin for the treatment of conditions such as RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS, OSTEOARTHRITIS, sprains, strains and sports injuries. Their main side-effects are gastrointestinal: gastric ulcers and gastric haemorrhage may result (see STOMACH, DISEASES OF). This is because prostaglandins are necessary for the production of the mucous protective coat in the stomach and, when the production of prostaglandin is inhibited, the protection of the stomach is compromised. NSAIDs should therefore be used with caution in patients with DYSPEPSIA and gastric ulceration. The various nonsteroidal anti-in?ammatory drugs di?er little from each other in e?cacy, although there is considerable variation in patient response. Ibuprofen is one of the ?rst choices in this group of drugs as it combines good e?cacy with a low incidence of side-effects and administration is only required twice daily. Other drugs in this series include diclofenac, fenbufen, fenclofenac, fenoprofen, feprazone, ?urbiprofen, indomethacin, indoprofen, ketoprofen, ketorolac, naproxen, piroxicam, sulindac, tiaprofenic acid and tolmetin.... non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nsaids)

Ocimum Sanctum

Linn.

Synonym: O. tenuiflorum Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India; grown in houses, gardens and temples.

English: Holy Basil, Sacred Basil.

Ayurvedic: Tulasi, Surasaa, Surasa, Bhuutaghni, Suravalli, Sulabhaa, Manjarikaa, Bahumanjari, Deva- dundubhi, Apet-raakshasi, Shuu- laghni, Graamya, Sulabhaa.

Unani: Tulasi.

Siddha/Tamil: Tulasi, Nalla-Tulasi.

Action: Leaf—carminative, stomachic, antispasmodic, antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, expectorant, stimulant, hepatoprotective, antiperiodic, antipyretic and diaphoretic. Seed— used in genitourinary diseases. Root—antimalarial. Plant—adap- togenic, antistress. Essential oil— antibacterial, antifungal.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of the leaf and seed in rhinitis and influenza; the seed in psychological disorders, including fear-psychosis and obsessions.

Major components of the essential oil are eugenol, carvacrol, nerol and eugenolmethylether. Leaves have been reported to contain ursolic acid, api- genin, luteolin, apigenin-7-O-glucu- ronide, luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, orientin and molludistin.

Ursolic acid, isolated from leaves, exhibited significant protection of mast cell membrane by preventing granulation and decreased histamine release. The ethanolic extract (50%) of fresh leaves, volatile oil from fresh leaves and fixed oil from seeds showed antiasth- matic activity and significantly protected guinea-pigs against histamine and dyspnoea. They also showed anti- inflammatory activity against carrage- enan-, serotonin-, histamine- and PGE-2-induced inflammation and inhibited hind paw oedema in rats.

The ethanol extract (90%) of the leaves showed hepatoprotective effect against paracetamol-induced liver damage.

The plant extract exhibited antiul- cerogenic property against experimental ulcers.

Oral administration of alcoholic extract of leaves lowers blood sugar level in normal, glucose-fed hyperglycaemic and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The activity of the extract was 91.55 and 70.43% of that of tolbutamide in normal and diabetic rats respectively.

Administration of the juice of the plant affected a significant reduction in the size of urinary brushite crystals.

A study of methanol extract and aqueous suspension of the leaves showed immunostimulation of humoral immunologic response in albino rats indicating the adaptogenic action of the plant.

Dosage: Seed—1-2 g powder (API, Vol. IV); plant—50-10 ml infusion (CCRAS.).... ocimum sanctum

Office For National Statistics (ons)

This is an executive agency of the UK government formed by an amalgamation in 1990 of the Central Statistical O?ce and the O?ce of Population Censuses and Surveys (OPCS). The ONS compiles and publishes statistics on national and local populations, including their social and economic situation and contributions to the country’s economy. It also records the demographic patterns of births, marriages and deaths, including the medical cause of death. The former OPCS organised a national ten-yearly census and ONS is carrying on this activity. The census is based on the actual presence of individuals in a house or institutions on a given night. The ?gures provide government departments and local authorities with information for planning services.... office for national statistics (ons)

Osgood-schlatter’s Disease

The form of OSTEOCHONDROSIS involving the tibial tubercle – the growing point of the TIBIA. It occurs around PUBERTY, mainly in boys, and ?rst manifests itself by a painful swelling over the tibial tubercle at the upper end of the tibia. The pain is worst during and after exercise. A limp with increasing limitation of movement of the knee-joint develops. The disease usually clears up without treatment. If pain is troublesome, physiotherapy or immobilisation of the knee-joint in a plaster cast for up to eight weeks may be necessary.... osgood-schlatter’s disease

Outcome Standard

The quality of care and quality of life objectives set by an authority which the service providers should strive to achieve for all people.... outcome standard

Outpatient Services

See “ambulatory care”.... outpatient services

Para-amino Salicylic Acid

One of the early antituberculous (see TUBERCULOSIS) antibiotics. It tended to cause DYSPEPSIA and has been replaced by newer antituberculous drugs with fewer side-effects. The ?rst-line drugs for tuberculosis are now rifampicin, isoniazid, and ethambutol.... para-amino salicylic acid

Olax Scandens

Roxb.

Oenothera odorata Jacq.

Family: Onagraceae.

Habitat: Native to Chile; cultivated as a garden plant in South Australia. Introduced into Indian gardens.

English: Evening Primrose (var.); Sundrop (var.).

Action: Oil from seeds—prescribed for eczema (in children); premenstrual syndrome and cyclical breast pain.

Family: Olacaceae.

Habitat: Sub-Himalayas tract of Kumaon and Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Deccan and Western Ghats.

Ayurvedic: Dheniaani, Karbudaar (doubtful synonym).

Siddha/Tamil: Malliveppam, Kadalranchi.

Folk: Rimil-beeri (Bihar).

Action: Bark—used in anaemia and as a supporting drug in diabetes; also in the treatment of fever.... olax scandens

Oolong Tea Health Benefits, Side Effects And Brewing

Oolong tea, literally meaning “Black Dragon”, is a traditional Chinese beverage which undergoes a unique preparation process resulting in a reddish drink with a slightly sweet delicate flavour. Oolong tea is partially fermented, unlike black tea, which is fully fermented, or green tea, which is unfermented. Oolong Tea Brewing Oolong tea requires a higher brewingtemperature in order to extract the complex aromas of the tea leaves. It is recommended to use spring or filtered water heated at a temperature of approximately 90 degrees Celsius. The steeping process for most Oolong teas should last no longer than five minutes. If this period is extended for too long, it may ruin the delicate aromas and turn your cup of tea unpleasantly bitter. Oolong teas are best served plain, but you can add milk, sugar, honey or lemon according to your taste. Oolong Tea Health Benefits Oolong tea, a hybrid between black and green tea, has numerous health benefits, especially if consumed regularly. Drinking Oolong tea stimulates brain activity and relieves mental and physical stress. Oolong tea has the potential of reducing high blood pressure, lowering blood sugar levels and preventing serious afflictions like obesity, osteoporosis, tooth decay, cancer or heart disease. Oolong tea accelerates the metabolism and promotes weight loss. Another health benefit of Oolong tea is its effectiveness in treating skin problems such as eczema and rashes and combating skin aging. Oolong Tea Side Effects Although drinking Oolong tea is extremely beneficial for the body, it can also lead to unpleasant side effects when consumed in large quantities, therefore moderation is required. These side effects include sleeping difficulties, anxiety or irritability, most of them related to excessive caffeine intake. It is not recommended for pregnant women and people suffering from kidney disorders. Furthermore, oolong tea has been proven to interact with certain medications; therefore, people who undertake treatment are advised to consult a health care provider first. Oolong tea is extremely effective in keeping your energy levels up, due to its caffeine content, and it also increases brain function, helping you maintain active and aware throughout the day.... oolong tea health benefits, side effects and brewing

Orange Spice Tea: A Mixture For Health

Orange Spice Tea is a complex, full-flavored type of black tea, kindly recommended to beginner consumers of tea blends. It is a largely-appreciated tea, having an old acknowledged tradition, its first production being placed in the 19th century. Orange Spice Tea description. Orange Spice Tea is another variety of black tea mixed with orange zest or dried peel, together with a combination of spices, such as: cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and allspice. It has been noticed that any number of spice combination is possible. Orange Spice Tea is usually caffeine-free, being thus, a good tea to consume at any time of the day or even night.  It can be drunk hot or as an iced tea beverage, with or without adding milk or honey. Orange Spice Tea is recommended to be one of the best choices for those not yet accustomed to gourmet tea blends. It is typically available as loose leaves or as bag forms and is often found in gourmet tea shops, health stores or on grocery shelves. Orange Spice Tea recipe The abovementioned tea has a delicate taste and is also a good ingredient to be included in the daily diet, due to its healthy properties. It can be consumed both as beverage, or can be added to different cookies recipes. To brew Orange Spice Tea:
  • Fill a teapot with about 16 ounces of water
  • Boil the water
  • Place about two tablespoons of the leaves in a teapot
  • Take the pot out of the water
  • Let the mix stand for about 5 to 7 minutes
  • Strain and drink it slowly
To include Orange Spice Tea in sweets recipes, grind the tea leaves and mix them with the dough, together with the ingredients. Orange Spice Tea benefits Orange Spice Tea gathers the benefits of black tea, citrus and spices:
  • strengthens the immune system
  • helps lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases
  • helps in the prevention of certain cancers
  • contributes to preventing colds, cough and flu
  • helps in calming and relaxing the senses
  • stimulates blood circulation
  • increases concentration and memory levels
  • warms the body (especially during winter)
Orange Spice Tea side effects Rarely,Orange Spice Teaconsumers experienced stomach aches or the syndrome of upset stomach. Patients suffering from gastritis are advised to intake a low quantity of Orange Spice Tea. Orange Spice Tea clusters the benefits and taste of black tea, citron and a large array of spices. It is intensely consumed by connoisseurs and novices, especially due to its health contributions and proven energy booster actions.... orange spice tea: a mixture for health

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning

Poisoning by saxitoxin, a toxin present in some shellfish, usually in tropical or subtropical seas. Symptoms of respiratory arrest, or brain involvement occur in some 8% of cases, resulting in death. Saxitoxin is related to tetrodotoxin.... paralytic shellfish poisoning

Oryza Sativa

Linn.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated all over India as a food crop.

English: Rice.

Ayurvedic: Shaali, Vrihidhaanya, Tandula, Nivara.

Unani: Biranj Saathi.

Action: Rice-water (a water decoction of rice)—demulcent and refrigerant in febrile and inflammatory diseases and in dysuria. Also used as a vehicle for compound preparations used for gynaecological disorders. It is regarded as cooling in haematemesis and epistaxis, and as diuretic.

The green clum or stalks—recommended in biliousness. Ash of the straw—used in the treatment of wounds and discharges. Lixiviated ash of straw is used as anthelmintic and in nausea.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the dried root in dy- suria and lactic disorders.

The pigments occurring in coloured types of rice are a mixture of monogly- cosides of cyanidin and delphinidin. The dark Puttu Rice of India contains a diglycosidic anthocyanin.

Dosage: Root—50 g for decoction. (API, Vol. II.)... oryza sativa

Oxystelma Secamone

(Linn.) Karst.

Synonym: O. esculentum R. Br. Sarcostemma secamone (Linn.) Bennet.

Family: Asclepiadaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the plains and lower hills of India, including paddy fields and hedges rear semi-marshy places.

Ayurvedic: Dugdhikaa, Duudhila- taa, Duudhialataa .

Folk: Usipallai (Tamil Nadu); Dugdhani (Maharashtra); Jala- dudhi (Gujarat).

Action: Herb—antiseptic, depura- tive, galactogogue; decoction used as a gargle in stomatitis and sore throat. Latex—vulnerary. Fresh root—prescribed in jaundice.

A pregnane ester oligoglycoside (oxysine), a pregnane triglycoside (es- culentin), a cardenolide (oxyline), two more cardenolides, oxystelmoside and oxystelmine, have been isolated from the roots.

Dosage: Plant—10-20 ml juice; 50100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: Central and Eastern Himlayas extending to Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.

Ayurvedic: Talanili, Gand- haprasaarini. (Prasaarini is also equated with Raaja-balaa, Sida veronicaefolia.).

Siddha/Tamil: Talanili, Mudiyar Kundal.

Folk: Gandhabhaaduli (Bengali).

Action: Leaf—carminative, antiinflammatory, astringent, spasmolytic, antidiarrhoeal, diuretic, an- tilithic. Root— anti-inflammatory. Used for rheumatic affections, piles, inflammations of the liver, spleen and chest.

Aerial parts contain epi-friedelanol, embelin and beta-sitosterol. Leaves and stems gave iridoid glycosides, si- tosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, ur- solic acid, hentriacontane, hentriacon- tanol, ceryl alcohol, palmitic acid and methyl mercaptan. The foetid smell is due to methyl mercaptan.

All parts of the plant have been employed for rheumatic affections.

A related species, Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merill, synonym P. tomentosa Blume, is known as Gandha Prasaarini. The iridoid glucosides, paedero- side, paederosidic acid and scandosides have been isolated from the plant.... oxystelma secamone

Parametric Statistics

Statistical techniques designed for use when data have certain characteristics.... parametric statistics

Paranasal Sinus

Sited within some of the bones of the SKULL, these are spaces ?lled with air and lined by MUCOUS MEMBRANE. The sinuses comprise frontal and maxillary (a pair of each), ethmoidal (a group of small spaces), and two sphenoid sinuses. They drain into the nasal cavities (see NOSE). When a person has an upper respiratory infection, the sinuses sometimes become infected: this causes pain, purulent discharge from the nose and obstruction of the nasal passages (see SINUSITIS). Generally all that is required is a decongestant and antibiotic but, occasionally, infection may spread to produce a cerebral abscess or cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (see BRAIN, DISEASES OF).... paranasal sinus

Patient-origin Study

A study, generally undertaken by an individual health programme or health planning agency to determine the geographic distribution of the residences of the patients served by one or more health programmes. Such studies help define catchment and medical trade areas and are useful in locating and planning the development of new services.... patient-origin study

Perioperative Cell Salvage

A method of autologous blood TRANSFUSION – using a patient’s own blood, salvaged during a surgical operation – instead of conventional blood-bank transfusion.... perioperative cell salvage

Phenytoin Sodium

An older drug for the treatment of EPILEPSY. It is not now widely used, as it is di?cult to determine the precise dose to avoid ill-effects and long-term use leads to changes to the facial appearance. However, the drug is still used for the quick control of an apparently uncontrollable epileptic ?t, and after head injury or neurosurgery.... phenytoin sodium

Papaver Somniferum

Linn.

Family: Papaveraceae.

Habitat: Kashmir and throughout the plains of North India; cultivated in gardens.

English: Corn Poppy, Red Poppy.

Ayurvedic: Rakta Posta.

Siddha/Tamil: Sivappu, Kasakasa.

Folk: Laal Posta, Laal Kaskas.

Action: Latex from capsules— narcotic. Petal—expectorant, antitussive, sudorific. Used for diseases of the respiratory tract, for disturbed sleep and as a sedative for the relief of pain. (Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.)

The petals contain cyanidine derivatives. An alkaloid rhoeadine is present in leaves and flowers (0.031%), unripe capsules (0.035%) and in roots

Family: Papaveraceae.

Habitat: Native to Asia; now grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

English: Opium Poppy.

Ayurvedic: Ahiphena, Aaphuuka. Post-daanaa (seed).

Unani: Afyum. Tukhm-e- khashkhaash (seed).

Siddha/Tamil: Kasakasa (seeds).

Action: Opium is obsolete as a drug. Narcotic, sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, sudorific, anodyne, antispasmodic. Crushed poppyheads were in use as a topical poultice for crippling pain in terminal diseases. Poppy seed—nutritive, demulcent, emollient, spasmolytic, devoid of narcotic properties. Specific against obstinate constipation, also used in catarrh of the bladder. Poppy seed oil is also free from narcotic properties. Used against diarrhoea, dysentery and scalds.

Opium contains isoquinoline alkaloids; the major one is morphine with narcotine, codeine, papaverine and thebaine. Poppy seeds, used in Indian medicine, do not contain alkaloids. The seeds contain thiamine 420, riboflavin 49, folic acid 30, pantothenic acid 2667 and niacin 1877 mcg/100 g. The seed oil (from Turkey) contains gamma-tocopherol 220, alpha-toco- pherol 40 and beta-tocopherol 20 mcg/ 100 g. Some low-molecular proteins (15% of total protein) have been isolated, along with cysteine, glutamic acid and arginine. The seeds yield a fatty oil (45%) containing palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids.

The extract of seeds showed highly significant antisecretory (antidiarr- hoeal activity) against E. coli entero- toxin-induced secretory responses in experimental animals.

The triglycerides isolated from seeds showed anti-tumour activity against Ehrlichs ascites in mice.

The aqueous extract of seeds showed marked hypoglycaemic activity when administered to glucose-loaded and al- loxan diabetic rats.

The seeds were found to increase the activity of carcinogen detoxifying enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase by more than 78% in the stomach, liver and oesophagus in mice.

Following Papaver sp. are found in India:

P. argemone Linn. (indigenous to the Mediterranean region; commonly grown in gardens in India) contains 0.15% of alkaloids including rhoeadine, protopine, and anthocyanins. Petals are sudorific.

P dubium Linn. (North-western Himalaya form Kashmir to Garhwal; as a winter weed in North Indian plains) contains rhoeagenine as the principal alkaloid, besides rhoeadine, protopine. Petals contain cyanidin B and pelargonidin C. Petals are sudorific.

P. hybridum Linn. (gardens of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh) is diaphoretic (petals). Plant latex contains alkaloids including berberine, coptisine, pahybrine, papaverrubines A, B, D and E and sanguinarine. Plant also gave glaucine and glucamine.

P. nudicaule Linn. (Gulmarg, Kashmir, at altitudes of 3,300-3,600 m), known as Iceland Poppy, gave alkaloids including papaverrubines B and D; leave gave cyanogenic glycosides including dhurrin and triglochinin. The flower and fruit are mild diaphoretic.

P. orientale Linn. (indigenous to Mediterranean region; grown in Indian gardens), known as Oriental Poppy, contains 0.16% of alkaloids including thebaine, isothebane, protopine, glaucidine and oripavine. Latex from poppy capsule is narcotic.... papaver somniferum

Physician-assisted Suicide

See SUICIDE.... physician-assisted suicide

Pilonoidal Sinus

A SINUS that contains hairs, usually occurring in the cleft between the buttocks. It may get infected and cause considerable pain. Treatment is by antibiotics and, if necessary, surgical removal.... pilonoidal sinus

Pilot Study

A small-scale test of the methods and procedures to be used on a larger scale if the pilot study demonstrates that these methods and procedures can work.... pilot study

Pinus Succinifera

(Goppert) Cornw.

Family: Pinaceae.

Habitat: Native of northern scandinavia.

English: Baltic Amber, Succinite.

Unani: Ambar, Kahruubaa,

Action: Cardiac tonic, styptic. Vateria indica is used in Unani medicine as a substitute for P succinifera gum-resin (Fossil-resin).... pinus succinifera

Piper Schmidtii

Hook. f.

Family: Piperaceae.

Habitat: Assam, Western Ghats, the Nilgiris and Palni hills above 1,500 m.

English: Nilgiri Pepper.

Action: Carminative.

The neolignan schmiditin, together with lignin galgravin as well as friedelin, beta-sitosterol and its beta- O-glucoside have been isolated from the extract of aerial parts. The extract exhibited antiamoebic activity.... piper schmidtii

Paspalum Scrobiculatum

Linn.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India.

English: Kodo millet. Ayurvedic: Kodrava, Korduusha. Siddha/Tamil: Varagu. Folk: Kodo.

Action: Plant—used as a CNS drug for treating schizophrenia and psychoses.

The plant contains hentriacontanol, hentriacontanone and sitosterol. The grains have often been reported to cause poisoning in men and animals when used as a food; non-poisonous types have been reported from Tamil Nadu.... paspalum scrobiculatum

Pastinaca Sativa

Linn.

Synonym: Peucedanum sativum Benth. & Hook. f.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe; grows in cool climate in India. (Hollow Crown, Student and Large Guernsey are Indian horticultural varieties.)

English: Parsnip.

Action: Above ground parts— diuretic, carminative (eaten as a vegetable and salad), used for kidney disorders. Root—used for kidney disorders, fever and as a diuretic and analgesic.

The parsnip is a rich source of coumarins (1.7% dry weight). The coumarin fraction of the fruit extract inhibits growth of cancer cells (HeLa- S3)cultured in the dark. The fruit contains small amounts of photoactive furocoumarins which are phototoxic. (Severe dermatitis results after contact with the furocoumarin in the presence of light.) The fruit contains xantho- toxin (0.1%), imperatorin (0.17%) and bergapten (0.38%). Coumarin, pasti- nacin, isolated from the fruit, showed spasmolytic action.... pastinaca sativa

Pastinaca Secacul

Linn. Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe. English: Wild Parsnip. Unani: Shaqaaq-ul-Misri.

Action: Root—galactagogue, aphrodisiac, spermatogenetic. An important ingredient of Unani compounds for oligospermia, low sexual drive and debility. Shaqaaq-ul-Misri has also been equated with Trachydium lehmanni Benth. In Kashmir, Eryngium caeru- leum Bieb (Umbelliferae) and in Chak- rata, Polygonatum verticillatum All. (Liliaceae) are known as shaqaaqul (also Dudhaali). Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomes are used in Tibetan medicine for emaciation and senility. The dried rhizomes contain diosgenin.... pastinaca secacul

Peripheral-blood Stem-cell Transplants

These have almost completely replaced BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT, used to treat malignancies such as LEUKAEMIA and LYMPHOMA for the past 20 years. The high doses of CHEMOTHERAPY or RADIOTHERAPY used to treat these diseases destroy the bone marrow which contains stem cells from which all the blood cells derive. In 1989 stem cells were found in the blood during recovery from chemotherapy. By giving growth factors (cytokines), the number of stem cells in the blood increased for about three to four days. In a peripheral-blood stem-cell transplant, these cells can be separated from the peripheral blood, without a general anaesthetic. The cells taken by either method are then frozen and returned intravenously after the chemotherapy or radiotherapy is completed. Once transplanted, the stem cells usually take less than three weeks to repopulate the blood, compared to a month or more for a bone marrow transplant. This means that there is less risk of infection or bleeding during the recovery from the transplant. The whole procedure has a mortality risk of less than 5 per cent – half the risk of a bone marrow transplant.... peripheral-blood stem-cell transplants

Persistent Vegetative State (pvs)

PVS may occur in patients with severe brain damage from HYPOXIA or injury. Patients do not display any awareness of their surroundings, and are unable to communicate. Sleep alternates with apparent wakefulness, when some re?exes (see REFLEX ACTION) may be present: for example, patients’ eyes may re?exly follow or respond to sound, their limbs can re?exly withdraw from pain, and their hands can re?exly grope or grasp. Patients can breathe spontaneously, and retain normal heart and kidney function, although they are doubly incontinent (see INCONTINENCE).

For a diagnosis of PVS to be made, the state should have continued for more than a prede?ned period, usually one month. Half of patients die within 2–6 months, but some can survive for longer with arti?cial feeding. To assess a person’s level of consciousness, a numerical marking system rated according to various functions – eye opening, motor and verbal responses – has been established called the GLASGOW COMA SCALE.

The ETHICS of keeping patients alive with arti?cial support are controversial. In the UK, a legal ruling is usually needed for arti?cial support to be withdrawn after a diagnosis of PVS has been made. The chances of regaining consciousness after one year are slim and, even if patients do recover, they are usually left with severe neurological disability.

PVS must be distinguished from conditions which appear similar. These include the ‘LOCKED-IN SYNDROME’ which is the result of damage to the brain stem (see BRAIN). Patients with this syndrome are conscious but unable to speak or move except for certain eye movements and blinking. The psychiatric state of CATATONIA is another condition in which the patient retains consciousness and will usually recover.... persistent vegetative state (pvs)

Piper Sylvaticum

Roxb.

Habitat: Assam and Bengal.

Ayurvedic: Vana-Pippali.

Folk: Pahaari Peepal.

Action: Fruit—carminative. Aerial parts—diuretic.

The root yielded a lignin, sesamin; amides (including piperine, piperlon- gumine) and beta-sitosterol.... piper sylvaticum

Phoenix Sylvestris

Roxb.

Family: Palmae; Arecaceae.

Habitat: Andhra Pradesh, Karnata- ka and Madhya Pradesh.

English: Wild Date Palm.

Ayurvedic: Kharjuuri.

Siddha/Tamil: Periyaitcham, Icham.

Folk: Sulemaani Khajuur, Desi Khajuur.

Action: Fruits—restorative. Juice— cooling, gastric stimulant. Seeds— used in ague. Root—used for nervous debility.

Fresh, unfermented sap (Niraa) is a good source of ascorbic acid, nicotinic and isonicotinic acids, riboflavin, thiamine, sugars; crystine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, thre- onine, tyrosine.

The concentration of amino acids is much higher in palm jaggery than in sugar cane jaggery.

Fresh fruits contain protein 1.2, fat 0.4, calcium 0.022 and phosphorus 0.38%.

Dosage: Fruit—10-20 g paste. (CCRAS.)... phoenix sylvestris

Phyllanthus Simplex

Retz.

Synonym: P. virgatus J. R. et G. Forst.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India.

Ayurvedic: Bhumyaamalaki (var.).

Folk: Mothi-bhuiaamvali (Maharashtra).

Plant—antiseptic. Fresh leaves, bruised in butter milk, are used as a wash for itch. Fresh leaves, flowers and fruits with cumin seeds and sugar, are used in gonorrhoea. Root—applied to mammary abscesses. Fruits contain oxalic acid.... phyllanthus simplex

Picea Smithiana

Boiss.

Synonym: P. morinda Link. Abies smithiana Lindl.

Family: Pinaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at altitudes of 1,500-3,500 m.

English: West Himalayan Spruce.

Folk: Roi, Rhai, Raghaa, Kathela, Kandre, Morindaa. Spruce (trade).

Action: Essential oil—antiseptic. Used in bath salts, room sprays and deodorants.

Key applications ? Fir Needle Oil, obtained from Picea abies, synonym P. excelsa)—externally and internally, for catarrhal illness of the upper and lower respiratory tract; externally, for rheumatic and neuralgic pains. (German Commission E.)

The oil contains alpha-pinene, l- alpha-phellandrene, dipentene, bornyl- acetate, cadinene, S-guaiazulene and a bicyclic sesquiterpene. The oil distilled from the leaves collected in Gul- marg had a ester content of 23.2% (as bornyl acetate). The bark contained 4.22% tannin.

Picea abies has been introduced at Manali (at 1,890 m). It yields an ole- oresin which is used in plasters and ointments. The essential oil is used in... picea smithiana

Picrorhiza Scrophulariaeflora

Pennell.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: Eastern Himalayan in Nepal and Sikkim.

Action: Properties similar to those of Picrorhiza kurroa.

The root contains the iridoid glyco- sides, amphicoside, catalpol, aucubin and androsin; also cucurbitacin glyco- sides.

Action: Stimulant (excites most glands), expectorant, powerful diaphoretic. Used in hair tonics to stimulate hair growth. (Irritates stomach and causes vomiting in overdose.)

The leaf contains a parasympathetic stimulant pilocarpine (0.5%). It is an obsolete medicinal herb, but is used in the production of pilocarpine. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... picrorhiza scrophulariaeflora

Picture Archiving And Communications System (pacs)

The use of digital imaging systems to replace conventional X-ray pictures and other imaging techniques. Though expensive to operate, digital imaging and storage systems o?er promising possibilities for transmission of clinical images within and between hospitals and community health-care units, providing fast access and remote working that will bene?t patients and health-care sta? alike. When security and con?dentiality are assured, images could be transferred via the Internet and teleradiology. In future, hospitals might be able to eliminate the costly physical transfer and storage of X-ray ?lms. The integration of PACS with hospital information systems in the NHS will (hopefully) facilitate the introduction of electronic radiology.... picture archiving and communications system (pacs)

Pluralistic System

A system that is based on incorporating divergent provider modalities (e.g. public, private, non-profit, etc.).... pluralistic system

Podophyllum Sikkimensis

R. Chatterji & Mukerjee.

Family: Berberidaceae.

Habitat: Sikkim.

Folk: Paapraa (var.).

Action: Resin—used against tumours.

The rhizomes and roots yield 7.5% resin which gave a lignin lactone desig nated sikkimotoxin; also 3-galactosidyl quercetin, quercetin and isorhamne- tin. It is yet to be established that the lactone possesses properties analogous to those of podophyllotoxin.... podophyllum sikkimensis

Population-based Services

Health services targeted at populations with specific diseases or disorders.... population-based services

Pimpernel, Scarlet

Anagallis arvensis. N.O. Primulaceae.

Synonym: Poor Man's Weatherglass, Shepherd's Barometer (these names because the flowers close some hours before rain). Red Pimpernel.

Habitat: Cornfields, waste places and in gardens.

Features ? Stem square, weak, much branched, trailing with tendency to ascend, between six inches and one foot long. Leaves small, opposite, ovoid, sessile, entire at edges, black dots underneath. Flowers scarlet, corolla rotate, on long, slender, axillary stalk.

Part used ? Leaves.

Action: Diuretic, hepatic, diaphoretic.

The properties of this herb, although very active, are not yet fully known, and care should be exercised in using it. It has been successful in the treatment of liver irregularities, forms of rheumatism and dropsy. The pulverised leaves are administered in doses of from 15 to 60 grains.... pimpernel, scarlet

Pimpinella Saxifraga

Linn. var. dissectifolia C. B. Clarke, non-Boiss.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir at 3,900 m.

English: Burnet Saxifrage, Pimpinel- la Root.

Action: Root—carminative, stimulant, expectorant, cholagogue, diuretic, emmenagogue. Used for diarrhoea.

Key application: Rhizome—in catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract. (German Commission E. Above ground parts have been included among unapproved herbs.)

The main components of the fruits and roots are isoeugenol epoxy tiglic ester, isoeugenol epoxy-2-methylbu- tanoic ester and 4-phenyl tiglic ester. Roots also contain pimpinellin and isopimpinellin.... pimpinella saxifraga

Pistia Stratiotes

Linn. var. cuneata Engl.

Family: Araceae.

Habitat: Tropical and sub-tropical Asia, Africa and America.

English: Water Lettuce, Tropical Duckweed.

Ayurvedic: Jalakumbhi, Vaariparni, Vaarimuuli.

Siddha/Tamil: Agasatamarai.

Action: Whole plant and root— diuretic, used for dysuria. Leaf—an- titussive, demulcent, antidysenteric, externally applied to haemorrhoids, ulcers, skin diseases. Ash—applied to ringworm of the scalp.

The plant gave 2-di-C-glycosylfla- vones of vicenin and lucenin type, anthocyanin-cyanidin-3-glucoside, lu- teolin-7-glycoside and mono-C-glyco- sylflavones— vitexin and orientin.

Dosage: Plant—10-20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)... pistia stratiotes

Polygala Sibirica

Linn.

Synonym: P. heyneana Wall. ex W. & A.

Family: Polygalaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the Himalayas and Western Ghats.

English: Common Milkwort.

Folk: Negali, Meradu (var.).

Action: Leaves—used in spermatorrhoea. Root—a decoction is given as an expectorant in cold and cough and chronic chest diseases. (Used as a substitute for Senega.) Also used for inflammation of urinary bladder; externally for mammary abscesses and carbuncles.... polygala sibirica

Pothos Scandens

Linn.

Family: Araceae.

Habitat: Cultivated as an ornamental. Found in Bihar, North Bengal, Orissa, Western Ghats and Southwards.

Siddha/Tamil: Aanaparuga.

Action: Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antimicrobial. Applied to smallpox pustules. Root—bruised and fried in oil, applied to abscesses.... pothos scandens

Preferred Breeding Sites

Sites suitable for egg-laying and satisfactory for all aquatic stages of development.... preferred breeding sites

Prevalence Study

See “cross-sectional study”.... prevalence study

Primary Study

An investigation that collects original (primary) data from subjects, e.g. randomized controlled trials, observational studies, series of cases, etc. See “secondary data analysis”.... primary study

Prosopis Stephaniana

Kunth.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Parts of Punjab and Gujarat.

Ayurvedic: Samudra-shami, Shami (var.).

Folk: Khejaraa (var.)

Action: Pods and roots—astringent, styptic, antidysenteric.... prosopis stephaniana

Popliteal Space

The name given to the region behind the knee. The muscles attached to the bones immediately above and below the knee bound a diamond-shaped space through which pass the main artery and vein of the limb (known in this part of their course as the popliteal artery and vein); the tibial and common peroneal nerves (which continue the sciatic nerve from the thigh down to the leg); the external saphenous vein; and several small nerves and lymphatic vessels. The muscles – which bound the upper angle of the space and which are attached to the leg bones by strong prominent tendons – are known as the hamstrings. The lower angle of the space lies between the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, which makes up the main bulk of the calf of the leg.... popliteal space

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (ptsd)

A term introduced to PSYCHIATRY in 1980 after the Vietnam War. It is one of several psychiatric disorders that can develop in people exposed to severe trauma, such as a major physical injury, participation in warfare, assault or rape, or any event in which there is major loss of life or a threat of loss of life. Most people exposed to trauma do not develop psychiatric disorder; however, some develop immediate distress and, occasionally, the reaction can be delayed for many months. Someone with PTSD has regular recurrences of memories or images of the stressful event (‘?ashbacks’), especially when reminded of it. Insomnia, feelings of guilt and isolation, an inability to concentrate and irritability may result. DEPRESSION is very common. Support from friends and family is probably the best management, but those who do not recover quickly can be helped by antidepressants and psychological treatments such as COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY. Over the past few years, PTSD has featured increasingly in compensation litigation.... post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd)

Prenatal Screening Or Diagnosis

Prenatal screening of fetal abnormalities may be the result of screening tests carried out on most or all pregnant women, or as the result of speci?c diagnostic tests performed to detect speci?c conditions. Prenatal diagnosis is important as it will identify babies who might need medical or surgical treatment before or soon after birth. In addition, it may also detect severe abnormalities for which parents might decide to have a therapeutic ABORTION.

ULTRASOUND scanning is probably the most widely used diagnostic tool in obstetric practice. It can detect structural abnormalities such as SPINA BIFIDA and CLEFT PALATE and even cardiac and renal problems. A series of scans can assess whether the baby is growing at a normal rate; ultrasound may also be used to assist with other diagnostic tests (e.g. AMNIOCENTESIS – see below).

Tests on the mother’s blood can also diagnose fetal abnormalities. Alphafetoprotein (AFP) is produced by babies and ‘leaks’ into the AMNIOTIC FLUID and is absorbed by the mother. In spina bi?da and other neural-tube defects there is increased leakage of AFP, and a blood test at 16 weeks’ gestation can detect a raised level which suggests the presence of these abnormalities.

The triple test, also performed at 16 weeks, measures AFP and two hormones – HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIN and unconjugated OESTRADIOL – and is used in diagnosing DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME.

Amniocentesis involves inserting a needle through the mother’s abdominal wall into the uterus to remove a sample of amniotic ?uid at 16–18 weeks. Examination of the ?uid and the cells it contains is used in the diagnosis of Down’s syndrome and other inherited disorders. The test carries a small risk of miscarriage.

Chorionic villus sampling may be used to diagnose various inherited conditions. A small amount of tissue from the developing PLACENTA is removed for analysis: this test has the advantages of having a lower incidence of miscarriage than amniocentesis and is carried out at an earlier stage (9–13 weeks).

Analysis of a blood sample removed from the umbilical cord (cordocentesis) may diagnose infections in the uterus, blood disorders or inherited conditions.

Direct observation of the fetus via a viewing instrument called a fetoscope is also used diagnostically and will detect structural abnormalities.

Most tests have a recognised incidence of false positive and negative results and are therefore usually cross-checked with another test. Counselling of the parents about prenatal tests is important. This allows them to make an informed choice which may not necessarily involve terminating the pregnancy if an abnormality is found. (See PREGNANCY AND LABOUR.)... prenatal screening or diagnosis

Prospective Payment System

A system whereby reimbursement rates are set for a given period of time prior to the circumstances giving rise to actual reimbursement claims.... prospective payment system

Public Sector

See “statutory sector”.... public sector

Prosopis Spicigera

Linn.

Synonym: P. cineraria Druce.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Dry and acrid regions of India.

Ayurvedic: Shami, Tungaa, Keshahantri, Shankuphalaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Kalisam.

Action: Pod—astringent, pectoral, demulcent. Bark—anti- inflammatory, antirheumatic. Flower—administered to prevent miscarriage.

The stem bark contains vitamin K, n-octacosyl acetate, the long chain aliphatic acid. Presence of glucose, rhamnose, sucrose and starch is also reported.

A cytotoxic principle, patulibin, has been isolated from flowers.

Dosage: Leaf, fruit—3-5 g powder, 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... prosopis spicigera

Prostate Specific Antigen (psa)

An ENZYME produced by glandular tissue in the PROSTATE GLAND. When the gland enlarges (see PROSTATE, DISEASES OF), greater amounts of PSA are secreted, raising the concentration of the enzyme in the blood. This is especially so in cancer of the prostate, and testing the level of PSA is an indicator that the disease may be present. There is much controversy about the use of PSA as a screening test. Its proponents claim that its use reduces deaths from prostate cancer; its opponents suggest that it does this only by bringing to light many cases that needed no treatment and would not have caused death in any case. Further, if the level of PSA is very high, the disease is already advanced; where the result is equivocal it is uncertain whether the bene?ts of treatment outweigh the risks.... prostate specific antigen (psa)

Psychological And Social Problems

Any previously existing mental-health problems may worsen under the stress of pregnancy and childbirth, and a woman’s socio-economic circumstances may be an in?uential factor. Mood swings are common in pregnant women and mothers of new babies; sympathetic support from sta? and relations will usually remedy the situation. If postnatal depression lasts for more than a week or two the use of mild ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS may be justi?ed. If depression persists, referral to a psychiatrist may be advisable. Rarely, severe psychiatric problems – puerperal psychosis – may develop during or after pregnancy and referral to an appropriate psychiatric unit is then essential. If the mother’s social circumstances are unsatisfactory, advice should be sought from social services departments. Mothers may also need advice on bene?ts to which they are entitled and how to claim them. Bene?ts Agency o?ces or Citizens’ Advice Bureaux as well as antenatal clinics are useful sources of information.... psychological and social problems

Pterocarpus Santalinus

Linn. f.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Found in Cuddaph district of Andhra Pradesh, neighbouring areas of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

English: Red Sandalwood, Red Sanders.

Ayurvedic: Raktachandana, Raktasaara.

Unani: Sandal Surkh.

Siddha/Tamil: Shivappu chandanam.

Folk: Laal-chandan.

Action: Heartwood—antibilious, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, astringent, diaphoretic, febrifuge.

A paste of wood is used externally for inflammations and headache. Fruit—antidysenteric

The heartwood contains terpeno- ids—eudesmol, iso-pterocarpolone, pterocarpol, cryptomeridiol, ptero- carptriol and pterocarpdiolone; pigments santalins A and B. The bark contains triterp enoids—b eta- ampyrone, lupenone and lupeol derivatives. The sapwood gave acetyl oleanolic aldehyde, acetyl oleanolic acid and ery- throdiol.

An ethanolic extract (95%) of the wood powder was found effective in lowering blood sugar levels in fasting, fed, glucose-loaded and streptozotocin diabetic models in rats.

A cream prepared from the metha- nolic extract of the heartwood of Red Sandalwood and rhizomes of Curcuma longa showed 95.46% inhibition of oedema in combination (Curcuma lon- ga and red sandalwood showed 65.62 and 64.14% inhibition respectively, when used individually).

A decoction of the heartwood produced potentiation of pentobarbitone- induced hypnosis in albino mice; blocked conditioned avoidance response in rats and showed anticonvul- sant and anti-inflammatory activities.

Dosage: Heartwood—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... pterocarpus santalinus

Pulmonary Surfactant

Naturally produced in the LUNGS by cells called pneumocytes, this substance is a mixture of phospholipids (see PHOSPHOLIPID) and LIPOPROTEINS. Present in ?uid lining the alveoli (see ALVEOLUS) in the lungs, their action helps maintain their patency. Premature babies may have a de?ciency of surfactant, a disorder which causes severe breathing diffculties – RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME or hyaline membrane disease – and HYPOXIA. They will need urgent respiratory support, which includes oxygen and the administration (via an endotracheal tube) of a specially prepared surfactant such as beractant (bovine lung extract) or edfosceril palmitate.... pulmonary surfactant

Queensland Spotted Fever

A tick-borne spotted fever endemic to mainland Australia. Caused by Rickettsia australis.... queensland spotted fever

Purple Loose-strife

Lythrum salicaria. N.O. Lythraceae.

Synonym: Purple Grass, Willow Strife.

Habitat: By waterways; luxuriantly on river islands and banks.

Features ? Stem four- (sometimes six-) sided, up to four feet high. Leaves in pairs, threes or fours, nearly sessile, lanceolate, margins entire, two to five inches long. Flowers (July to September) large, reddish-purple, six to eight in rings round the stalk. Root woody.

Part used ? Herb.

Action: Febrifuge, astringent, alterative.

Chiefly in feverish conditions with other herbs. Sometimes as an astringent in diarrhea. Used alone, simmer 1 ounce in 1 1/2 pints water for ten minutes. Dose, wineglassful as required.... purple loose-strife

Quillaja Saponaria

Molina.

Habitat: Indigenous to Chile and Peru; introduced in India in Ootacamund.

English: Soap Bark, Quillaia Bark.

Action: Bark—cutaneous stimulant. Its liquid extract is used as a lotion for certain skin diseases of the scalp, and in antiulcer preparations.

The detergent and medicinal properties of quillaia are due to the presence of haemolytic saponins (9-10%) of which quillaia-saponin (which yields glucuronic acid and quillaic acid, a sa- pogenin, on hydrolysis) is most important.

Quillaja extracts caused marked swelling and haemorrhage in stomach and small intestines of mice after 24 hours.

An isolated saponin (QS-21) from the bark shows evidence that it might augment both antibody and cell-mediated immune response, significantly increasing antibody levels. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... quillaja saponaria

Random / Random Sample

A sample that is arrived at by selecting sample units such that each possible unit has a fixed and determined probability of selection.... random / random sample

Random Sampling

The sampling process whereby each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected.... random sampling

Ranunculus Sceleratus

Linn.

Family: Ranunculaceae.

Habitat: The plains of northern India, and the warm valleys of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam.

English: Blister Buttercup, Celery- leaved Crowfoot.

Ayurvedic: Kaandira, Kaandakatu- ka, Naasaa-samvedana, Toyavalli, Sukaandaka.

Folk: Jal-dhaniyaa.

Action: Fresh Plant—highly acrid, rubefacient, vesicant and toxic; causes inflammation of the digestive tract. Used after drying or as a homoeopathic medicine for skin diseases.

The plant contains anemonin, pro- toanemonin, ranunculine, serotonin and other tryptamine derivatives.

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) is a potent vaso-constrictor. Pro- toanemonin possesses strong antibacterial, antiviral, cytopathogenic and vermicidal properties, and is effective against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria, similar to penicillic acid. It inhibits the growth of E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida al- bicans. It inactivates in vitro diptheria toxin.

Dosage: Whole plant—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... ranunculus sceleratus

Rate Setting

A method of paying health care providers in which the government establishes payment rates for all payers for various categories of health service.... rate setting

Ratio Scale

See “measurement scale”.... ratio scale

Raynauds Either Syndrome Or Disease

The first is less severe, characterized by blanching spasms of blood vessels leading to the hands and feet, initiated by cold, moisture, even emotional stress and low blood sugar. Sort of a finger migraine. After the spasm relaxes, the tissue distal becomes red, hot, even painful. R. Disease is more serious and perhaps deriving from different causes as well. The spasms may not subside, the effected tissues can become purplish, and in extreme cases, gangrenous.... raynauds either syndrome or disease

Re-orienting Health Services

Health services re-orientation is characterized by a more explicit concern for the achievement of population health outcomes in the ways in which the health system is organized and funded.... re-orienting health services

Recovered Memory Syndrome

See REPRESSED MEMORY THERAPY.... recovered memory syndrome

Red Back Spider

Spider found mostly in Australia and is similar to the Black Widow of America and the Button spider of South Africa. Belongs to the species Latrodectus hasseltii.... red back spider

Raphanus Sativus

Linn.

Family: Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra and Gujarat.

English: Radish.

Ayurvedic: Muulaka, Laghu- muulaka, Muulakapotikaa, Visra, Shaaleya, Marusambhava. Pods— Sungraa, Singri, Mungraa.

Unani: Muuli, Turb Fajal.

Siddha/Tamil: Mullangi.

Action: Radish—preparations are used in liver, gallbladder and urinary complaints. Green leaves— diuretic and carminative. Seeds— diuretic, purgative, expectorant.

A decoction of dry radish is given orally in piles. Extract of the dry root is given for hiccough, influenza, dysentery, colic and urinary troubles.

Key application: In peptic disorders, especially those related to dyskinesia of the bile ducts; and in catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract. (German Commission E.)

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the juice of the whole plant in sinusitis; juice of the root in diseases of the throat and sinusitis; and the seed in amenorrhoea, cough and dyspnoea.

The fleshy root and seeds contain trans-4-methyl-thiobutenyl isothio- cyanate glucoside (the pungent principle), cyanidin-5-glucoside-3-sophoro- side, pelargonidin diglycoside, cyani- din diglycoside, 5-methyl-L-cysteine- sulphoxide (methiin), steroidal sa- pogenins and sulphorophene.

The enzymes present in the radish are phosphatase, catalase, sucrase, amylase, alcohol dehydrogenase and pyruvic carboxylase.

Radish contains caffeic acid and fer- ulic acid which exhibit hepatoprotec- tive and choleretic properties. It contains choline which prevents deposition of fat in liver. Amino acids, or- nithine, citrulline, arginine, glutamic acid and asparatic acid remove toxins from the body and urea acumulation.

Radish is a good source of ascorbic acid (15-40 mg/100 g), trace elements include aluminium, barium, lithium, manganese, silicon, titanium, also iodine (upto 18 mcg/100 g) and ascor- bigen.

Roots, leaves, flowers and pods are active against Gram-positive bacteria.

The seeds are reported to contain a broad spectrum antibiotic, machro- lysin, specific against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Raphanin, extracted from the seeds, is active against Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria.

A purified basic protein, homologous to nonspecific lipid transfer proteins, from seeds showed antifungal activity.

Raphanus caudatus Linn., synonym R. sativus var. caudatus, is known as Rat-Tail Radish.

A native to Java, it is cultivated in northern and western India. The root is not used; pods, purple or violet in colour, are consumed for properties attributed to Raphanus sp. These are known as Mungraa or Sungraa.

Dosage: Whole plant-20-40 ml juice; root—15-30 ml juice. (API, Vol. II.) Seed—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... raphanus sativus

Rapid-eye-movement (rem) Sleep

This is characterised by the presence of rapid eye movements and a reduction in muscle tone. Cerebral cortical activity is prominent and its blood ?ow increased. This activity is, however, di?erent from wakefulness and may cause irregular movements of the body as well as of the eyes. Most dreams occur in REM sleep: these may represent a process of reorganising mental associations after the period of wakefulness. The analysis of the content of dreams has been subject to a variety of interpretations, but no consensus view has evolved.

Physiological changes, such as a fall in temperature and blood pressure, take place just before sleep and continue during the early stages of NREM sleep. There is an intrinsic rhythm of sleep which in most subjects has a periodicity of around 25 hours. This can be modi?ed by external factors to bring it into line with the 24-hour day. Two peaks of a tendency to sleep have been identi?ed, and these usually occur between around 14.00–18.00 hours, and 02.00–06.00 hours. There are, however, di?erences according to age, in that, for instance, infants sleep for most of the 24 hours; during adolescence there is also an increase in the duration of sleep. Sleep requirements fall later in life, but there are wide genetic di?erences in the amount of sleep that people require and also the time at which they fall asleep most readily.

The internal clock can be disturbed by a variety of external factors which include irregular sleeping habits due, for instance, to shift work or jet lag. Sleep is also more likely to occur after physical exertion, reading and social activity. The duration and intensity of exposure to light can also modify sleep profoundly. Light promotes wakefulness and is the main factor that adjusts the 25-hour internal rhythm to the 24hour daily cycle. Neural connections from the retina of the EYE act on an area in the brain called the supra-chiasmatic nucleus which stimulates the pineal gland which produces MELATONIN. This is thought to trigger the range of neurological and metabolic processes that characterise sleep.... rapid-eye-movement (rem) sleep

Reef Spawn

Colloquial term for red tide. Contrary to the popular belief this has nothing to do with the spawning of the reef seen at set times of the year.... reef spawn

Rehabilitation Service

A service designed to improve function and/or prevent deterioration of functioning. Such services may include physical therapy, occupational therapy, and/or speech therapy. They may be provided at home, in a hospital or in a long-term care facility.... rehabilitation service

Reiter’s Syndrome

A condition probably caused by an immunological response to a virus (see IMMUNITY), in which the patient has URETHRITIS, ARTHRITIS and conjunctivitis (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF). The skin may also be affected by horny areas which develop in it. The disorder was ?rst described by a German physician, H. Reiter (1881–1969); it is more common in men than in women, and is the most common cause of arthritis in young men. It usually develops in people who have a genetic predisposition for it: around 80 per cent of sufferers have the HLA B27 tissue type. Treatment is symptomatic with ANALGESICS and NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS). (See also REACTIVE ARTHRITIS.)... reiter’s syndrome

Relating To, Containing Or Resembling Serum.

... relating to, containing or resembling serum.

Rem Sleep

Rapid-eye-movement is a stage during SLEEP in which the eyes are seen to move rapidly beneath the lids and during which dreaming occurs. It occurs for several minutes at a time approximately every 100 minutes.... rem sleep

Rauvolfia Serpentina

Benth. ex Kurz.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Habitat: The sub-Himalayas tract from Punjab to Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Western Ghats and the Andamans.

English: Rauvolfia root, Serpentina Root, Indian Snakeroot.

Ayurvedic: Sarpagandhaa of Ayurvedic texts was not the Sarpagandhaa of modern medicine. (Sarpagandhaa was equated with Naakuli, Sarpach- hatrikaa and Varshaasu Chha- trikaaraa. Sarpagandhaa and Sarpasugandhaa were synonyms of Naakuli.)

Folk: Chhotaa Chaand.

Action: Root—decoction is employed to increase uterine contractions and for expulsion of foetus in difficult cases. The total alkaloidal extract of the root induces bradycardia, hypotension, sedation. It finds application in hypochondria, neuropsychi- atric disorders, psychosis and schizophrenia.

Key application: In mild, essential hypertension (borderline hypertension, especially with elevated tension of the sympathetic nervous system, for example, sinus tachycardia, anxiety, tension and psychomotor irritation, when dietetic measures alone are not sufficient. (German Commission E.)

(Average daily dose: 600 mg drug corresponding to 6 mg total alkaloid.) Treatment is usually administered with a diuretic to prevent fluid retention which may develop if Rauvolfia root is given alone. (WHO.) Contraindicated in depression, bleeding disorders, gastric and duodenal ulcers. (Sharon M. Herr.) Also contraindicated in pregnancy, since it has both teratogenic and abortifacient potential. (Francis Brinker.)

The root and root bark are rich in alkaloids, the most important being reserpine, others, around 30, which include ajmaline, ajmalicine (raubasine), ajmalicine, yohimbine, coryanthine, iso-ajmaline, neo-ajmaline, papaver- ine, raubasine, rauwolscine, rescin- namine, reserpine, sarpagine, serpentine, serpentinine, serpinine and de- serpidine.

Reserpine is hypotensive and tranquilizer, used for certain forms of mental disorders. Ajmalicine (raubasine) and rescinnamine are also hypoten- sive and tranquilizer. Deserpidine is sedative, as well as hypotensive. Aj- maline exhibits antiarrhythmic activity.

A number of Rauvolfia species are found in India: R. beddomei Hook. f.; R. densiflora Benth ex Hook. f. (Himalayas, Khasi and Aka Hills; Western and Eastern Ghats); R. micrantha Hook. f; known as Malabar Rauvolfia, (Kerala, up to an altitude of 300 m)

The roots of R. beddomei contain ajmalicine, sarpagine and serpentine, but no reserpine. R. densiflora yielded 0.51% of total alkaloids (reserpine 0.01%). R. micrantha gave ajmalicine, raunamine, reserpiline, sarpagine, neosarpagine, in addition to reserpine.

(In classical Ayurvedic texts, Nakuli and Gandha-naakuli were included in compound formulations for mental diseases.)... rauvolfia serpentina

Reconstructive (plastic) Surgery

Reconstructive surgery on the skin and underlying tissues that have been damaged or lost as a result of disease or injury. Congenital malformations are also remedied using reconstructive surgery. Surgeons graft healthy skin from another part of the body to repair skin damaged or destroyed by burns or injuries. New techniques are under development for growing new skin in the laboratory to be used in reconstructive surgery. Surgeons also repair damage using skin ?aps prepared in another part of the body – for example, a skin ?ap from the arm may be used to repair a badly injured nose or face. Reconstructive surgery is also used to repair the consequences of an operation for cancer of, say, the neck or the jaw. Plastic surgeons undertake cosmetic surgery to improve the appearance of noses, breasts, abdomens and faces.... reconstructive (plastic) surgery

Red Sage

Salvia officinalis. N.O. Labiateae.

Synonym: Garden Sage.

Habitat: Cultivated in gardens.

Features ? Stem and leaves reddish, grows up to about twelve inches. Stem quadrangular, slightly hairy. Leaves stalked, oblong-lanceolate, rounded at ends, crenulate at margins, reticulated both sides. Flowers labiate, reddish-purple. Taste, powerfully aromatic.

Part used ? Leaves.

Action: Aromatic, astringent, tonic, stomachic.

In the treatment of laryngitis, inflammation of throat and tonsils, and ulceration of mouth and throat. The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion in frequent wineglass doses is given as an internal medicine, the gargle and mouth wash being made as follows ? Pour 1 pint of hot malt vinegar on to 1 ounce of the Red Sage leaves, adding 1/2 pint of cold water.

Both Red Sage and the green-leaved variety are extensively used in the kitchen as a flavouring and digestive,

Red Sage will also tend to darken grey hair—see "Toilet Recipes."... red sage

Repetitive Strain Injury (rsi)

See UPPER LIMB DISORDERS.... repetitive strain injury (rsi)

Residential Care Services

Accommodation and support for people who can no longer live at home.... residential care services

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (rsv)

Usually known as RSV, this is one of the MYXOVIRUSES. It is among the major causes of BRONCHIOLITIS and PNEUMONIA among infants aged under 6 months; its incidence has been increasing, possibly due to atmospheric pollution.... respiratory syncytial virus (rsv)

Reticulo-endothelial System

This consists of highly specialised cells scattered throughout the body, but found mainly in the SPLEEN, BONE MARROW, LIVER, and LYMPH nodes or glands. Their main function is the ingestion of red blood cells and the conversion of HAEMOGLOBIN to BILIRUBIN. They are also able to ingest bacteria and foreign colloidal particles.... reticulo-endothelial system

Reye’s Syndrome

A condition, now rare, which occurs predominantly in young children following a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract or a viral infection such as CHICKENPOX or INFLUENZA.

The cause is not known, but there is evidence that ASPIRIN may also play a part in its causation. Doctors recommend that children should be given PARACETAMOL in place of aspirin. The initial feature is severe, persistent vomiting and fever. This is followed by outbursts of wild behaviour, DELIRIUM and CONVULSIONS terminating in COMA and death, often from liver failure. The MORTALITY rate is around 23 per cent, and 50 per cent of the survivors may have persistent mental or neurological disturbances. The younger the patient, the higher the death rate and the more common the permanent residual effects. Since aspirin has no longer been licensed for use in children and young people the incidence of the condition has fallen dramatcally. Some cases, previously thought to be Reye’s syndrome, have subsequently turned out to have been due to certain inherited metabolic diseases and to be unconnected with aspirin.... reye’s syndrome

Rhea Silvia

(Latin) In mythology, a Vestal virgin and mother of Remus and Romulus Rhea Silva, Rea Silvia, Rea Silva... rhea silvia

Risk Selection

The practice of singling out or disaggregating a particular risk from a pool of insured risks.... risk selection

Risk Sharing

The distribution of financial risk among parties furnishing a service. For example, if a hospital and a group of medical practitioners form a corporation to provide health care at a fixed price, a risk-sharing arrangement would entail both the hospital and the group being held liable if expenses were to exceed revenues.... risk sharing

Romana’s Sign

Oedema of the eyelid in early Chagas’ Disease (South American trypanosomiasis) due to the infected faeces of the vector assassin (triatomid) bug causing swelling of the mucosa of the eye.... romana’s sign

Rosa Sericea

Lindl.

Family: Rosaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Chamba eastwards to Bhutan and Assam at altitudes of 2,500 to 4,200 m.

Folk: Jangali Gulaab. (Flowers— white or yellow, fruit—red.)

Action: Fruits—rich in vitamin C.... rosa sericea

Rhus Succedanea

Linn.

Synonym: R. acuminata DC.

Family: Anacardiaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas, from Kashmir, Sikkim to Bhutan at altitudes of 600-2,500 m.

English: Japanese Wax tree, Wild Varnish tree.

Ayurvedic: Karkatashringee. (Used as a substitute for Pistacia integerrima galls.).

Unani: Kaakraasingi.

Siddha/Tamil: Karkatakasringi, Kadukapoo (galls).

Action: Thorn-like excrescences on the branches—astringent, expectorant; prescribed in diarrhoea, dysentery and vomiting. Fruits— expectorant (used as an adjuvant in tuberculosis).

The sapwood and heartwood contain polyphenols. The sapwood contains gallo tannin; the heartwood gave fisetin, and its -7-glucoside, fustin, gar- banzol, 3,7,4'-trihydroxyflavone, gallic and ellagic acid. The bark is reported to contain 10% of tannin.

The juice from the leaves causes blisters. Leaves contain 20% tannin (dry basis), a flavone glycoside rhoifolin, co- rilagin and shikimic acid. Ethanolic extract of the leaves is reported to exhibit anticancer and antiviral activities. Latex from the stem also causes blisters.

Mesocarp of the fruit contains el- lagic acid. An acid isolated from the fruit is reported to be cardiotonic and sympathomimetic. It was found to be toxic to rabbits. However, the fruits are used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Hinokiflavone, isolated from the fruits, showed cytotoxic activity in vitro against KB culture cells.

Drupes are rich in biflavones.

The wax obtained from the pulpy mesocarp of the fruit contains palmitic 77, stearic 5, dibasic 6, oleic 12%, and linoleic acid (a trace). It is used as a substitute for beeswax.... rhus succedanea

Rous Sarcoma

A malignant tumour of fowls which is caused by a virus. This tumour has been the subject of much experimental work on the nature of CANCER.... rous sarcoma

Ruellia Strepens

Linn.

Habitat: Native to Central America; introduced into Indian garden as ornament.

Folk: Kiranti-takkaaram (Tamil Nadu).

Action: Herb—diuretic; used for urinary disorders in Siddha medicine.... ruellia strepens

Ruellia Suffruticosa

Roxb.

Synonym: Dipteracanthus suffruti- cosus Viogt.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: Native to central America; introduced into Indian gardens as ornament.

Folk: Chaarapaatu, Chaaraparaad (Bihar).

Action: Plant—used in renal affections, gonorrhoea, syphilis and other venereal diseases.... ruellia suffruticosa

Rumex Scutatus

Linn.

Family: Polygonaceae.

Habitat: Western Himalayas up to an altitude of 2,400 m.

English: French Sorrel.

Action: Plant—refrigerant, astringent; given in dysentery. Juice of leaves—antiscorbutic.

The roots contain oxymethyl an-

Action: Plant—astringent antiscorbutic, stomachic, diuretic, used for disorders of lymphatic and glandular system; for bronchitis, asthma; constipation, dyspepsia, diseases of liver and spleen; urinary and renal disorders; alcoholism. Seeds—antidysenteric.

Anthraquinone glucosides, emodin and chrysophanol, have been reported from leaves, root and seeds. The leaves contain large amounts of oxalate (21.8% on dry basis); vitamin C content is 12 mg and vitamin A 6,100 IU/100 g.

The leaves of Rumex species are eaten in salad or cooked like spinach. They contain protein, carbohydrates, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, manganese, copper, zinc, (iodine, in some samples), ascorbic acid, beta-carotene and thiamine; also oxalic acid, potassium binoxalate and some tartaric acid.... rumex scutatus

Saada

(African) One who aids others; a helper

Saadaa, Saadah... saada

Saadiya

(Arabic) One who brings good fortune

Sadiya, Sadiyah, Sa’diah, Sadia, Sadiah, Saadiyah... saadiya

Saba

(Greek / Arabic) Woman from Sheba / born in the morning Sabah, Sabaa, Sabba, Sabbah, Sabaah... saba

Sabana

(Spanish) From the open plain Sabanah, Sabanna, Sabann, Sabanne, Sabane, Saban... sabana

Sabi

(Arabic) A lovely young lady Sabie, Saby, Sabey, Sabee, Sabbi, Sabbee, Sabea... sabi

Sabiha

(Arabic) One who is beautiful; attractive

Sabihah, Sabyha, Sabeeha, Sabeiha, Sabieha, Sabeyha, Sabeaha... sabiha

Sabin Vaccine

Introduced in 1962, the attenuated live oral vaccine (Sabin) against POLIOMYELITIS replaced the previous inactivated vaccine introduced in 1956 (see SALK VACCINE).... sabin vaccine

Sabina

(Italian) Of an ancient culture Sabinah, Sabeena, Sabiena, Sabeina, Sabyna, Saveena, Savina, Sabenah, Sabiny, Saby, Sebina, Sebinah, Sebyna, Sebynah, Sabena, Sabeana... sabina

Sabine

(Latin) Of a tribe in ancient Italy Sabeen, Sabene, Sabienne, Sabyne, Sebine, Sebyn, Sebyne, Sabin, Sabyn, Sabeene, Sabean, Sabeane... sabine

Sabirah

(Arabic) Having great patience Sabira, Saabira, Sabeera, Sabiera, Sabeira, Sabyra, Sabirra, Sabyrra, Sabeerra, Sabeara... sabirah

Sábila

Aloe, aloe vera (Aloe vera).

Plant Part Used: Leaf, leaf gel.

Dominican Medicinal Uses: Leaf gel: applied topically for skin conditions: minor abrasions, burns, cuts, fungal infection, scrapes, sunburn, wound-healing; taken orally for common cold, flu-like symptoms, pulmonary infection.

Safety: Results of toxicity studies and published literature.

Contraindications: Internal use: pregnancy, lactation, children under 12 y, individuals with inflammatory intestinal disease.

Drug Interactions: Internal use: cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmic drugs (potential potassium loss and intensified drug effect); thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, licorice, corticosteroids (risk of potassium loss); antidiabetic drugs: (risk of hypoglycemia).

Clinical Data: Clinical: anesthetic, antiviral, burn-healing, wound-healing (leaf gel).

Laboratory & Preclinical Data: In vivo: antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, chemomodulatory, hypothyroid, wound-healing (leaf pulp/gel).

In vitro: antileukemic, antimutagenic, antitumor, cytotoxic, enzyme inhibition (chemical constituents).

* See entry for Sábila in “Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles” of this book for more information, including references.... sábila

Sabiya

(Arabic) Born in the morning / of an easterly wind

Sabaya, Sabayah, Sabea, Sabia, Sabiah, Sabiyah, Sabya, Sabyah... sabiya

Sable

(English) One who is sleek Sabel, Sabela, Sabelah, Sabele, Sabella, Sabelle... sable

Sabra

(Hebrew) Resembling the cactus fruit; to rest

Sabrah, Sebra, Sebrah, Sabrette, Sabbra, Sabraa, Sabarah, Sabarra, Sabarrah, Sabera, Sabira, Sabre, Sabara... sabra

Sabria

(Latin) Woman from Cyprus Sabriah, Sabreea, Sabrea, Sabreah, Sabrya, Sabriya, Sabri, Sabree, Sabrie, Sabrea, Sabry, Sabrey... sabria

Sabriel

(American) A hero of God Sabrielle, Sabriell, Sabryel, Sabryelle, Sabriele, Sabryele, Sabryell, Sabriela, Sabriella, Sabryela, Sabryella... sabriel

Sabrina

(English) A legendary princess Sabrinah, Sabrinna, Sabreena, Sabriena, Sabreina, Sabryna, Sabrine, Sabryne, Sabreene, Sabrynna, Sabreanah, Sabreenah, Sabreen, Sabreane, Sabrene, Sabrena, Sabrin, Sabrinas, Sabrinia, Sabriniah, Sebree, Subrina, Sabrynah, Sabreana... sabrina

Saccharum Munja

Roxb.

Synonym: S. sara Roxb. S. bengalense Retz. Erianthus munja Jesw.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the plains and low hills of India.

Ayurvedic: Munja, Bhadramuja, Vaana, Shara, Sara, Raamshara.

Siddha/Tamil: Munjipul, Munjap- pullu.

Folk: Sarpata.

Action: Refrigerant. Useful in burning sensation, thirst, dyscrasia, erysipelas and urinary complaints.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of the root in dysuria, giddiness and vertigo.

The stem is a good source of furfural (yield 5.67%, dry basis). It yields 19.5% (on dry weight) of reducing sugars when digested with sulphuric acid; glucose, xylose, galactose and rhamnose have been identified in the hydrolysate which contains 34.5% fermentable sugars. (It can be used as a potential source of alcohol.)

In Kerala, Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. is used as Shara for dysuria, diseases due to vitiated blood, erysipelas, leucorrhoea and piles. The grass is known as Raamshara in North India. It can also be used for the production of furfural (yield 5.1% dry basis) and yields 24.1% of reducing sugars when digested with sulphuric acid. The hy- drolysate contains 65% of fermentable sugars, viz. glucose, xylose, galactose and rhamnose.

Dosage: Root—20-50 g for decoction; 6-10 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... saccharum munja

Sacha

(Greek) Form of Alexandra, meaning “helper and defender of mankind” Sachenka, Sachka, Sache, Sachia, Sachah, Sachea... sacha

Sachet

(Hindi) Having consciousness Sachett, Sachette... sachet

Sachi

(Japanese) Child of bliss; one who is blessed

Sachie, Sachy, Sachey, Sachee, Sachiko, Saatchi, Sachea... sachi

Sacroileitis

(See SACROILIAC JOINT.) In?ammation of one or both sacroiliac joints, which lie between the sacrum and the iliac bones. The condition may be the result of RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS, ankylosing spondylitis (see under SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF), REITER’S SYNDROME, or the arthritis that occurs with PSORIASIS or infection. Sacroileitis causes pain in the lower back, buttocks, thighs, and groin. Sti?ness may occur with ankylosing spondylitis. NON-STEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) relieve the symptoms. If the cause is infection, antibiotics should be used.... sacroileitis

Saccharum Officinarum

Linn.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Punjab.

English: Sugarcane, Noble Cane.

Ayurvedic: Ikshu, Dirgha-chhada, Bhuurirasa, Morata, Asipatra, Madhutrna, Gudamuula, Trnarasa.

Unani: Gannaa, Naishakar.

Siddha/Tamil: Karumbu, Nanal.

Action: Cane Juice—restorative, cooling, laxative, demulcent, diuretic, antiseptic. Used in general debility, haemophilic conditions, jaundice and urinary diseases.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the juice of the stem in haemorrhagic diseases and anuria; and the root in dysuria.

Sugarcane juice contains surcose (70-80% of soluble solids in the juice), glucose and fructose. Non-sugar constituents present in the cane juice are carbohydrates other than sugars. As- paragine and glutamine are prominent amino acids in the juice. Other amino acids include alanine, gamma- amino butyric acid, aspartic and glutamic acids, glycine, leucine, lysine, serine and tyrosine. The presence of phenylalanine, histidine, valine, proline, threonine and arginine, pipecolic acid, methionine and tryptophan has also been reported.

Aconitic acid constitutes about three-fourths of the total carboxylic acid present in the juice.

Vitamins present in the juice are: thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, and vitamin D; enzymes include diastase, invertase, lac- tase, peroxidase, tyrosinase.

Phenols in the cane juice are mainly polyphenols from tannin and antho- cyanin from the rind.

Cane juice contains glycolic acid which improves skin complexion as it has antiwrinkle effect, prevents scaly growth and increases natural collagen and elastin in the skin.

Enzymes present in the seeds include large quantities of diastase and invertase.

An ester, vanilloyl-l-O-beta-D-glu- coside, has been isolated from the bagasse.

The leaves contain alpha-amylase and glutathione-S-transferase.

Dosage: Stem—200-400 ml juice; rootstock—15-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. IV.)... saccharum officinarum

Saccharum Spontaneum

Linn.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India. English: Thatch Grass.

Ayurvedic: Kaasha, Kandekshu, Shvetachaamara.

Siddha/Tamil: Naanal, Pai Karumbu.

Action: Plant—cooling, astringent, diuretic, galactagogue. Used in the treatment of burning sensation, dysuria, dyscrasia, kidney and bladder stones, dysentery, bleeding piles. Root—diuretic, galactagogue.

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the root in calculus, dy- suria and haemorrhagic diseases.

Dosage: Root—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)

The Five-Grassroots (Tripanchmuu- la) of Ayurvedic medicine contain extracts of S. munja, S. officinarum and S. spontaneum. The compound is prescribed as a diuretic.... saccharum spontaneum

Saccolabium Papillosum

Lindl.

Family: Orchidace.

Habitat: The outer range of Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh eastwards to Sikkim and Assam.

Ayurvedic: Naakuli (substitute), Vrkshaadani (var.).

Folk: Raasanaa, Naakuli, Gandha- lataa.

Action: Roots—used for rheumatism.

An alkaloid and a bitter resin has been reported in the plant.

Roots are used as a substitute for Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus).... saccolabium papillosum

Sada

(Japanese) The pure one Sadda, Sadaa, Sadako, Saddaa... sada

Sadaf

(Indian / Iranian) Resembling a pearl / resembling a seashell Sadafa, Sadafah, Sadafia, Sadafea, Sadafiya, Sadafe... sadaf

Sadah

(Arabic) Form of Zada, meaning “fortunate one; lucky; prosperous” Sada, Sayda, Saida, Sayeda, Saeda... sadah

Sadbh

(Irish) One who is well-behaved Sadb... sadbh

Sade

(Yoruban) One who is honorable Sadea, Saedea, Shadae, Shadai, Shaday, Sharde... sade

Sadella

(American) A beautiful fairylike princess

Sadel, Sadela, Sadelah, Sadele, Sadell, Sadellah, Sadelle, Sydel, Sydell, Sydella, Sydelle... sadella

Sadhana

(Hindi) A devoted woman Sadhanah, Sadhanna, Sadhannah, Sadhane, Sadhanne, Sadhann, Sadhan... sadhana

Sadhbba

(Irish) A wise woman Sadhbh, Sadhba... sadhbba

Sadie

(English) Form of Sarah, meaning “princess; lady”

Sadi, Sady, Sadey, Sadee, Saddi, Saddee, Sadiey, Sadye, Saedee, Saedi, Saedie, Saedy, Saide, Saidea, Saidee, Saidey, Saidi, Saidia, Saidie, Saidy, Seidy, Saddie, Sadia, Sadea, Saedea... sadie

Sadiqa

(Arabic) One who is sincere; truthful Sadiqaa, Saadiqa, Sadyqa, Sadiqua, Sadiquah... sadiqa

Sadira

(Persian) Of the lotus tree Sadirah, Sadiera, Sadeira, Sadyra, Sadirra, Sadeera, Sadyrra, Sadra, Sadrah, Sadyrah, Sadyre, Sadire, Sadeara... sadira

Sadiya

(Arabic) One who is fortunate; lucky Sadiyah, Sadiyyah, Sadya, Sadyah... sadiya

Sadzi

(American) Having a sunny disposition

Sadzee, Sadzey, Sadzia, Sadziah, Sadzie, Sadzya, Sadzyah, Sadzy, Sadzea... sadzi

Safa

(Arabic) One who is innocent and pure Safah, Saffa, Sapha, Saffah, Saphah... safa

Safara

(African) Her place in this world Safarra, Safaria, Safarah, Safariya... safara

Safe Disposal Of Unwanted Medicines

Unwanted medicines are a form of ‘controlled waste’ under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 and must be disposed of in an appropriate way. The best thing is to take any extra or unwanted medicines to a registered pharmacy. Syringes and needles (used by diabetic patients, for example) pose problems: devices exist to cut o? and retain the needle, and some local authorities in the United Kingdom arrange for collection and safe disposal. There are also local ‘needle exchange’ schemes for intravenous drug abusers.

Safe use of medicines All medicines can have unwanted effects (‘side-effects’ or, more strictly, adverse effects) that are unpleasant and sometimes harmful. It is best not to take any medicine, prescribed or otherwise, unless there is a clear reason for doing so; the possible adverse effects of treatment, and the risk of their occurring, have to be set against any likely bene?t. Remember too that one treatment can affect another already being taken. Many adverse events depend upon the recommended dose being exceeded. Some people – for example, those with allergies (see ALLERGY) to a particular group of drugs, or those with kidney or liver disease – are more likely to suffer adverse effects than otherwise healthy people.

When an individual begins a course of treatment, he or she should take it as instructed. With ANTIBIOTICS treatments especially, it is important to take the whole course of tablets prescribed, because brief exposure of bacteria to an antibiotic can make them resistant to treatment. Most drugs can be stopped at once, but some treatments can cause unpleasant, and occasionally dangerous, symptoms if stopped abruptly. Sleeping tablets, anti-EPILEPSY treatment, and medicines used to treat ANGINA PECTORIS are among the agents which can cause such ‘withdrawal symptoms’. CORTICOSTEROIDS are a particularly important group of medicines in this respect, because prolonged courses of treatment with high doses can suppress the ability of the body to respond to severe stresses (such as surgical operations) for many months or even years.... safe disposal of unwanted medicines

Saffi

(Danish) Having great wisdom Saffie, Saffy, Saffee, Saffey, Saffye, Safee, Safey, Safie, Safy, Safi, Saffea, Safea... saffi

Safia

(Arabic / African) One who is pure / having the lion’s share Safiah, Saffa, Safya, Safyah, Safiya, Safiyeh, Safiyyah, Saffya, Safeia, Safeya, Safiyah... safia

Safiwah

(Arabic) One who is tranquil; peaceful

Safiwa, Safywah, Safywa, Saphiwa, Saphiwah... safiwah

Saga

(Norse) Seeing one; in mythology, goddess of poetry and history Sagah, Sagga... saga

Sagara

(Hindi) From the ocean Sagarra, Sagarah, Saggara, Saggarra, Sagaria, Sagarea... sagara

Sagebrush

Purification, Exorcism... sagebrush

Sagira

(Egyptian) The little one Sagirah, Sageera, Sagyra, Sagiera, Sageira, Saqhira, Sagirra, Sagyrra... sagira

Sagittarius

(Latin) The ninth sign of the zodiac; the archer

Sagitarius, Saggitarius, Sagitarios, Sagittarios... sagittarius

Sahar

(Arabic) Of the dawn; awakening Saharr, Sahare, Saharre, Saheer, Saher... sahar

Safety Of Drugs

The COMMITTEE ON SAFETY OF MEDICINES (CSM) has the function of scrutinising the e?cacy, quality and safety of new DRUGS before clinical trials and before marketing, as well as the surveillance of each drug after marketing so that adverse reactions are monitored and documented, and warnings issued as required. Early clinical trials of a drug can only be carried out after a clinical-trial certi?cate has been issued by the licensing authority.

The major defect in this system is the dif?culty in obtaining reports of adverse reactions. Evidence suggests that at most, about 10 per cent of such reactions are reported. One method of trying to obtain this information is the ‘yellow card’ system. It is so called because it is based on the distribution of yellow cards to all doctors, pharmacists and dentists, on which they are asked to report any adverse reaction happening to someone taking a drug, whether or not they think it is the cause. Alternatively the CSM has a Freephone line and on-line computer facilities (ADROIT) for practitioners to use. Even though the annual number of adverse reactions reported in this way has risen from around 5,000 in 1975 to more than 18,000, this is probably fewer than the number actually occurring.

Two further committees in this safety screen are the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation and the Adverse Reactions to Vaccines and Immunological Substances Committee.... safety of drugs

Sagittaria Trifolia

Linn.

Synonym: S. sagittifolia Hook. f. (non L.)

Family: Alismataceae.

Habitat: Throughout the plains of India.

English: Old world Arrowhead.

Folk: Chhotaa Kuuta, Muyaa (Bengali).

Action: Plant—discutient, anti- galactagogue, astringent, antiinflammatory. Tuber—used for cutaneous diseases. Leaves—powder dusted in pruritus; mashed with molasses used in sore throat and inflammation of the breasts.

The plant contains a diterpene, sagit- tariol, beta-sitosterol, its glucoside and hentriacontanone. The diterpenes, tri- foliones A, B, C and D, inhibited his- tamine release from rat mast cells.

The bulbs contain sandaracopimar- ic acid which suppressed the immune function of animal T-cells.... sagittaria trifolia

Sago Palm

Metroxylon sagu

Description: These palms are low trees, rarely over 9 meters tall, with a stout, spiny trunk. The outer rind is about 5 centimeters thick and hard as bamboo. The rind encloses a spongy inner pith containing a high proportion of starch. It has typical palmlike leaves clustered at the tip.

Habitat and Distribution: Sago palm is found in tropical rain forests. It flourishes in damp lowlands in the Malay Peninsula, New Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines, and adjacent islands. It is found mainly in swamps and along streams, lakes, and rivers.

Edible Parts: These palms, when available, are of great use to the survivor. One trunk, cut just before it flowers, will yield enough sago to feed a person for 1 year. Obtain sago starch from nonflowering palms. To extract the edible sage, cut away the bark lengthwise from one half of the trunk, and pound the soft, whitish inner part (pith) as fine as possible. Knead the pith in water and strain it through a coarse cloth into a container. The fine, white sago will settle in the container. Once the sago settles, it is ready for use. Squeeze off the excess water and let it dry. Cook it as pancakes or oatmeal. Two kilograms of sago is the nutritional equivalent of 1.5 kilograms of rice. The upper part of the trunk’s core does not yield sage, but you can roast it in lumps over a fire. You can also eat the young sago nuts and the growing shoots or palm cabbage.

Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghums as thatching materials.... sago palm

Sahara

(Arabic) Of the desert Saharah, Saharra, Sahra, Saharia, Sahariya, Saharrah, Sahira, Sahrah, Sahari... sahara

Saheli

(Indian) A beloved friend Sahelie, Sahely, Saheley, Sahelee, Saheleigh, Sahyli, Sahelea... saheli

Sahiba

(Indian) A young lady; a maiden Sahibah, Saheeba, Sahyba, Saheiba, Sahieba, Saheyba, Saheaba... sahiba

Sahila

(Indian) One who provides guidance Sahilah, Saheela, Sahyla, Sahiela, Saheila, Sahela, Sahilla, Sahylla, Saheella, Saheala... sahila

Sahirah

(Egyptian) One who is pristine; clean

Sahira, Saheera, Sahiera, Saheira, Sahyra, Sahera, Sahirra, Saheerra, Sahyrra, Saheara... sahirah

Sahkyo

(Native American) Resembling the mink Sakyo... sahkyo

Saida

(Arabic) Fortunate one; one who is happy

Saidah, Sa’ida, Sayida, Saeida, Saedah, Said, Sayide, Sayidea, Sayda, Saydah, Saeda... saida

Saihah

(Arabic) One who is useful; good Saiha, Sayiha... saihah

Sailor

(American) One who sails the seas Sailer, Sailar, Saylor, Sayler, Saylar, Saelor, Saeler, Saelar, Saler, Salor, Salar, Salore... sailor

Saima

(Arabic) A fasting woman Saimah, Saimma, Sayima... saima

Saira

(Arabic) A woman who travels; a wanderer

Sairah, Sairra, Sayra, Sairi, Sairie, Sairy, Sairey, Sairee, Sairea... saira

Sajili

(Indian) One who is decorated; adorned

Sajilie, Sajily, Sajyly, Sajiley, Sajyley... sajili

Sajni

(Indian) One who is dearly loved Sajnie, Sajny, Sajney, Sajnee, Sajnea... sajni

Sakae

(Japanese) One who is prosperous Sakai, Sakaie, Sakay, Sakaye... sakae

Sakari

(Native American) A sweet girl Sakarie, Sakary, Sakarri, Sakarey, Sakaree, Sakarree, Sakarah, Sakarrie, Sakaria, Sakariah, Sakarya, Sakaryah, Sakkara, Sakkarah, Sakara, Sakarea, Sakarrea... sakari

Saki

(Japanese) One who wears a cloak Sakiko, Sakia, Sakiah, Sakie, Saky, Sakya, Sakyah, Sakee, Sakea... saki

Sakina

(Indian / Arabic) A beloved friend / having God-inspired peace of mind Sakinah, Sakeena, Sakiena, Sakeina, Sakyna, Sakeyna, Sakinna, Sakeana... sakina

Sakti

(Hindi) In Hinduism, the divine energy

Saktie, Sakty, Sakkti, Sackti, Saktee, Saktey, Saktia, Saktiah, Saktya, Saktyah, Saktea... sakti

Saku

(Japanese) Remembrance of the Lord Sakuko... saku

Sakujna

(Indian) A birdlike woman Sakujnah, Sakoujna, Sakoujnah... sakujna

Sakuna

(Native American) Resembling a bird

Sakunah, Sakoona, Sakoonah, Sakouna, Sakounah... sakuna

Sakura

(Japanese) Resembling a cherry blossom

Sakurah, Sakurako, Sakurra... sakura

Sala

(Hindi) From the sacred sala tree Salah, Salla, Sallah... sala

Salacia

(Latin) In mythology, a sea goddess Salaciah, Salacea, Salasea, Salaciya, Salasia, Salasiya... salacia

Salacia Chinensis

Linn.

Synonym: S. prinoides DC.

Family: Hippocrateaceae; Celas- traceae.

Habitat: A large, climbing shrub or small tree occurring throughout India, including the Andaman Islands.

English: Saptrangi.

Ayurvedic: Saptachakraa, Swarn- muula, Saptarangi.

Folk: Ingali (Maharashtra), Modhuphal (Bengal), Cherukuranti (Kerala).

Action: Roots—used in diabetes. Also used for amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea and genito-urinary and venereal diseases.

The root bark contains proantho- cyanidins, consisting of monomeric leucopelargonidin, its monomer, dimer and tetramer; triterpenoids (friedelin and its derivatives), mangi- ferine, phlobatannin, and glucosidal tannins.

The stem yielded gutta, dulcitol and proanthocyanidin consisting of dimer of leucopelargonidin.

Dosage: Root—50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... salacia chinensis

Salacia Macrosperma

Wight.

Family: Hippocrateaceae; Celas- traceae.

Habitat: The Western Ghats, from Konkan southwards.

Folk: Lendaphala (Maharashtra), Anakoranti (Kerala).

Action: Root—decoction is given after parturition. Leaves—applied to eczema.

A decoction of the roots of S. grandiflora Kurz, synonym S. longifolia Hook. (the Andamans) and S. macrophylla Blume, synonym S.flavescens Kurz and S. ovalis M. Laws. (Konkan and the An- damans) is also given after parturition.... salacia macrosperma

Salacia Oblonga

Wall. ex Wight & Arn.

Family: Hippocrateaceae; Celas- traceae.

Habitat: Rain forests of Western Ghats from Konkan to Kerala.

Folk: Chundan (Tamil Nadu), Ponkoranti (Kerala).

Action: Root bark—used for the treatment rheumatism; also for gonorrhoea, swellings and skin diseases. Plant—mildly antiseptic.... salacia oblonga

Salacia Reticulata

Wt.

Family: Hippocrateacea; Celas- traceae.

Habitat: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala.

Folk: Ekanyakam, Koranti (Kerala, South India), Anukudu-chettu (Andhra Pradesh)

Action: Plant—mild antiseptic. Root bark—used against gonorrhoea, skin diseases and inflammations. The root bark exhibits hypoglycaemic activity.... salacia reticulata

Salal

(English) An evergreen shrub with flowers and berries

Sallal, Salall, Sallall, Salalle, Salale, Sallale... salal

Salali

(Native American) Resembling a squirrel

Salalie, Salaly, Salaley, Salalee, Salaleigh, Salalli, Salallie, Sallalli, Salaleah, Salalei, Salalia, Salaliah, Salalya, Salalyah, Salalea... salali

Salama

(Egyptian) One who is peaceful and safe

Salamah, Salma, Salamma, Sallama... salama

Salamanca

(Spanish) A woman from a city in western Spain... salamanca

Salamasina

(Samoan) A princess; born to royalty

Salamaseena, Salamasyna, Salamaseana, Salamaseina, Salamasiena... salamasina

Salem

(Arabic) One who is at peace Saleme, Saleem... salem

Salette

(English) Form of Sally, meaning “princess; lady”

Salet, Saleta, Saletah, Salete, Salett, Saletta, Salettah, Sallet, Salletta, Sallettah, Sallette... salette

Salicornia Brachiata

Roxb.

Family: Chenopodiaceae.

Habitat: Sea coast from Bengal to Gujarat.

Folk: Kohlu (Andhra Pradesh).

Action: Ash—used in mange and itch.

Air-dried plant contains 8.97% ash; a high percentage of sodium and chloride ions (sodium 5.68, chloride 10.02%). The plant is a source of alkaline earth (called Sajji), used for extracting sodium carbonate.... salicornia brachiata

Salicylates

Esters or salts of salicylic acid, such as aspirin, and including glycoside forms such as salicin. They are widely used as topical irritants and (especially) as anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents and prostaglandin inhibitors.... salicylates

Salihah

(Arabic) One who is agreeable; correct

Saliha, Saaleha, Salyha, Saleeha, Saleaha... salihah

Salima

(Arabic) One who is healthy and safe

Salimah, Saleema, Salyma, Saliema, Selima, Saleyma, Sileema, Salema, Salim, Salymah, Salma, Salmah, Saleama... salima

Salina

(French) One of a solemn, dignified character

Salin, Salinah, Salinda, Salinee, Sallin, Sallina, Sallinah, Salline, Sallyn, Sallyna, Sallynah, Sallyne, Sallynee, Salyn, Salyna, Salynah, Salyne, Salana, Salanah, Salane, Salean, Saleana, Saleanah, Saleane, Salen, Salenah, Salenna, Sallene, Salena... salina

Salix Acmophylla

Boiss.

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tracts from Uttar Pradesh westwards ascending to an altitude of 1,800 m.

Ayurvedic: Jala-vetasa.

Action: Bark—febrifuge.... salix acmophylla

Salix Alba

Linn.

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: North-western Himalayas, up to an altitude of 2,400 m.

English: White Willow, European Willow.

Ayurvedic: Jalavetasa.

Unani: Bed Saadaa.

Folk: Vivir (Kashmir).

Action: Analgesic, antiinflammatory, febrifuge. Used for rheumatic inflammation, painful muscles, spondylitis, lumbago, sciatica, neuralgia, gout and fever. (In 1838, chemists identified salicylic acid in the bark. Afterwards, synthesized it as acetylsalicylic acid, aspirin, in 1899.)

Key application: In diseases accompanied by fever, headache, rheumatic ailments. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported anti- inflammatory action. The British Herbal Compendium additionally reported analgesic, antipyretic, antirheumatic and astringent actions of the willow bark.

The bark contains phenolic glyco- sides; salicin, picein and triandrin with esters of salicylic acid and salicyl alcohol, acetylated salicin, salicortin and salireposide; tannins; catechin; p- coumaric acid; flavonoids and polysac- charides.

Salicylic acid inhibits prostaglandin production, relives pain and brings down fever.... salix alba

Salix Viminalis

Linn. (The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim) is known as Basket Willow and the Osier.

The bark contains 8.2%-8.8% tannin and phenol glycosides, fragilin, picein, salicin (0.13%), salicortin, salireposide, triandrin and vimalin. Salicase, and calcium and potassium nitrates are also reported from the bark.

Dosage: Bark—59-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... salix viminalis

Salix Babylonica

Linn.

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: North India, along the banks of rivers nad water-courses.

English: Weeping Willow.

Siddha/Tamil: Aatru Paalai.

Folk: Giur (Kashmir). Bed.

Action: Leaves and bark— astringent, antipyretic. Used in intermittent and remittent fevers. Bark—anthelmintic. Biological activity of aerial part—antiviral, CNS active, hypothermic.

The leaves are reported to contain delphinidin and cyanidin, fragilin, salicin, salicortin, salidroside, tremu- loidin, triandrin and vimalin. Salicin content in the stems and leaves is reported to be 3 to 4%. The bark yields phenolics—triandrin, salicin, gallocat- echol, catechol.... salix babylonica

Salix Caprea

Linn.

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

English: Sallow, Goat Willow, Common Willow.

Ayurvedic: Vetasa, Vaanira, Vidula, Vanjula, Vaanjulaa. In Kerala Homonoia riparia Lour., Euphorbiaceae, is used as Vetasa or Jalavetasa.

Unani: Bed Mushk.

Action: Distilled water from flowers—cordial, stimulant; externally applied to headache. Stem and leaves—astringent. Leaves—decoction used as febrifuge. Bark and twigs—astringent, applied to piles. Ash of wood—used in haemoptysis; mixed with vinegar, applied to piles.

Alkaloids, glycosides and saponins of male racemes increase the amplitude and slow the heartbeat and act more rapidly than digitalis on isolated frog heart.

Flavonoids present in the male racemes are: diometin, isorhamnetin, cap- reoside and salicapreoside.

Phenol glycosides present in the bark are: delphinidin, cyanidin, pipe- colic acid, fragilin, picein, salicin, sal- icortin, salireproside, triandrin and vimalin. Tannin content is reported to be 8-13%.

Salix daphnoides Vill. and Salix ele- gans Wall. (The Himalayas from Kash mir to Nepal) are also known as Jalave- tasa.

Dosage: Leaf, bark, root—50- 100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... salix caprea

Salix Fragilis

Linn

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

English: Crack Willow, Kashmir Willow.

Folk: Tilachaang (Himachal Pradesh).

Action: Bark—antirheumatic.

Key application: For relief of low back pain; symptomatic relief of mild osteoarthritic and rheumatic complaints. (ESCOP.) The bark contains salicin 0.23%, salicase and tannin (6-12%).

The phenol glycosides reported from the plant include fragilin, glycosmin, grandidentatin, picein, populin, sali- cin, salireposide, salicyloyl tremuloi- din, triandrin and tremuloidin.

Willow bark consists of the dried bark or twigs of various species of the genus Salix, including S. purpurea L. and S. daphnoides Vill.

Salicylate concentrations vary greatly among Salix sp. Salix alba bark is reported to contain 0.49-0.98% salicin; Salix purpurea bark 3-9%, Salix daphnoides bark 4.9-5.6% and Salix fragilis bark 3.9-10.2%. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... salix fragilis

Salix Nigra

Marsh.

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: Native to America (New York and Pennsylvania).

English: Black Willow.

Unani: Bed-Siyaah.

Action: Astringent, febrifuge, sedative, nervine tonic. Anaphrodisiac (used for reducing sexual activity; in spermatorrhoea). Largely used in the treatment of nocturnal emissions.

The bark contains tannin, about 1% of glucoside salinigrin. Once considered a substitute for potassium bromide, but without a depressant effect.... salix nigra

Salliann

(English) A gracious princess Saleann, Saleanna, Saleannah, Saleanne, Saleean, Saleeana, Saleeanah, Saleeane, Saleeann, Saleeanna, Saleeannah, Saleeanne, Salian, Saliana, Salianah, Saliane, Saliann, Salianna, Saliannah, Salianne, Salleeann, Salleeanna, Salleeannah, Salleeanne, Sallian, Salliana, Sallianah, Salliane, Sallianna, Salliannah, Sallianne, Sally-Ann, Sally-Anne, Sallyann, Sallyanna, Sallyannah, Sallyanne... salliann

Sally

(English) Form of Sarah, meaning “princess; lady”

Salley, Salli, Sallie, Sallee, Salleigh, Salia, Saliah, Salie, Saliee, Sallia, Salliah, Sailee, Saileigh, Sailey, Saili, Sailia, Sailie, Saily, Sal, Salaid, Salea, Saleah, Salee, Salei, Saleigh, Saley, Sallea, Salleah, Sallei, Sallya, Sallyah, Sallye, Saly, Salya, Salyah, Salye, Sali... sally

Salmon Patches

See NAEVUS – Naevus simplex.... salmon patches

Saloma

(Hebrew) One who offers peace and tranquility

Salomah, Salome, Salomia, Salomiah, Schlomit, Shulamit, Salomeaexl, Salomma, Salaome, Salomea, Salomee, Salomei, Salomey, Salomi, Salomya, Salomyah... saloma

Saloni

(Hindi) A beautiful dear one Salonie, Salony, Saloney, Salonee, Salonni, Salloni, Sallonee, Salonea... saloni

Salix Tetrasperma

Roxb.

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the greater part of India, along the banks of rivers and streams.

English: Indian Willow.

Ayurvedic: Jalavetasa, Naadeya, Niketan, Baishi.

Siddha/Tamil: Attupalai.

Folk: Vaanira, Vaalunja.

Action: Dried leaves—antiinflammatory, given in rheumatism, swellings, piles. Bark—febrifuge.

The bark is reported to contain 6.5% tannin, also salicin A.... salix tetrasperma

Salmalia Malabarica

(DC) Schott & Endl.

Synonym: Bombax ceiba Linn. Bombax malabaricum DC. Gossampinus malabarica (DC.) Merr.

Family: Bombacaceae.

Habitat: The hotter parts of India, up to 1,350 m.

Ayurvedic: Shaalmali, Mochaa, Mochaahva, Pichhila, Raktapushpa, Sthiraayu, Kankataadhya, Tuulini. Shaalmali-veshtaka (gum).

Unani: Semal. Mochras (gum).

Siddha: Mul Ilavam. Ielavampisin (gum).

Folk: Semar.

Action: Young roots (Semul- musali)—astringent, (used for dysentery) stimulant, demulcent. Fruits—stimulant, diuretic, expectorant. Used for chronic inflammation of bladder, kidney also for calculus affections. Flowers— astringent and cooling, applied to cutaneous affections. Leaves— anti-inflammatory. Stem bark— demulcent, styptic. Aqueous extract with curd is given for blood- dysentery. Bark—paste is applied to skin eruptions, boils, acne, pimples. Seeds used for chickenpox, smallpox, catarrhal affections, chronic cystitis and genitourinary diseases. Gum—astringent, demulcent, styptic. Used for diarrhoea, dysentery, haemoptysis, bleeding piles, menor- rhagia, spermatorrhoea. Root and pod—used for the treatment of low vitality and debility.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the stem bark in bleeding disorders and in acne vul- garis.

All parts of the plant gave beta- sitosterol and its glucosides; seeds, bark and root bark, lupeol; flowers, hentri- acontane, hentriacontanol; root bark, in addition, gave 7-hydroxycadalene. The seed oil yields arachidic, linoleic, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids; seeds contain carotenes, n-hexacosanol, et- hylgallate and tocopherols; the gum contains gallic and tannic acids, yields L-arbinose, D-galactose, D-galacturo- nic acid and D-galactopyranose.

Younger roots contain more sugars (arabinose and galactose 8.2%) and peptic substances (6.0%) than the older ones. They contain mucilage, starch (71.2%), mineral matter (2.1%), tannins 0.4 and non-tannins 0.1%, along with other constituents.

The Musali compares favourably with the nutritive value of Pueraria tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Ipomoea digitata and Butea monosperma (all used in sexual debility).

A related species, Salmalia insig- nis (Wall.) Schott & Endl., synonym Bombax insigne Wall. (Assam, Western Ghats and the Andamans); is known as Semul; Dumboil (Assam), Didu (Andamans) and Kal-ilavu (Tamil Nadu).

Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. III.) Flower, bark root— 3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... salmalia malabarica

Salpingo-

A prefix indicating a connection with either the FALLOPIAN TUBES or the EUSTACHIAN TUBES. ... salpingo-

Salsola Kali

Linn.

Family: Chenopodiaceae.

Habitat: North-West Himalayas and Kashmir.

English: Glass-Wort, Russian Thistle, Prickly-Saltwort.

Ayurvedic: Sarjikaa, Katol, Laanaa- buuti, Sajji-buuti.

Unani: Ushnaan, Ghaajuraan.

Folk: Barilla.

Action: Plant—cathartic. Juice of fresh plant and seed-vessels—a potent diuretic. Ash of the plant is used in Unani medicine.

Alcoholic extract of the plant showed antimicrobial activity against Salmonella paratyphi and Serratia marcescens.... salsola kali

Salus

(Latin) In mythology, goddess of health and prosperity; salvation Saluus, Salusse, Saluss... salus

Salva

(Latin) A wise woman Salvah, Salvia, Salvina, Salvinia, Salviya, Sallviah, Salviah, Salviana, Salvianah, Salviane, Salvianna, Salviannah, Salvianne, Salvinah, Salvine, Salvyna, Salvynah, Salvyne, Sallvia... salva

Salvadora

(Spanish) Feminine form of Salvador; savior

Salvadorah, Salvadoria, Salbatora, Salbatoria, Salvatora, Salvatoria... salvadora

Salvia Coccínea

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Indian gardens.

Ayurvedic: Samudrashosha (var.).

English: Red Sage, Texas Sage.

Action: Decoction—used in renal diseases, also for lumbago. Contraindicated during pregnancy.... salvia coccínea

Salvadora Oleoides

Dcne.

Family: Salvadoraceae.

Habitat: The arid regions of Punjab, Rajasthan and western India.

Ayurvedic: Pilu (bigger var.).

Action: Leaf—bechic. Bark— vesicant. Fruit—febrifuge (in low fever), used in enlarged spleen. Oil from seed—applied in rheumatic affections and after child birth.

The fruit contains sterols, beta-sitos- terol and its glucosides and stigmas- terol; benzylisothiocyanate, n-octaco- sanol and tetracosane; flavonoids including quercetin and rutin; thiourea derivatives and phospholipids. Myris- tic, lauric and palmitic acids were obtained from the seed fat.... salvadora oleoides

Salvadora Persica

Linn.

Synonym: S.persica L.var. wightiana Verde. S. indica Wt.

Family: Salvadoraceae.

Habitat: Arid regions, on saline lands and in coastal regions.

English: Mustard tree. Salt Bush tree, Tooth Brush tree.

Ayurvedic: Pilu (smaller var.), Pilukaa, Sransi, Angaahva, Tikshna- vrksha.

Unani: Miswaak, Araak.

Siddha: Perungoli.

Action: Fruit—carminative (used in biliousness), deobstruent (used for rheumatism, tumours, splenomegaly), diuretic, lithotriptic. Leaves—decoction used for cough and asthma, poultice in painful piles and tumours; juice in scurvy. Flowers—stimulant, laxative. Applied in painful rheumatic conditions. Seeds—diuretic; purgative; fatty oil applied locally on rheumatic swellings. Root bark—topically vesicant. Bark—emmenagogue, ascarifuge, febrifuge. Biological activity of stem bark—spasmolytic. Plant—anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, antibacterial.

The root gave elemental gamma- monoclinic sulphur, benzyl glucosino- late, salvadourea (a urea derivative), m-anisic acid and sitosterol. Benzyl isothiocyanate, isolated from the root, exhibits antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus-1 which affects oral region. (The root is used in many parts of the world as a tooth brush.) Root bark and stem bark contain trimethy- lamine. Myristic, lauric and palmitic acids are the major acid components of the seed fat.

Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder; 50100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... salvadora persica

Salvia Aegyptiaca

Linn.

Synonym: S. pumila Benth.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Arid areas from Delhi westwards in Punjab and Rajasthan, and southwards in Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Unani: Tukhm-Malangaa.

Action: Seeds—used for diarrhoea, also in haemorrhoids.

Seeds yield mucilage and a gum which contain aldobiuronic acid and aldotriouronic acid.

The mucilage on hydrolysis yields D-galactose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose and galacturonic acid.

The seeds of this plant are often confused with those of Lallemantia roye- leana Benth. which are also sold as Tukhm-Malangaa.... salvia aegyptiaca

Salvia Haematodes

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Indian gardens.

English: Blood-veined Sage.

Unani: Behman Surkh. (Behman Safed is equated with Centaurea behen Linn.)

Action: Both the varieties of Behman are used in Unani medicine as a cardiac and sex tonic, also as a liver tonic in jaundice.... salvia haematodes

Salvia Lanata

Roxb.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal

Action: Roots—an adulterant of Saussurea lappa. Used as a substitute for Saliva moorcroftiana.... salvia lanata

Salvia Moorcroftiana

Wall. ex Benth.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Northwestern Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,0003,000 m.

Folk: Kaali-jarri (Punjab).

Action: Root—bechic. Leaves— antitussive; applied as poultice to boils and chronic skin affections. Seeds—antispasmodic, emetic. Used for colic, dysentery, also for haemorrhoids; applied to boils.

The root gave a diterpene quinone.... salvia moorcroftiana

Salwa

(Arabic) One who provides comfort; solace Salwah... salwa

Samah

(Arabic) A generous, forgiving woman

Sama, Samma, Sammah... samah

Samala

(Hebrew) One who is requested by God

Samalah, Samale, Sammala, Sammalah, Samalla, Samallah... samala

Samanfa

(Hebrew) Form of Samantha, meaning “one who listens well” Samanffa, Sammanfa, Sammanffa, Semenfa, Semenfah, Samenffa, Semenffah... samanfa

Samantha

(Aramaic) One who listens well Samanthah, Samanthia, Samanthea, Samantheya, Samanath, Samanatha, Samana, Samanitha, Samanithia, Samanth, Samanthe, Samanthi, Samanthiah, Semantha, Sementha, Simantha, Smantha, Samantah, Smanta, Samanta, Sammatha, Samatha, Samea, Samee, Samey, Samie, Samy, Samye, Sami, Sammanth, Sammanthia, Sammanthiah, Sammanthya, Sammanthyah, Sammantha, Sammi, Sammie, Sammy, Samm, Samma, Sammah, Sammee, Sammey, Sammijo, Sammyjo... samantha

Samar

(Arabic) One who provides evening conversation Samarr, Samare, Samarre... samar

Salvia Officinalis

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Native to the Mediterranean region; grown as an ornamental.

English: Sage.

Folk: Salvia Sefakuss.

Action: Plant—astringent, anti- inflammatory, carminative, anti- spasmodic, antiseptic. Leaf and flower—cholagogue, hypogly- caemic, antiasthmatic (used for respiratory allergy), cholagogue, emmenagogue, antisudoriferous, antiseptic. Leaf—diaphoretic, antipyretic. Used for sore throat, laryngitis, tonsillitis, stomatitis.

Key application: Leaf—internally, for dyspeptic symptoms and excessive perspiration; externally for inflammations of the mucous membranes of nose and throat. (German Commission E.) ESCOP indicates its use for inflammations and infections such as stomatitis, gingivitis, pharyngitis, and hyperhidrosis.

The leaves contain a volatile oil; diterpene bitters including carnosolic acid; flavonoids including salvigenin, genkwanin, hispidulin, luteolin and its derivatives; phenolic acids including rosmarinic, caffeic, labiatic; a condensed catechin, salvia tannin.

The roots contain diterpene quino- nesroyleanone and its derivatives. Volatile oil contains alpha-and beta-thu- jone, 1,8-cineole and camphor. Thu- jone is strongly antiseptic and carminative, also has an oestrogenic action that is partly responsible for the herb's hormonal activity in reducing breast milk production. The volatile oil also relieves muscle spasms. Ros- marinic acid, a phenol, allays inflammations.

Cirsiliol, linalool and alpha-terpine- ol, constituents of the volatile oil, exhibit CNS depressant activities.

In a double blind, randomized and placebo controlled trial, extracts of Salvia officinalis showed improvement in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Sage oil is used in perfumes as a deodorant and for the treatment of thrush and gingivitis. The herb is used in tooth powders, mouth washes, gargles, poultices, hair tonics and hair dressings.... salvia officinalis

Salvia Plebeia

R. Br.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the plains of India, up to 1,500 m in the hills.

Ayurvedic: Samudrashosha, Kammarkasa.

Folk: Bhuu-Tulasi.

Action: Plant—diuretic, an- thelmintic, astringent, demulcent. Leaves—used for toothache. Seeds—mucilaginous, used for diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia and haemorrhoids.

The plant contains flavones—nepe- tin and hispidulin and their gluco- sides. Flowers also contain nepetin. Sitosterol and oleanolic acid are also present. The seeds yield secoisolari- ciresinol diester.... salvia plebeia

Salvinia Cucullata

Roxb.

Family: Salviniaceae; Azollaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India in shallow, freshwater lakes, ponds, ditches.

Ayurvedic: Aakhukarni (Kerala). (Suggested by Rashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth.)

Action: Root—digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, anthelmintic. Used for epistasis, fever and colic. Also for dysuria, polyuria and skin diseases.

In Kerala, Merremia emarginata (Convolvulaceae) or Hemionitis arifo- lia (Cheilanthaceae) are used as Aakhu- karni.

Salvinia is an aquatic fern, rich in protein, minerals, chlorophyll and carotenoids. Its extract exhibited strong antifungal activity against Fusa- rium nivale.... salvinia cucullata

Samara

(Hebrew) Protected by God Samarah, Samaria, Shemariah, Samarra, Samarie, Samariya, Samaira, Samar, Samary, Sammar, Sammara, Samora, Samarah, Samari, Samariah, Samarrea, Sameria, Saimara... samara

Sambucus Ebulus

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Native of Baluchistan. (Used in Unani medicine.)

Unani: Kanochaa, Marv. Seeds— Tukhm Kanochaa, Tukhm Marv. (National Formulary of Unani Medicine equated Kanochaa with Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.)

Action: Used for colic and as an intestinal tonic, deobstruent and disinfectant. Roasted or processed seeds are prescribed in diarrhoea and dysentery.

Synonym: S. wightiana Wall. ex W. & A.

Family: Caprifoliaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir at 2,000-3,600 m.

English: Dwarf Elder.

Unani: Khamaan Saghir, Khamaan- ul-Arzaa, (Nabli) Khamaan.

Siddha/Tamil: Mushkiyaara (Punjab), Khamman, Ganhulaa.

Action: Diuretic, expectorant. Used for kidney and bladder torpor.

Lipid fraction of drupes contains unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, aliphatic alcohols, triterpenic alcohols, alpha- and beta-amyrin; also anthocyanin pigments, phenolic acids. The root contains beta-sitosterol and alpha- amyrin. Aqueous extracts induced diuresis in rats and exhibited hypotensive activity in cats. The extract of flowering herb showed significant anti- ulcerogenic activity. cyanogenic glycosides; berries contain flavonoids, anthocyanins, vitamin A and C.

Anti-inflammatory activity of the flowers has been attributed to ursolic acid. Elder flowers and peppermint is an old remedy for influenza in the Western herbal.

The berry is used against influenza virus A and B. (J Alt Compliment Med, 1(4), 1995.)... sambucus ebulus

Sameh

(Arabic) One who forgives Sammeh, Samaya, Samaiya... sameh

Samihah

(Arabic) One who is generous; magnanimous

Samiha, Sameeha, Samyha, Sameaha, Sameyha, Samieha, Sameiha... samihah

Samina

(Arabic) A healthy woman Saminah, Samine, Sameena, Samyna, Sameana, Sameina, Samynah... samina

Samira

(Arabic) Feminine form of Samir; companion for evening conversation Samirah, Samire, Sameera, Samyra, Sameira, Samera, Samiria, Samirra, Samyrah, Samyre, Samiriah, Sameara... samira

Samone

(Hebrew) Form of Simone, meaning “one who listens well” Samoan, Samoane, Samon, Samona, Samonia... samone

Sampada

(Indian) A blessing from God Sampadah, Sampadda, Sampadia, Sampadiya, Sampadea, Sampadya... sampada

Sample

A select subset of a population. A sample may be random or non-random and may be representative or non-representative. There are several types of samples. See “representative sample”; “random sample”.... sample

Sampling

The procedure of selecting a number of subjects from all the subjects in a particular group or “universe”.... sampling

Sampriti

(Indian) An attachment Sampritie, Samprity, Sampritey, Sampritee, Sampryti, Sampryty, Sampritti, Sampritea... sampriti

Samuela

(Hebrew) Feminine form of Samuel; asked of God Samuelah, Samuella, Samuell, Samuelle, Sammila, Sammile, Samella, Samielle, Samilla, Samille, Samiella, Samelia... samuela

Samularia

(Hebrew) Sweet one forever Samulariah, Samulara, Samularra, Samulariya, Samularea, Samulareah... samularia

Samya

(Arabic) One who is exalted Samiyah, Samia, Samiha, Sammia, Sammiah, Sammya, Sammyah, Samyah, Samiah, Samiya... samya

Sana

(Persian / Arabic) One who emanates light / brilliance; splendor Sanah, Sanna, Sanako, Sanaah, Sane, Saneh... sana

Sanaa

(Swahili) Beautiful work of art Sanae, Sannaa... sanaa

Sancha

(Spanish) Feminine form of Sancho; saintly; holy

Sanchah, Sanchia, Sancia, Sancta, Sanchiya, Sanchiah, Sanchie, Sanchya, Sanchyah, Sanciah, Sancie, Sanctia, Sancya, Sancyah, Santsia, Sanzia, Sanziah, Sanzya, Sanzyah, Sancharia, Sanche, Sancheska, Sanceska... sancha

Sandeep

(Punjabi) One who is enlightened Sandeepe, Sandip, Sandipp, Sandippe, Sandeyp, Sandeype... sandeep

Sandhya

(Hindi) Born at twilight; name of the daughter of the god Brahma Sandhiya, Sandhyah, Sandya, Sandyah... sandhya

Sandia

(Spanish) Resembling a watermelon Sandiah, Sandea, Sandya, Sandeea, Sandiya... sandia

Sandoricum Indicum

Cav.

Family: Caprifoliaceae.

Habitat: Kangra and in Simla hills.

English: European Elder, Black Elder.

Unani: Khamaan Kabir.

Action: Anti-inflammatory, anticatarrhal, diuretic. Flowers and berries—used for common cold, influenza, nasal catarrh, sinusitis; as a gargle in sore throat. Inner bark—cathartic, hydragogue, emetic, diuretic. Infusion of bark and flowers—given in epilepsy; also used as a gentle circulatory stimulant, diaphoretic, expectant and anticatarrhal; locally in inflammations.

Key application: In colds, also as a diaphoretic and anticatarrhal. (German Commission E, The British Herbal Compendium, WHO.)

The flowers contain triterpenes including ursolic acid; flavonoids (up to 3%) including rutin; phenolic acids; triterpenes; sterols; tannins; mucilage; volatile oil (up to 0.2%); leaves gave

Synonym: S. koetjape (Burm. f.) Merrill.

Family: Meliaceae.

Habitat: Wild in Kangra and in Simla hills.

English: European Elder.

Siddha/Tamil: Sevai, Sayai.

Action: Root—astringent, carminative, antispasmodic. Used for diarrhoea. Bark—anthelmintic.

Fruit hulls gave bryonic and bryono- lic acids, mesoinosital and dimethyl mucate; heartwood also gave triter- penic acids including katonic and in- dicic acid.

The seeds gave limonoids—sandori- cin and 6-hydroxysandoricin. A sec- otriterpene, koetjapic acid, together with katonic acid, has been isolated from the stem. Sandoricin and 6- hydroxysandoricin exhibited effective antifeedant activity. Katonic acid exhibited significant cytotoxicity against a variety of cultured human cancer cells.... sandoricum indicum

Sandra

(Greek) Form of Alexandra, meaning “helper and defender of mankind” Sandrah, Sandrine, Sandy, Sandi, Sandie, Sandey, Sandee, Sanda, Sondra, Shandra, Sandira, Sandah, Sandirah, Sandrica, Sanndra, Sahndra, Sandia, Sandiah, Sandiey, Sandine, Sanndie, Sandea, Sandye... sandra

Sandrea

(Greek) Form of Sandra, meaning “helper and defender of mankind” Sandreah, Sandreea, Sandreia, Sandreiah, Sandrell, Sandrella, Sandrellah, Sandrelle, Sandria, Sandriah, Sanndria... sandrea

Sandrica

(Greek) Form of Sandra, meaning “helper and defender of mankind” Sandricca, Sandricah, Sandricka, Sandrickah, Sandrika, Sandrikah, Sandryca, Sandrycah, Sandrycka, Sandryckah, Sandryka, Sandrykah... sandrica

Sandrine

(Greek) Form of Alexandra, meaning “helper and defender of mankind”

Sandrin, Sandreana, Sandreanah, Sandreane, Sandreen, Sandreena, Sandreenah, Sandreene, Sandrene, Sandrenna, Sandrennah, Sandrenne, Sandrianna, Sandrina, Sandrinah, Sandryna, Sandrynah, Sandryne... sandrine

Sangita

(Indian) One who is musical Sangitah, Sangeeta, Sangeita, Sangyta, Sangieta, Sangeata... sangita

Sangrida

(Norse) In mythology, a Valkyrie Sangridah, Sangridda, Sangryda, Sangrydah... sangrida

Sanicle

Sanicula europea. N.O. Umbelliferae.

Synonym: Pool Root, Wood Sanicle.

Habitat: Woods and shady places.

Features ? Stem nearly simple, reddish, furrowed, up to two feet high. Leaves radical, palmate, long-stalked, glossy green above, paler underneath, serrate, nearly three inches across. White, sessile flowers, blooming in June and July. Taste astringent, becoming acrid.

Part used ? Herb.

Action: Astringent, alterative.

With more powerful alteratives in blood impurities. As an astringent in diarrhea and leucorrhea. Wineglass doses of the ounce to pint (boiling water) infusion are taken. Claims have been made for this herb in the treatment of consumption, and Skelton has given publicity to alleged cures. These cases are not now considered to have been proved.

SARSAPARILLA, JAMAICA. Smilax ornata. N.O. Liliaceae.

Synonym: Smilax medica, Smilax officinalis.

Habitat: Sarsaparilla is imported from the West Indies and Mexico. Features ? The root, which is the only part used medicinally, is of a rusty-

brown colour and cylindrical in shape. It is a quarter of an inch to half an inch in diameter, has many slender rootlets, is deeply furrowed longitudinally, and the transverse section shows a brown, hard bark with a porous central portion. The taste is rather acrid, and there is no smell.

The "Brown" Jamaica Sarsaparilla comes from Costa Rica. The Honduras variety reaches us in long, thin bundles with a few rootlets attached, and further supplies are imported from Mexico.

First introduced by the Spaniards in 1563 as a specific for syphilis, this claim has long been disproved, although the root undoubtedly possesses active alterative principles. It is consequently now held in high regard as a blood purifier, and is usually administered with other alteratives, notably Burdock.

Compound decoctions of Sarsaparilla are very popular as a springtime medicine, and Coffin's prescription will be found in the Herbal Formulas section of this volume.... sanicle

Sanicula Europaea

Linn.

Family: Umbelliferae.

Habitat: Europe, including Britain. The Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan, Assam, Western Ghats and Palni hills in South India.

English: Wood Sanicle.

Action: Plant—astringent, alterative, vulnerary. Used in leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, bleeding piles; also in diarrhoea and dysentery. The herb is also employed as an ingredient of an ointment used for septic ulcers.

The herb contains saponins based on saniculogenins; allantoin; chlorogenic and rosmarinic acids. The flowers contain 3.1 and fruits 1.1% rosmarinic acid. The leaves contain 0.6% chlorogenic acid. The roots contain 23.1, leaves 12.8, flowers 6.0 and fruits 5.2% surcose. Rhizome contains chlorogeni acid 1.2 and sucrose 13.9%.... sanicula europaea

Saniya

(Indian) A moment in time preserved

Saniyah, Sanya, Sanea, Sania... saniya

Sanjeet

(Indian) One who is invincible Sanjit, Sanjitte, Sanjeete, Sanjeat, Sanjeate... sanjeet

Sanjna

(Indian) A conscientious woman... sanjna

Sanjula

(Indian) One who is beautiful; attractive

Sanjulah, Sanjulla, Sanjoula, Sanjoulah... sanjula

Sanne

(American) Form of Susanna, meaning “resembling a graceful white lily”... sanne

Santana

(Spanish) A saintly woman Santa, Santah, Santania, Santaniah, Santaniata, Santena, Santenah, Santenna, Shantana, Shantanna... santana

Santuzza

(Italian) One who is holy Santuzzah, Santuza, Santuzah, Santuzzia, Santuzia, Santouza, Santouzza... santuzza

Sanura

(African) One who is kittenlike Sanurah, Sanuria, Sanurea, Sanurra... sanura

Sany

(Indian) Born on a Sunday Saney, Sanie, Sani, Sanee, Sanni, Sannee, Sanea... sany

Sanyu

(Japanese) One who brings happiness... sanyu

Saoirse

(Gaelic) An independent woman; having freedom Saoyrse... saoirse

Saphenous

The name given to the two large superficial veins of the leg. The small saphenous vein, which runs up the outside and back of the leg, joins the deep veins at the bend of the knee; the great saphenous vein – the longest vein in the body, which has a course from the inner ankle to the groin – is especially subject, with its branches, to become the site of VARICOSE VEINS.... saphenous

Sansevieria Hyacinthoides

(Linn.) Druce.

Synonym: S. zeylanica (L.) Willd.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Native to Sri Lanka; found along coastal regions of India from Bengal to Tamil Nadu.

English: Ceylon Bowstring Hemp.

Ayurvedic: Naagadamani (related species) (also known as Muurvaa).

Siddha/Tamil: Marul, Motta manji.

Action: See S. roxburghiana. Leaves and rhizomes are applied externally in high fever with delirium.

Rhizomes—diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant.

The leaf contains aconitic acid; the root yielded an alkaloid sansevierine (0.018%).... sansevieria hyacinthoides

Sansevieria Roxburghiana

J. & J. Schultes

Synonym: S. zeylanica auct. non-(L.) Willd.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: The eastern coast of India from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu in South.

English: Indian Bowstring Hemp.

Ayurvedic: Naagadamani, Takshaki. Used in West Bengal as a substitute for Muurvaa.

Siddha: Marul, Motta Manji (Tamil).

Action: Rhizomes—mucilaginous, used for cough. Tender shoots— juice given to children for clearing phlegm from the throat. Whole plant—finds application in glandular enlargement and rheumatism.

Care must be taken that the herb does not accumulate in the system.

The plant must not be confused with Indian Hemp (Cannabis indica).... sansevieria roxburghiana

Santalum Album

Linn.

Family: Santalaceae.

Habitat: Dry regions of Peninsular India from Vindhya mountains southwards, especially in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

English: White Sandalwood.

Ayurvedic: Chandana, Shvetachan- dana, Shrikhanda, Bhadra-Shree, Gandhsaara, Malayaja, Hima, Ekaangi.

Unani: Sandal Safed, Sandal-e- Abyaz.

Siddha/Tamil: Chandanam, Sandana, Ingam.

Action: Cooling, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, antiseptic and bacteriostatic against Gram positive bacteria. Used as a urinary antiseptic in chronic cystitis and sexually transmitted diseases. A paste is applied to temples in headache, during fevers and on burns, local inflammations and skin diseases (to allay pruritus). Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal. Used as urinary antiseptic in dysuria, urethral discharges and diseases of gallbladder.

Key application: In adjuvant therapy of infections of the lower urinary tract. Contraindicated in the diseases of the parenchyma of the kidney. (German Commission E.)

The bark contains a triterpene—urs- 12-en-3 butyl-palmitate. Chief constituents of the essential oil from heart- wood are alpha-and beta-santalol. Other constituents include sesquiterpene hydrocarbons—alpha-, beta-, epi- beta-santalene and alpha-and beta- curcumene and beta-farnesene. Dihy- droagarofuran is also present in the essential oil.

Dosage: Heartwood—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... santalum album

Santolina Chamaecyparissus

Linn.

Family: Compositae.

Habitat: Mediterranean region. Grown as an ornamental on the hills of South India.

English: Lavender Cotton.

Action: Plant—stomachic, antispas- modic, vermifuge, emmenagogue, analgesic, anti-inflammatory.

The herb contains flavonoids, particularly 6-methoxy flavones; pectoli- narigenin, hispidulin, nepetin and an essential oil.

The extract of flowers, leaves and roots of the plant are reported to be active against Gram-positive bacteria. Anti-inflammatory effects of the herb were demonstrated in rats without ul- cerogenicity or toxicity. (Planta Medica, 6, 1986.)... santolina chamaecyparissus

Sapium Indicum

Willd.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: Moist parts of India, especially along sea-coasts and back waters.

Siddha/Tamil: Pencolum.

Folk: Hurnaa (Maharashtra).

Action: Root bark—emetic, acrid and purgative.

The fruit contains aesculetin. A lac- tone and an alcohol has been isolated from the bark.... sapium indicum

Sapna

(Hindi) A dream come true Sapnah, Sapnia, Sapniah, Sapnea, Sapneah, Sapniya, Sapniyah... sapna

Saponaria Vaccaria

Linn.

Family: Caryophyllaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India as a weed of cultivated fields of wheat and barley. Also cultivated in gardens for ornament.

Folk: Musna, Saabuni.

Action: See S. officinalis. The mucilaginous sap of the plant is febrifugal and used in chronic fevers. It is a mild depurative and used in the treatment of furuncles and scabies.... saponaria vaccaria

Saponin

Any plant glycoside with soapy action that can be digested to yield a sugar and a sapogenin aglycone. Many (but not all) saponins can be toxic and speed up hemoglobin degradation. Some herbs with important saponin constituents are Yucca and Agave.... saponin

Sapphire

(Arabic / English) One who is beautiful / a precious gem Sapphira, Sapphirah, Saffir, Saffra, Saffire, Safire, Safra, Sapphyre, Saffyre... sapphire

Sapindus Laurifolius

Vahl.

Synonym: S. trifoliatus auct. non Linn.

Family: Sapindaceae.

Habitat: South India; also cultivated around villages in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.

English: Soapnut tree of South India.

Ayurvedic: Arishtaka, Pheni- la, Raktabeeja, Reethaakaranja, Garbhapaatana.

Unani: Reethaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Puvamkottai, Mani pungu.

Action: Fruit—astringent, emetic, detergent, anthelmintic. Pulp— aqueous solution used as nasal drops in migraine, epilepsy and hysteria. Root—used for gout, rheumatism and paralysis.

Saponin from pericarp of nuts yielded the genins, methylhedragenate, sap- indic acid and methyl oleanolate.

Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... sapindus laurifolius

Sapindus Mukorossi

Gaertn.

Family: Sapindaceae.

Habitat: Native to China and Japan; distributed in the Himalayas from Himachal Pradesh eastwards and in Assam.

English: Chinese Soap Berry, Soap Nut tree of North India.

Ayurvedic: Arishtaka, Phenila.

Folk: Reethaa.

Action: Fruits—emetic and expectorant; used in excessive salivation, chlorosis and epilepsy. The plant yielded triterpenoid glycosides, sapindosides, derived from hederagenin. Saponins exhibit hypotensive, anticholesterolemic, spermicidal and antimicrobial properties.

Saponin A and C sapindoside A and B, extracted from the fruit rind, showed antifungal activity. Hederagenin, isolated from the fruit rind or pericarp, is used in skin-lightening and anti- inflammatory cosmetics.

Other constituents from the plant are flavonoids—quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and rutin.... sapindus mukorossi

Sapium Sebiferum

Roxb.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: Native to China; introduced at various elevations in northern India, chiefly on ravine lands in the foothills. Planted throughout India as ornament.

English: Chinese Tallow tree.

Folk: Tayapippali, Vilaayati Shisham, Mom-China.

Action: Seed oil—vulnerary, emetic, purgative; used for skin diseases and for promoting healing of wounds.

Leaves latex—vesicant. Bark—a decoction is given in dyspepsia. Resin—purgative.

Chinese vegetable tallow (of low iod. val.) is obtained from waxy mass covering the seed; the Stillingia Oil (of highiod. val.) from the kernel. The tallow from Indian trees contains 62.3% palmitic and 27.4% oleic acid. A related species, S. discolor Muell-Arg., introduced into the Lal Bagh Gardens, Bangalore, yields a tallow containing comparatively more oleic and less palmitic acids. Stillingia Oil is considered superior to linseed oil. The oil contains lau- ric, myristic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids; the leaves contain ellagic and gallic acids, isoquercitrin and tannin 5.5%.

Ethanol extract of powdered root bark yielded 0.1% phloroacetophenone 2,4-dimethylether and menthol extract gave xanthoxyline. The bark also contains moretenone, moretenol and a tri- terpene, 3-epi-moretenol.... sapium sebiferum

Saponaria Officinalis

Linn.

Family: Caryophyllaceae.

Habitat: Native to temperate region of Europe; introduced in Indian gardens.

English: Bouncing Bet, Soapwort.

Action: Roots—blood purifier, cholagogue, expectorant, diuretic, diaphoretic. Roots and leaves— used for scrofula and skin diseases. Sap used as a depurative for scabies, furuncles, hepatic eruptions and venereal ulcers (as a lotion). Plant— employed for jaundice (to increase bile flow); also in respiratory disorders (bronchitis, sore throat).

Key application: Root—in catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract. (German Commission E.)

The plant contains saponin, sapo- toxin and saponarin. The root contains sapotoxin (4-5%) and saporubrinic acid. Saponin content of the root is highest (7.7-8.2%) just before flowering stage and the lowest (about 3%) during the flowering period. The bark yield 0.8% of saponin. The leaves contain saponarin. Youngest leaves show the highest haemolytic activity.

Aqueous extract of the plant exhibit antibacterial activity.... saponaria officinalis

Saprosma Ternatum

Benth. & Hk. f. in part.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: Hills of Assam, in damp places and in the Andamans.

Folk: Bhedeli (Assam).

Action: Leaf—carminative, eaten to relieve flatulence and stomachache. A poultice is used after parturition.... saprosma ternatum

Sarah

(Hebrew) Princess; lady; in the Bible, wife of Abraham

Sara, Sari, Sariah, Sarika, Saaraa, Sarita, Sarina, Sarra, Saara, Saarah, Saaraah, Saarrah, Sharita, Sharie, Sharri, Sharrie, Sharry, Shary, Shari, Soraya... sarah

Sarai

(Hebrew) One who is contentious and argumentative Sarae, Saray, Saraye... sarai

Saraid

(Irish) One who is excellent; superior Saraide, Saraed, Saraede, Sarayd, Sarayde... saraid

Sarama

(African / Hindi) A kind woman / in Hinduism, Indra’s dog Saramah, Saramma, Sarrama, Sarramma... sarama

Saraca Asoca

(Roxb.) De Wilde.

Synonym: S. indica auct. non L.

Family: Caesalpiniaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, except Northwestern India, up to 750 m.

English: Ashoka tree.

Ayurvedic: Ashoka, Ashoku, Hempushpa, Taamrapallava, Pindapushpa, Gandhapushpa. (Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f., an ornamental roadside tree, is wrongly called Ashoka.)

Unani: Ashoka.

Siddha/Tamil: Asogam.

Action: Bark—uterine tonic (imparts healthy tone to uterus), used for suppressed menses, leucorrhoea, menstrual pain, menorrhagia, complaints of menopause. Also used for dyspepsia, biliousness, colic, burning sensation. Flowers—pounded and mixed with water, used in haemorrhagic dysentery, bleeding piles and retention of urine.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofln- dia recommends the bark in metro- hhagia, menorrhagia, chronic lymphadenitis and inflammations.

The flowers contain fatty acids and gallic acid; apigenin-7-O-beta- D-glucoside, cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, kaempferol 3-O-beta-D-glucoside, pe- largonidin-3,5-diglucoside, quercetin and its 3-O-beta-D-glucoside and sitos- terol.

The bark yields alkanes, esters and primary alcohols. It gave n-octacosa- nol, tannin (6%), catechin, (+)-cate- chol, (-)-epicatechin, (-)-epicatechol, leucocyanidin, leucopelargonidin, pro- cyanidin derivatives, methyl-and eth- ylcholesterol derivatives.

Quercetin and its 3-O-rhamnoside, kaempferol-3-O-alpha-L-rhamnoside, amyrin, ceryl alcohol and beta-sitos- terol have been isolated from leaves and stems.

Alcoholic extract of the bark is reported to be active against a wide range of bacteria. The aqueous extract has been found to enhance the life span of mice infected with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma by 24%.

Pure phenolic glucoside (P2), isolated from stem bark, exhibited highly potent oxytocic activity on different mammals and was similar in nature to pitocin and ergometrine.

Dosage: Dried stem bark—20-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)... saraca asoca

Saran

(African) One who brings joy to others

Sarane, Sarran, Saranne, Saranna, Sarana, Sarann... saran

Sarasvati

(Hindi) In Hinduism, goddess of learning and the arts

Sarasvatti, Sarasvatie, Sarasvaty, Sarasvatey, Sarasvatee, Sarasvatea... sarasvati

Saraswati

(Hindi) Owning water; in Hinduism, a river goddess Saraswatti, Saraswatie, Saraswaty, Saraswatey, Saraswatee, Saraswatea... saraswati

Sarco

A pre?x signifying ?esh or ?eshy.... sarco

Sarcocele

Fleshy swelling or tumour of the testis... sarcocele

Sarcococca Saligna

(D. Don) Muell.-Arg.

Synonym: S. pruniformis Hook. f. S. trinervia Wt.

Family: Buxaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas and the hills of North-eastern India up to 2,700 m.

Folk: Geru (Garhwal, Patiala), Tiliari (Jaunsar), Sukatsing (Ku- maon).

Action: Leaves—used in the treatment of rheumatism and fever.

The leaves contain steroidal alkaloids, including saracosine, saracodine and saracodinine; also betulin.

Aerial parts exhibit spasmolytic, diuretic and anti-inflammatory activity. Steroidal alkaloids induce non- recoverable fall in blood pressure in dogs.... sarcococca saligna

Sarcostigma Kleinii

W. & A.

Family: Icacinaceae.

Habitat: The Western Ghats, from Konkan southwards.

Ayurvedic: Ingudi. (Balanites aegyptiaca is also equated with Ingudi.)

Siddha: Odal (Tamil).

Action: Seed oil—used externally in rheumatism. Powdered bark— given in rheumatism, neurological disorders and skin diseases.... sarcostigma kleinii

Sarda

(African) One who is hurried; quick Sardah, Sardda, Sardia, Sardiya, Sardea... sarda

Sardinia

(Italian) Woman from a mountainous island

Sardiniah, Sardinea, Sardineah, Sardynia, Sardyniah, Sardynea, Sardyneah... sardinia

Saree

(Arabic) Most noble woman Sarri, Sarie, Sarey, Sary, Sarea... saree

Sarff

(Welsh) Resembling a snake; serpentine

Sarf, Safe, Sarph, Sarphe... sarff

Sarika

(Indian / Hungarian) Resembling a parrot / form of Sarah, meaning “princess; lady”

Sarikah, Sareeka, Saryka, Saricka, Saricca, Saryca, Sarica, Sareaka... sarika

Sarcostemma Brevistigma

W. & A.

Synonym: S. acidum Voigt.

Family: Asclepiadaceae.

Habitat: Dry places in West Bengal, Bihar and Peninsular India.

English: Moon Plant, Soma Plant.

Ayurvedic: Somavalli, Somalataa, Somakshiri, Saumyaa, Dwijpriyaa. (Not to be confused with Soma of the Vedas.) (Substitute: Ephedra gerardiana.)

Siddha/Tamil: Somamum, Kodi- Kalli.

Action: Dried stems—emetic. Plant—insecticidal.

The plant contains malic acid, suc- cinic acid, reducing sugar, surcosa, traces of tannin, an alkaloid, a phytos- terol, alpha-and beta-amyrins, lupeol and lupeol acetate and beta-sitosterol. The milky exudate from the stem contains 4.1% of caoutchouc. Coagulum contains: caoutchouc 16, resins 68.1 and insolubles 15.9%.

Related species, Sarcostemma bru- nonianum W. & A. (South India), known as Perumaattaan kodi in Tamil Nadu; S. intermedium Decne (Peninsular India), and S. stocksii Hk. f. (Peninsular India), are also said to have similar uses as those of S. acidum.

Sarcostemma secamone (L.) Bennet, synonym S. esculentum (L. f.) Holm. (throughout the plains in semi marshy places) is known as Dughdhikaa or Duudhilataa in Northern India and Usippalai in Tamil Nadu. Whole plant is depurative, galactagogue and antiseptic (used as a gargle in sore throat and stomatitis; fresh root is prescribed in jaundice. A pregnane triglycoside, esculentin and cardenolide tetraglyco- sides have been isolated from the root.

Dosage: Milky exudate from stem— 1-3 drops. (CCRAS.)... sarcostemma brevistigma

Sarisha

(Hindi) One who is charming; pleasing

Sarysha, Sareesha, Sariesha, Sareysha, Sareasha... sarisha

Sarki

(African) Woman who has the rank of chief

Sarkie, Sarky, Sarkey, Sarkee, Sarkeigh, Sarkki, Sarcki, Sarckie, Sarkea... sarki

Sarohildi

(German) An armored battle- maiden

Sarohildie, Sarohildy, Sarohildey, Sarohyldi, Sarohyldy, Sarohilde, Sarohilda, Serhild, Serhilda, Serihilde, Serilda, Serilde, Serohilda, Serohilde, Serohild, Serohildi... sarohildi

Sars

In 2003, an outbreak occurred of a previously unrecognised illness – termed SARS, or severe acute respiratory syndrome. It was caused by infection with a newly identi?ed coronavirus, SARS-COV. Infection produced an illness with PNEUMONIA as a prominent feature, but some patients developed other events such as loss of appetite, diarrhoea and bleeding from the stomach. Many of those who developed the disease were health-care workers and the contagion rate was vey high.

Exceptional isolation procedures became necessary as the EPIDEMIC threatened to spread worldwide from its origin in Hong Kong. For example, patients were concentrated in individual hospitals which were turned into isolation units with a ‘no visiting’ policy. Sta? and other patients exposed to those with the disease were quarantined (see QUARANTINE) in the special units. All non-urgent hospital inpatient care was cancelled, and potential contacts were closely screened. Travel restrictions were put in place. These measures, coordinated by the World Health Organisation, brought the epidemic under control.... sars

Sarsoureh

(Arabic) A buglike woman Sarsoure, Sasureh, Sasure... sarsoureh

Saryu

(Indian) From the river Saryyu, Saryue... saryu

Sasa

(Japanese) One who is helpful; gives aid Sasah... sasa

Sasha

(Russian) Form of Alexandra, meaning “helper and defender of mankind” Sascha, Sashenka, Saskia... sasha

Sason

(Hebrew) One who brings joy Sasson, Sasone... sason

Sati

(Hindi) One who speaks the truth; in Hinduism, a goddess Satti, Satie, Satty, Saty, Satey, Sattey, Satee, Sattee, Satea, Sattea... sati

Satin

(French) A glossy, smooth fabric Satine, Sattin, Sattine, Satyn, Satyne, Satynne, Sateen, Sateene, Satean, Sateane... satin

Satinka

(Native American) A magical dancer

Satinkah, Satincka, Satynka, Satynka ... satinka

Sato

(Japanese) Of a sweet nature... sato

Satu

(Finnish) From a fairy tale Sattu, Satue... satu

Saturday

(American) Born on a Saturday Saturdaye, Saterday, Satarday, Satirday, Saturdai, Saturdae, Saterdai, Saterdae... saturday

Saturnina

(Spanish) Gift of Saturn, the god of agriculture

Saturneena, Saturnyna, Saturninia, Saturniniya, Saturneana... saturnina

Satya

(Indian) The unchangeable truth Satiya, Satyana... satya

Satyavati

(Hindi) In Hinduism, the mother of Vyasa

Satyavatti, Satyavatie, Satyavaty, Satyavatey, Satyavatee, Satyavatea... satyavati

Sauda

(Swahili) A dark beauty Saudaa, Sawda, Saudda... sauda

Saura

(Hindi) Of the heavens Sawra... saura

Saussurea Obvallata

Wall. ex C. B. Clarke.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at 4,2005,000 m.

Folk: Brahma-kamal (Kumaon); Birm-kanwal (Punjab).

Action: Roots—antiseptic, styptic, anti-inflammatory. Applied to wounds and cuts.

Plant—hypothermic. Flower—CNS active, antiviral. The flowers, after frying, are used in rheumatism.... saussurea obvallata

Sassafras Albidum

(Nutt.) Nees.

Synonym: S. officinale Nees and Eberm.

S. variifolium Kuntze.

Family: Lauraceae.

Habitat: Canada to Florida. Dried roots of S. albidum are imported into India.

English: Ague tree.

Unani: Sassafras.

Action: Root—used earlier for rheumatism, gout, kidney complaints and skin diseases.

Safrole is the main constituent of the volatile oil (80-90%), in addition to condensed tannins, resin, cinnam- ic acid derivatives. Safrole and its metabolite, L-hydroxysafrole are both neuro- and hepatotoxic (carcinogenic in animals). Its internal use is no more advised. Safrole-free extracts are ineffective.... sassafras albidum

Satureja Hortensis

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Native to Mediterranean region; found in Kashmir.

English: Summer Savory. Winter Savory is equated with S. montana L.

Action: Flowering top—carminative, digestive, laxative, stomachic, diuretic, sudorific and vermifuge. Used in flatulent colic and menstrual suppression. A tea (of leaves) is given as a carminative and expectorant. Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal, spasmolytic.

The plant gave fluorine, labiatic acid, ursolic acid and beta-sitosterol. Labi- atic acid is antioxidant. The volatile oil consists mainly of carvacrol with p- cymene, beta-pinene, beta-phellandre- ne, limonene and borneol.

The volatile oil of S. montana contains carvacrol, p-cymene and thymol with alpha-and beta-pinene, cineole and borneol.... satureja hortensis

Sauropus Androgynus

Merrill.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: Sikkim, Khasi Hills and Western Ghats, and also grown in South India.

English: Star Goose Berry.

Siddha/Tamil: Thavasai Murungai.

Action: Plant—known as Multivitamin Green for its substantial vitamin content. Decoction is given in stricture of the bladder and in fevers; used as a diuretic.

The leaves contain protein 6.8; carbohydrates 11.6; mineral matter 3.4, Ca 0.57, phosphorus 0.20, iron 28.0 mg, carotene (as vitamin A), 9,510 IU, thiamine 0.48, riboflavin 0.32, nicotinic acid 2.6, and vitamin C 247 mg/100 g.... sauropus androgynus

Saussurea Affinis

Spreng. ex DC.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Foot Hills of Eastern Himalayas and in Aka and Laushai Hills.

Folk: Ganga-muula (Assam).

Action: Root—juice is prescribed in gynaecological diseases.

Family: Compositae, Asteraceae.

Habitat: Himalayas from Garhwal to Sikkim at 4,200-5,100 m.

Folk: Phen-kamal, Jogi Paashaa, Hiyun Kauni.

Action: Plant, root—a decoction is prescribed in gynaecological diseases.

The plant afforded beta-sitosterol, 3- stigmastanol, stigmast-7-en-3-ol and ergostan-3,24-diol. The aerial parts of the plant collected from Himalayas gave heptacosane, hentriacontane, no- nacosane, alpha- andbeta-amyrins and their acetates and palmitates, lupeol, its acetate, fructose, glucose and surcose.... saussurea affinis

Saussurea Sacra

Edgew.

Habitat: Near snow line at elevations of 4,000 m and above in the Himalayas.

English: Yogiraj Plant, Sacred Saussurea.

Folk: Jogi-paadshaah (Kashmir), Ghuggi (Garhwal).

Action: Plant—used for nervous debility. Root—used for gynaecological disorders.... saussurea sacra

Savannah

(English) From the open, grassy ® plain

Savanna, Savana, Savanne, Savann, Savane, Savanneh... savannah

Savarna

(Hindi) Daughter of the ocean Savarnia, Savarnea, Savarniya, Savarneia... savarna

Saveage

(English) In Arthurian legend, the sister of Lyones Saveyage, Saviage, Savage... saveage

Saveria

(Italian) Feminine form of Xavier; owner of a new house; one who is bright Saveriah, Saverea, Saverya, Savereea, Saveriya... saveria

Savitri

(Hindi) In Hinduism, the daughter of the god of the sun

Savitari, Savitrie, Savitry, Savitarri, Savitarie, Savitree, Savitrea, Savitrey... savitri

Savvy

(American) Smart and perceptive woman

Savy, Savvi, Savvie, Savvey, Savee, Savvee, Savvea, Savea... savvy

Saussurea Heteromalla

(D. Don) Raizada & Saxena.

Synonym: S. candicans C. B. Clarke. Carduus heteromallus D. Don.

Family: Compositae, Asteraceae.

Folk: Batula, Kaaliziri (Punjab).

Action: Leaves—antiseptic; applied to wounds. Seeds— carminative. The plant exhibits CNS depressant and hypothermic properties.

Saussurea hieracioides Hook. f (Sikkim Himalayas at 3,600-4,200 m) gave a sesquilignan, saussol; scopoletin, luteolin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside and sy- ringin were isolated from the aerial parts.

Synonym: S. auriculata (DC.) Sch.-Bip.

Aplotaxis auriculata DC.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim.

Ayurvedic: Kushtha (pseudo).

Folk: Uplet (Maharashtra).

Action: Leaves—used in the treatment of syphilis.

The root of the plant is found mixed with the root of Kushtha of Indian medicine.... saussurea heteromalla

Saussurea Lappa

(Decne) Sch.-Bip.

Synonym: S. costus (Falc.) Lipsch.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Garhwal at 25003,000 m; cultivated in Kashmir and neighbouring regions.

English: Kuth, Costus.

Ayurvedic: Kushtha, Kusht, Vaapya, Kaashmira, Gada, Rug, Ruk, Aamaya, Paalaka. (Substitute: Pushkara Muula, Inula racemosa.)

Unani: Qust.

Siddha/Tamil: Kostum, Kottam.

Folk: Sugandha-Kuutth.

Action: Root—antispasmodic, expectorant, carminative, astringent, antiseptic. An ingredient of prescriptions for dyspepsia, asthma, cough, chronic rheumatism, skin diseases. Applied locally to wounds and ulcerations. Powdered root, mixed with mustard oil, is applied to scalp in prurigo.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the root in cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea; erysipelas and gout.

The root (containing both the essential oil and alkaloid, saussurine) is used for asthma, particularly of vagotonic type. It produces a definite relaxtion of the bronchioles. The relief obtained is comparable to that of conventional bronchodilators without side effects, like a rise in blood pressure, sweating or headache even on repeated administration.

Saussurine depresses parasympa- thetic nervous system. The aminoacid- sesquiterpene adducts, saussureami- nes A, B and C show antiulcer effect. The aqueous extract of the root exhibits antianginal activity.

Essential oil inhibits peristalic movement of the gut. It is absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract and partly excreted by lungs producing an expectorant action and partly by the kidneys producing diuretic effect. (In Western herbal, Kuth essential oil is not prescribed internally.)

Kuth roots contain resinoids (6%), and essential oil (1.5%), alkaloid (0.05%) inulin (18%), saussurea lactone (20-25%), a fixed oil and minor constituents like tannin and sugars. Roots obtained from Kashmir are, in general, richer in essential oil content than roots obtained from Garhwal and Nepal. The roots of Punjab variety gave cos- tunolide, dehydrocostuslactone, costic acid, palmitic and linoleic acids, beta- sitosterol and alpha-cyclocostunolide. The Kashmir variety, in addition, gave alantolactone, beta-cyclocostunolide and iso-alantolactone.

The essential oil of the roots exhibit strong antiseptic and disinfectant activity against Streptococcus and Staphy- lococcus.

Costus speciosus Sm. synonym Banksea speciosa, also known as Kush- tha, is a different herb of Zingiberaceae family. Rhizomes and stems yield dios- genin.

Dosage: Root—0.2-1.0 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... saussurea lappa

Sawsan

(Arabic) Form of Susannah, meaning “resembling the graceful white lily” Sausan, Sawsann, Sawsanna, Sawsanne, Sausanne, Sausanna... sawsan

Sawyer

(English) A woodcutter Sauyer... sawyer

Saxaul

Haloxylon ammondendron

Description: The saxaul is found either as a small tree or as a large shrub with heavy, coarse wood and spongy, water-soaked bark. The branches of the young trees are vivid green and pendulous. The flowers are small and yellow.

Habitat and Distribution: The saxaul is found in desert and arid areas. It is found on the arid salt deserts of Central Asia, particularly in the Turkestan region and east of the Caspian Sea.

Edible Parts: The thick bark acts as a water storage organ. You can get drinking water by pressing quantities of the bark. This plant is an important some of water in the arid regions in which it grows.... saxaul

Saxona

(English) Of the sword people Saxonah, Saxonia, Saxen, Saxon, Saxons, Saxton, Saxonna, Saxonea, Saxoniya, Saxone... saxona

Sayo

(Japanese) Born at night Sayoko, Sayomi, Sayori, Sayyo... sayo

Sayyam

(Arabic) A fasting woman Sayyawm, Saaim, Sayam, Sayiam, Sayame... sayyam

Sayyida

(Arabic) A mistress Sayyidah, Sayida, Sayyda, Seyyada, Seyyida, Seyada, Seyida... sayyida

Scaevola Frutescens

auct. non-Krause.

Synonym: S. koenigii Vahl. S. taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Family: Goodeniaceae.

Habitat: Sea coasts all around India and in the Andaman Islands.

English: Fan Flower, Malay Rice Paper Plant.

Siddha/Tamil: Vella-muttangam.

Folk: Bhadraka, Bhadraaksha.

Action: Leaves—digestive, carminative; applied externally on tumours and swollen legs. Fruit—juice, internally for inducing menstruation. Roots—used for dysentery.

A decoction of the leaves and the bark is reported to combat tachycardia, one of the principal symptoms of beriberi. The drug reduces the frequency of heartbeat, slows down pulse rate and at the same time stimulates the heart to normal contraction (does not possess cumulative action of digitalis). The drug acts as a diuretic by increasing the tension in the renal arteries without causing irritation of the kidney parenchyma; and is used for dropsy.

The aerial parts gave loganin, sylve- stroside III, its dimethyl acetal, cant- leyoside and its dimethyl acetal.... scaevola frutescens

Scalded-skin Syndrome

In infants, certain staphylococcal bacteria (see STAPHYLOCOCCUS) can cause an acute toxic illness in which the subject develops sheets of bright ERYTHEMA, accompanied by shedding of layers of outer epidermis. The result is similar to a hot-water scald. The condition responds promptly to appropriate antibiotic therapy. Drug reactions, especially from sulphonamides, may cause a similar syndrome in adults. In drug-induced forms, mucosae are also affected and the disease is often fatal.... scalded-skin syndrome

Scalding Of Urine

Severe burning sensation during micturition... scalding of urine

Scalds

See BURNS AND SCALDS.... scalds

Scape

A long flower-bearing stem or peduncle that arises from the ground. It is leafless, or the leaves are reduced to bracts.... scape

Scarlet

(English) Vibrant red color; a vivacious woman

Scarlett, Scarlette, Skarlet, Skarlette, Skarlett... scarlet

Scelflesh

(English) From the meadow... scelflesh

Schaaph

(Hebrew) One who is thoughtful Schaph, Schaphe... schaaph

Schima Wallichii

(DC.) Korth., Choicy.

Family: Theaceae.

Habitat: Eastern Himalayas from Nepal eastwards to Assam, Khasi Hills and Manipur up to 2,100 m.

English: Chilauni Needle Wood.

Folk: Chilauni. Makria (Assam).

Action: Stem bark—anthelmintic (used for tapeworms), rubefacient. Aerial parts—antifungal.

The plant contains octacosanol, phy- tol, alpha-spinasterol and a saponin, schiwallin. Schiwallin is antidermato- phytic.

The bark and leaves contain 6% and 4% tannin, respectively.... schima wallichii

Schistomicide

A drug used to treat SCHISTOSOMIASIS. Praziquantel is the drug of choice, with a combination of e?ectiveness, broad-activity spectrum and few side-effects.... schistomicide

Schizachyrium Exile

Stapf.

Synonym: Andropogon exilis Hochst.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Bihar, Assam, Bengal and Tamil Nadu.

Ayurvedic: Sprkaa, Sprk.

Action: Used as a substitute for Delphinium Zalil.... schizachyrium exile

Schizo

A pre?x signifying splitting.... schizo

Schizonts

Stage in the life cycle of opicomplexan protozoa in which there is multiple asexual divisions (e.g. in malarial parasites).... schizonts

Schleichera Oleosa

(Lour.) Oken.

Synonym: S. trijuga Willd & Klein.

Family: Sapindaceae.

Habitat: The sub-Himalayan tract from Kashmir to West Bengal; Bihar, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, southwards to Peninsular India.

English: Lac tree, Macassar Oil tree, Honey tree, Ceylon Oak.

Ayurvedic: Koshaamra, Kshudraam- ra, Lakshaa vrksha, Ghanaskandha.

Siddha/Tamil: Puvathipuvam, Pulaachi.

Action: Bark—astringent; mixed with oil, applied externally in skin eruptions. Seed oil—used for massage in rheumatism and applied in alopecia, itch and acne; stimulates hair growth. (Tree is an important host of Kusmi lac.)

Fatty acids of the oil consisted of ole- ic (52.%), gadoleic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, palmitoleic and palmitic acids. Young leaves contain gallo-tannic acid (5.09%, dry matter basis). The bark contains 9.4% tannin.

Dosage: Bark—50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... schleichera oleosa

Scholastica

(Latin) Having knowledge; learned; a student

Scholastic, Scholastika, Skolastica, Skolastika, Scholastyca, Skolastyka... scholastica

Schwann Cell

The cells that produce the MYELIN sheath of the AXON of a medullated NERVE. They are wrapped around a segment of the axon, forming concentric layers.... schwann cell

Schizandra Tea

Schizandra tea is a pleasant herbal tea, slightly bitter but not too much. Just like many herbal teas, this one has plenty of health benefits. Find out more about schizandra tea. About Schizandra Tea Schizandra tea is made from the berry of the Schisandra chinensis plant. This is a deciduous woody vine which grows in the forests of Northern China and the Russian Far East, where they have shade and moist and a well-drained soil. It belongs to a dioecious species; therefore, the flowers on a female plant will only produce fruit when they are fertilized with pollen from a male plant. The berry has a sweet, salty, bitter, hot and sour taste; this gives the berry its name, “five flavor berry”. How to prepare Schizandra Tea To enjoy a cup of schizandra tea, add 2-4 tablespoons of dried schizandra berries to a pot of boiling water; the pot should have enough water for two cups, initially. Reduce the heat and leave the berries in the hot water for about 12 minutes, or until the water that’s left is enough for only one cup. Strain and your cup of schizandra tea is ready! You can sweeten schizandra tea with honey or fruit juices (especially lemon). Schizandra Tea Constituents Schizandra tea gets many active constituents from its main ingredient, the “five flavor berry”. These lead to the many health benefits of schizandra tea. This tea has a high concentration of lignans, and also includes beta-sitosterol, gomisin, and schisandrin. Besides these, it is also rich in phytoestrogens, minerals, vitamins and essential oils. Schizandra Tea Benefits Schizandra tea can be used to treat liver problems; hepatitis is an example, as it reduces blood levels of glutamic-pyruvic transaminase, an enzyme which can damage the liver. It is also included in the treatment of coronary heart diseases, skin disorders, and various infections. Drinking schizandra tea has a relaxing effect, as it sedates the nervous system and this way, fights against insomnia and irritation. It also improves your memory, brain efficiency, and reflexes. Schizandra tea can prevent both premature aging and motion sickness. It can help treat eyesight problems, and might even improve night vision. It is also useful to drink it if you’ve got problems with high blood pressure. Also, combined with other herbs (ginger, wormwood, bupleurum), it is often used in the fight against Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Schizandra Tea Side Effects Schizandra tea shouldn’t be consumed by pregnant women. It might cause the uterus to contract, which can lead to unwanted miscarriages. Also, it is recommended not to drink it if you’re breastfeeding, as it might affect the baby. Persons who have epilepsy shouldn’t drink schizandra tea, either. It is said that it might stimulate the central nervous system. Also, you shouldn’t drink schizandra tea if you know you’ve got problems with gastroesophageal reflex disease, peptic ulcers, or intracranial pressure. With the first two, it can worsen your condition by increasing stomach acid. With intracranial pressure, it can worsen it just like in the caseof epilepsy: by possibly stimulating the central nervous system.   Schizandra tea can work as an ideal everyday hot beverage. If you make sure the side effects don’t affect you, then you can enjoy this tea for its health benefits.... schizandra tea

Schrebera Swientenioides

Roxb.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Tropical and subtropical Himalayas from Kumaon eastwards; also Bihar, West Bengal and Peninsular India, up to 1,200 m.

English: Weaver's Beam tree.

Ayurvedic: Muskakaa. (Mokshaka, Ghantaa-Paatali, Kaashthapaatalaa are varieties of Paatalaa.)

Siddha/Tamil: Mogalingum.

Action: Leaves—used in enlargement of spleen and in urinary discharges. Root—used for leprosy. Bark—used for boils and burns. Fruits—beneficial in hydrocele.

The Fruits gave betulinic and olea- nolic acids.... schrebera swientenioides

Schweinfurthia Sphaerocarpa

A. Br.

Synonym: S. papilionacea (Burm. f.) Boiss.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: The arid regions of Gujarat and in Rajasthan.

Ayurvedic: Nepaal-Nimba.

Folk: Saannipaat (Maharashtra).

Action: Broken pieces of dried fruits, stems and leaves—used in enteric fever. Leaf—antidiabetic. Fruit, leaf, stem—diuretic.

An alkaloid, schweinfurthin, a hydrocarbon and an unsaturated ketone were reported from the leaves. Recently, two macrocylic alkaloids, 11- epi-ephedradine and schweinine, have been isolated from the whole plant, along with (-)-ephedradine A. Experimentally, 11-epi-ephedradine A was mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium.... schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa

Scirocco

(Arabic) Of a warm wind... scirocco

Scirpus Articulatus

Linn.

Family: Cyperaceae.

Habitat: Grown in aquatic gardens.

Ayurvedic: Laghu Kasheruka.

Folk: Chichodaa.

Action: Tubers—prescribed in diarrhoea and vomiting.

See S. kysoor.... scirpus articulatus

Scirpus Corymbosus

Roth.

Family: Cyperaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, in shallow waters.

Ayurvedic: Kronchaadana.

Action: Tuber—prescribed for diarrhoea, dysentery and emesis.... scirpus corymbosus

Scirpus Tuberosus

Desf.

Synonym: S. maritimus C. B. Clarke non Linn.

Family: Cyperaceae.

Habitat: Marshy areas and on the banks of streams up to an altitude of 3,000 m.

English: Sea Clubrush.

Ayurvedic: Raaj Kasheruka.

Action: Tuberous root—astringent, diuretic, laxative.

Oil from rhizomes on hydrolysis gave phellonic acid.... scirpus tuberosus

Scirrhus

A hard form of cancer containing ?brous tissue.... scirrhus

Scilla Indica

Baker non-Roxb.

Synonym: S. hyacinthiana (Roth) Macb.

Ledebouria hyacinthina Roth.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Central and Southern India, including Deccan Peninsula.

English: South Indian Squill. Substitute for White Squill, Urginea maritima Baker and Indian Squill, Urginea indica Kunth.

Ayurvedic: Vana-Palaandu (South India), Korikanda.

Unani: Jangli Piyaz.

Siddha/Tamil: Kattu velvengayam.

Action: Bulb—cardiotonic, stimulant, expectorant, diuretic. Used in cough, dysuria, strangury. (Not used as a diuretic when kidneys are inflamed.)

The bulb contains cardioactive gly- cosides including bufadienolides, scil- laren A, scillaridin A and proscillari- din A.

The squill has shown to have cardiac effects similar to digoxin, including positive inotropic and negative chronotropic effects. The aglycones in squill are poorly absorbed from the GI tract and are therefore less potent than digitalis cardiac glycosides. Additional cardiovascular properties include reducing left ventricular dias- tolic pressure and reducing pathologically elevated venous pressure. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Large amounts of squill are gastric irritants; small amounts expectorant.

The squill of the Indian bazaars consists partly of S. indica and chiefly of Urginea indica.... scilla indica

Scindapsus Officinalis

Schott.

Family: Araceae.

Habitat: Tropical Himalayas, Bengal, southwards to Andhra Pradesh and the Andamans.

Ayurvedic: Gajakrishna, Hastipip- pali, Gajapippali (also equated with Piper chaba).

Siddha/Tamil: Anaitippili.

Action: Fruits—stimulant, carminative, diaphoretic, anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal. Decoction is used as an expectorant in asthma. Fruits and shoots—hypoglycaemic. Fruit pulp—applied externally in rheumatism.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends dried pieces of mature female spadix in dyspnoea. (Gajapip- pali is wrongly equated with male or female inflorescence of Borassus flabel- lifer Linn.)

The fruits contain two glycosidic substances—scindapsin A and B, which on hydrolysis yield the aglu- cons, scindapsinidine A and B. Free sugars, rhamnose, fructose, glucose and xylose together with some di-and trisaccharides have been identified in the plant.

Dosage: Dried pieces of mature female spadix—2-3 g for infusion. (API, Vol. II.)... scindapsus officinalis

Scirpus Kysoor

Roxb.

Synonym: S. grossus Linn. f.

Family: Cyperaceae.

Habitat: Distributed throughout India, especially in swamps, up to an altitude of 700 m.

Ayurvedic: Kasheru, Kasheruka.

Siddha/Tamil: Karundan, Gundati- gagaddi (rhizome).

Folk: Kaseru.

Action: Tuber—nutritious, astringent, antidiarrhoeal, antiemetic, galactagogue, hypoglycaemic, diuretic, urinary antiseptic. Used in prescriptions for dysuria, diabetes, genitourinary affections, dyscrasia and as a spermopoietic and liver tonic.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofln- dia recommends the powder of the rhizome for promoting spermatogen- sis and development of breast.

The tuber gave progesterone, sugars, tannins, starch and saponins. The fruit contains amylase.

The tuber of Scirpus lacustris L. (Kashmir, Ladakh, Kumaon), known as Great Bulrush or Clubrush, is also used as astringent, diuretic and antimicrobial. The aromatic compounds isolated from the rhizomes include derivatives of benzaldehyde, hydrox- ybenzoic and cinnamic acids.

Dosage: Rhizome—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... scirpus kysoor

Scorpaenidae

Family name for a group of fish (including the stonefish) having venomous spines which may cause severe local pain. Heat is usually an effective analgesic for this more deeply-seated pain.... scorpaenidae

Scorpio

(Latin) The eighth sign of the zodiac; a scorpion

Scorpia, Scorpius, Scorpiya, Skorpio, Skorpia, Skorpya, Scorpya... scorpio

Scorpionfish

See Scorpaenidae.... scorpionfish

Scota

(Irish) Woman of Scotland Scotta, Scotah, Skota, Skotta, Skotah... scota

Scotia

(Latin) A woman from Scotland Skotia, Scosha, Skosha... scotia

Scout

(American) An explorer Scoutt, Scoutte, Skout... scout

Scrivener’s Palsy

Another name for writer’s cramp (see MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF).... scrivener’s palsy

Scleria Lithosperma

Sw.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, up to an altitude of 900 m, except in acrid areas in the West.

English: Scleria.

Action: Plant—antinephritic. Root—decoction is given after parturition. Young tops—given to children for enlarged stomach.

The roots of Scleria biflora Roxb. smell strongly of camphor or cajeput.

The fruits of S. levis are used for cough and stomach disorders.

A decoction of the sedge of S. per- gracilis (Nees) Kunth (the Himalayas from Garhwal to Assam at altitudes of 1,500 m and in Bihar, West Bengal and Deccan Penninsula) is used for cough.

(Folk names not known. About 28 species are found in India.)... scleria lithosperma

Scoparia Dulcis

Linn.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: Indigenous to tropical America; introduced into India, commonly found as a weed in Bengal and Tamil Nadu, and in many parts of India.

English: Sweet Broomweed.

Folk: Jastimadhu, Madhukam, Ghodaa-tulasi.

Action: Plant—decoction is used for gravel and other renal affections. Leaves—infusion used in fever, cough and bronchitis. Root— febrifuge. Stem and leaves—used in anemia, albuminaria, ketonuria and other complications associated with diabetes mellitus.

An antidiabetic compound, amellin, occurs in the leaves and stems of the green plant.

According to some researchers, hy- poglycaemic compounds were not present in the extracts obtained from dry plant material.

The leaves contain the flavonoids, scutellarein and 7-O-methylscutella rein. Whole plant gave the triterpe- noids, dulcitol, friedelin, scopadol, be- tulinic acid, dulcitolic acid and dulci- olone. Benzoxazolinone, beta-sitoster- ol, D-mannitol, hexacosanol and tri- triacontane were also obtained from the plant.... scoparia dulcis

Scopolia Anomala

Airy Shaw.

Synonym: S. lurida Dunal.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim, up to 3,900 m.

English: Scopolia.

Action: Used like belladonna.

Dried leaves contain 0.32% of alkaloids comprising hyoscyamine, hima- line, atropine and scopolamine.

Ripe seeds contain a small amount of atropine but no hyoscyamine. Extracts of leaves, stalks and seeds showed presence of atropine, scopolamine, cusco- hygrine, hellaradine, tropine, scopine. The alkaloid himaline exhibits atropine type activity. Roots (total alkaloid content 1.9-2.8%), in addition, contain hyoscyamine and himaline. The alkaloid content of the root is reported to be 4.64 times more than that of the leaves of Atropa belladonna.

Flavonoids occurring in the leaves and roots are chlorogenic acid, scopo- letin, and scopoline; the leaves, in addition, contain rutin and caffeic acid.

A related species, S. carniolica Jacquin, (rhizome), has been approved by German Commission E, for use in spasm of gastrointestinal tract, bile ducts and urinary tract.

The rhizome ofS. carniolica (Central and Eastern Europe) gave tropane alkaloids, including hyoscine and hyoscy- amine with cuscohygrine, tropine and pseudotropine.

Leaf extract of Indian species (S. anomala) is found to be more active than belladonna infusions.... scopolia anomala

Scrombotoxin Poisoning

This occurs from eating poorly preserved scromboid ?sh such as tuna, mackerel and other members of the mackerel family. In such ?sh, a toxic histamine-like substance is produced by the action of bacteria or histidine, a normal component of ?sh ?esh. This toxin produces nausea, vomiting, headache, upper abdominal pain, di?culty in swallowing, thirst, itching and sometimes URTICARIA. The condition settles as a rule in 12 hours. ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS sometimes ameliorate the condition.... scrombotoxin poisoning

Screw Pine

Pandanus species

Description: The screw pine is a strange plant on stilts, or prop roots, that support the plant above-ground so that it appears more or less suspended in midair. These plants are either shrubby or treelike, 3 to 9 meters tall, with stiff leaves having sawlike edges. The fruits are large, roughened balls resembling pineapples, but without the tuft of leaves at the end.

Habitat and Distribution: The screw pine is a tropical plant that grows in rain forests and semievergreen seasonal forests. It is found mainly along seashores, although certain kinds occur inland for some distance, from Madagascar to southern Asia and the islands of the southwestern Pacific. There are about 180 types.

Edible Parts: Knock the ripe fruit to the ground to separate the fruit segments from the hard outer covering. Chew the inner fleshy part. Cook fruit that is not fully ripe in an earth oven. Before cooking, wrap the whole fruit in banana leaves, breadfruit leaves, or any other suitable thick, leathery leaves. After cooking for about 2 hours, you can chew fruit segments like ripe fruit. Green fruit is inedible.... screw pine

Scuba

Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.... scuba

Scurf

See DANDRUFF.... scurf

Scurvey

A diseases resulting from vitamin C deficiency.... scurvey

Scurvygrass

Cochlearia officinalis. N.O. Cruciferae.

Synonym: Known in some parts as Spoonwort.

Habitat: Grows freely along the sea shore.

Features ? The smooth, shiny stem is angular and much branched, with ovate leaves which become sessile upwards; further roundish, kidney-shaped, stalked leaves grow from the roots. Clusters of white, cruciform flowers bloom in May. The taste is pungent and cress-like.

Scurvygrass is a powerful antiscorbutic, but, as scurvy, like other "deficiency" diseases, is now prevented and cured by purely dietetic methods, the herb is but rarely used. It is, however, given a place here both for its historic interest and for the striking way in which it exemplifies the curative potency of non-poisonous herbs.

The Medical Research Council, in its publication Vitamins ? A Survey of

Present Knowledge, says:

"Scurvygrass (Cochlearia officinalis) . . . figures largely in old records of scurvy cures among mariners. Thus Bachstron in 1734 tells the following story ? 'A sailor in the Greenland ships was so over-run and disabled with scurvy that his companions put him into a boat and sent him on shore, leaving him there to perish without the least expectation of recovery. The poor wretch had quite lost the use of his limbs ; he could only crawl about the ground. This he found covered with a plant which he, continually grazing like a beast of the field, plucked up with his teeth. In a short time he was by this means perfectly recovered, and upon his returning home it was found to be the herb scurvy grass.' (Rendering given by Lind [1757, p.

395].)."

When a well-authenticated case such as this is quoted by such a body as the Medical Research Council it should not be difficult to believe that other agents used in the herbal practice may be equally effective in illnesses not at present included in the official list of "deficiency diseases."... scurvygrass

Scutia Myrtina

Kurz.

Synonym: S. indica Brongn.

Family: Rhamnaceae.

Habitat: The Deccan peninsula from Mahabaleshwar southwards, and Orissa.

Folk: Cheemaat (Gujarat, Maharashtra); Tuvadi (Tamil Nadu); Gariki (Andhra Pradesh).

Action: Fruit—astringent. Leaf— used in an ointment applied locally to hasten parturition.... scutia myrtina

Scylla

(Greek) In mythology, a sea monster Scyla, Skylla, Skyla... scylla

Scyphozoa

The taxonomic Class for most jellyfish except the cubozoans.... scyphozoa

Sea Snakes

Marine, air breathing reptiles with a potent neurotoxic and myotoxic venom responsible for many deaths world-wide - although there are no documented deaths in Australia. They are usually found close to shore, or on coral reefs. They are easily distinguished from land snakes by their wide, flattened tail which is used for swimming, and from eels by their lack of gills. Fortunately, despite having a potent venom, when they bite they inject venom in only some 20% of cases.... sea snakes

Sea-sickness

See MOTION (TRAVEL) SICKNESS.... sea-sickness

Sea’iqa

(Arabic) Thunder and lightning Seaqa, Seaqua... sea’iqa

Scutellaria Galericulata

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir at 1,500-2,400 m.

English: Skullcap (equated with S. lateriflora Linn.), Scurvy Grass.

Action: Central nervous relaxant and restorative, brain and CNS vasodilator, sedative, antispasmodic, anticonvulsive. Used for nervous stress, disturbed sleep, menstrual tension, headache, migraine, neurological and neurimotor conditions, epilepsy.

Roots, stem and flowers of S. galer- iculata gave flavonoids and their gly- cosides, chrysin-7-glucuronide, baica- lein, baicalin, apigenin, apigenin-7- glucoside and galeroside (baicalcin-7- beta-L-rhamnofuranoside). Cytotoxi- city of baicalin and baicalein (isolated from S. barbata D. Don synonym S. rivularis Wall.) has been investigated on human hepatoma cell lines, human liver cells and human pancreatic cancer line. (Chem Abstr, 121, 292196y, 1994.)

S. galericulata is used as an adulterant of S. lateriflora. (See also WHO monograph on Scutellaria grandiflora Adams.)

In Oriental medicine, Skullcap refers to S. baicalensis Georgi. It contains the flavonoids baicalin, baicalein, wogonin, skullcapflavones I and II in addition to other flavones. Baicalin exhibits anti-inflammatory and antiallergic properties.

S. baicalensis inhibited lipid perox- idation in rat liver and has been clinically tested in China; patients with chronic hepatitis showed improvement (above 70%) in various symptoms. (Potter's New Cyclopedia.)

According to The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, S. lateriflora can be used as a mild sedative.... scutellaria galericulata

Search Engine

An online service that compares search criteria with its database of information on the Internet and displays the results.... search engine

Searlait

(French) Petite and womanly Searlaite... searlait

Season

(Latin) A fertile woman; one who embraces change

Seazon, Seeson, Seezon, Seizon, Seasen, Seasan, Seizen, Seizan... season

Seasonal Prevalence

The number of cases of infection in relation to the unit of population in which they occur (a static measure) at different times of the year.... seasonal prevalence

Sebastiana

(Italian) Feminine form of Sebastian; one who commands respect Sebastianna, Sebastiane, Sebastienne, Sebastiene, Sebastene, Sebastina, Sebasteene, Sebastyne, Sebastyna... sebastiana

Sebastiana Chamaelea

Muell.-Arg.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and South India.

Folk: Bhui-erendi.

Action: Plant—astringent, an- tidiarrhoeal. A decoction of the plant, mixed with purified butter, is applied to the head in vertigo.... sebastiana chamaelea

Sebille

(English) In Arthurian legend, a fairy

Sebylle, Sebill, Sebile, Sebyle, Sebyl... sebille

Sebiya

(Arabic) A lovely young girl Sebiyah, Sebeeya, Sebeia, Sebeea, Sebeya, Sebeaya... sebiya

Seborrhea

A disorder of the sebaceous glands, with changes in the amount and quality of the oils secreted. Although it can occur in any part of the body, seborrhea of the scalp (dandruff) is most common.... seborrhea

Secondary Attack

A measure of the occurrence of a contagious disease among known (or presumed) susceptible persons following exposure to a primary case.... secondary attack

Secondary Cancer

A cancer that originally started somewhere else in the body, but is now growing at another site. A metastasis.... secondary cancer

Secale Cereale

Linn.

Family: Poaceae.

Habitat: Ladakh, Lahul and other north-western Himalayan areas; and as host for cultivation of medicinal ergot (fungus) in Kashmir.

English: Rye Grass.

Action: Grass—used for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), chronic prostatis and prostatodynia.

Rye bread, biscuits, porridge and alcoholic products are available in European countries and the US. Rye grain contains 12.1% protein; made up of 42% gliadin (a prolamine), 42% glutelin, 8% globulin and 8% albumin. The biological value of Rye protein at 5% level of intake is 80.4% and the coefficient of true digestibility 91.0%.

The mineral contents in the grain are: calcium 61, potassium 453, magnesium 155, phosphorus 376, sulphur 146 and iron 4.8 mg/100 g; and small amounts of zinc, copper, manganese and aluminium. The carbohydrates (73.4%) include surcose, pentosans, starch and raffinose.

Medicinally applicable part of Rye Grass is the polan extract. The extract contains beta-sitosterol; relaxes urethral smooth muscle tone and increases bladder muscle contraction. Some evidence suggests that it might affect alpha-adrenergic receptors and relax the internal and external bladder sphincter muscle. The extract does not affect LH, FSH, testosterone or dihydrotestosterone. A specific Rye Grass pollen extract 126 mg three times daily has been used for BHP. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

(It is not known if Rye Grass pollen is comparable to finasteride or hytrin. However, it is comparable to Pygeum and Paraprost, a Japanese prostate remedy containing L-glutamic acid, L-alanine and aminoacetic acid.)... secale cereale

Secondary Data Analysis

This type of analysis utilizes existing data sources either through synthesis or integration; meta-analysis is an example of secondary data analysis.... secondary data analysis

Secular Trend

Changes over a long period of time, generally years or decades. Examples include the decline of tuberculosis mortality and the rise, followed by a decline, in coronary hearth disease mortality in Western countries.... secular trend

Secunda

(Latin) The second-born child Secundah, Secuba, Secundus, Segunda, Sekunda... secunda

Secundines

Another name for the afterbirth, consisting of the PLACENTA and membranes expelled in the ?nal stage of labour (see PREGNANCY AND LABOUR).... secundines

Seda

(Armenian) Voices of the forest Sedda, Sedah, Seddah... seda

Sedatives

Drugs and other measures which have a calming e?ect, reducing tension and anxiety. They include ANXIOLYTICS and HYPNOTICS (usually given in smaller doses than is needed to induce sleep).... sedatives

Sedona

(American) Woman from a city in Arizona

Sedonah, Sedonna, Sedonnah, Sedonia, Sedonea... sedona

Seema

(Greek) A symbol; a sign Seyma, Syma, Seama, Seima, Siema... seema

Sefarina

(Greek) Of a gentle wind Sefarinah, Sefareena, Sefareenah, Sefaryna, Sefarynah, Sefareana, Sefareanah... sefarina

Seghen

(African) An ostrichlike woman... seghen

Segovia

(Spanish) From a city in central Spain

Segoviah, Segovea, Segoveah, Segoviya, Segoviyah, Segovya, Segovyah... segovia

Securinega Suffruticosa

(Pall.) Rehder.

Synonym: S. ramiflora Muell. Flueggea suffruticosa Baill.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: Eastern Himalayas, up to an altitude of 250 m.

Siddha/Tamil: Vellaippula (S. virosa).

Folk: Dalme, Kodarsi, Pandharphali (S. virosa).

Action: Alkaloid, securinine in the leaves stimulates central nervous system similar to strychnine and is comparatively less toxic. It is found useful in paresis and paralysis following infectious diseases and physical disorders. (The plant can replace strychnine and nux-vomica in medicinal preparations.)

A related species, Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baillon, distributed throughout India up to an altitude of 2,000 m, gave securinine as the main alkaloid, along with virosecurinine and viroallosecurinine, and a coumarin, bergenin. The root bark contains an alkaloid, virosine. Whole root contains alkaloids, hordenine (flueggeine) and nor-securinine. A decoction of the root is given to induce sleep and for fever; that of bark in diarrhoea and pneumonia. The leaves are reported to be given in venereal diseases.... securinega suffruticosa

Segulah

(Hebrew) One who is precious Segula, Segulla, Segullah, Segoula, Segoulla... segulah

Seiko

(Japanese) The force of truth... seiko

Seina

(Spanish) Innocent one; pure... seina

Sekai

(African) One who brings laughter and great joy... sekai

Sekhmet

(Egyptian) The powerful one; in mythology, a goddess of war and vengeance Sakhmet, Sekhmeta, Sakhmeta, Sekhmette, Sakhmette, Sekhmetta, Sakhmetta... sekhmet

Sela

(Hebrew / African) As strong as a rock / a savior

Sella, Sele, Seleta, Selata, Selah... sela

Selaginella Involvens

Spring.

Family: Selaginellaceae.

Habitat: Hilly regions of India at altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m.

Ayurvedic: Kara-jodi-kanda (related species).

Folk: Hatthaa jodi (related species).

Action: Used as an age-sustaining tonic. The original source is S. rupestris Spring.... selaginella involvens

Selaginella Rupestris

Spring.

Family: Selaginellaceae.

Habitat: Indian gardens, as

English: Little Clubmoss.

Ayurvedic: Kara-jodi-Kanda.

Folk: Hatthaajodi.

Action: Plant—a decoction is prescribed as a tonic and protective medicine after child birth; also as a sedative.

S. tamariscina Spring var. pulvinata (Kumaon to Assam), known as Hatt- haajodi, is used as an age-sustaining tonic and has been credited with the property of prolonging life. A decoction is prescribed for amenorrhoea, bleeding piles and prolapse of rectum.

A decoction of S. wallichii Spring (hilly regions of north-eastern India), known as Hatthaajodi, is prescribed after childbirth. S. willdenovii Baker (Nicobar Islands) is also known as Hatthaajodi. Its infusion is administered in cases of high fever and ashes are used in a liniment for backache.... selaginella rupestris

Selam

(African) She is peaceful Selamawit, Sellam... selam

Selas

(African) Refers to the Trinity Sellas, Selass, Selasse, Selasa, Selassa... selas

Selby

(English) Of the manor of the farm Selbey, Selbi, Selbie, Selbee, Selbye, Selbea... selby

Selection

See “sampling”.... selection

Selection Bias

Error due to systematic differences in characteristics between those who take part in a study and those who do not. Selection bias invalidates conclusions and generalizations that might otherwise be drawn from such studies.... selection bias

Selective Serotonin-reuptake Inhibitors (ssris)

These ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS have few antimuscarinic effects (see ANTIMUSCARINE), but do have adverse effects of their own – predominantly gastrointestinal. They are, however, much safer in overdose than the tricyclic antidepressants, which is a major advantage in patients who are potentially suicidal. Examples are citalopram, used to treat panic disorders, as well as depressive illness; FLUOXETINE; and PAROXETINE. (See also MENTAL ILLNESS.)... selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (ssris)

Selene

(Greek) Of the moon; in mythology, the goddess of the moon Selena, Seline, Salena, Saline, Saleen, Salina, Salena, Salena, Salene, Selina, Saleena, Saleenah, Saleene, Salleen, Salleena, Salleenah, Salleene, Seleane, Seleana, Saleane, Saleana... selene

Selenicereus Grandiflorus

Britton & Rose.

Synonym: Cereus grandiflorus Mill.

Family: Cactaceae.

Habitat: Indigenous to Mexico; introduced in Indian gardens.

English: Night-Blooming Cereus, Sweet-scented Cactus.

Ayurvedic: Visarpin, Mahaapushpa, Raatripraphulla.

Action: Flowers and tender shoots— cardiac stimulant and diuretic (used for irritable bladder and congested kidneys), central nervous system stimulant.

The plant contains alkaloids (including cactine) and flavonoids based on isorhamnetin.

Alkaloid, cactine is reported to have a digitalis-like activity on the heart. (Alcoholic extract is used in homoeopathy.)... selenicereus grandiflorus

Self-rated Health Status / Perceived Health Status

Health status is usually obtained from survey data by asking the respondent if his/her health is excellent, very good, good, fair or poor (or similar questions).... self-rated health status / perceived health status

Self-reliance / Self-sufficiency / Self-management

The capacity of individuals, communities or national authorities to take the initiative in assuming responsibility for their own health development and adopting adequate measures to maintain health that are understood by them and acceptable to them, knowing their own strengths and resources and how to use them and knowing when, and for what purpose, to turn to others for support and cooperation.... self-reliance / self-sufficiency / self-management

Selima

(Hebrew) One who brings comfort and peace

Selimah, Seleema, Seliema, Seleima, Selyma, Selimma, Seleyma, Seleama... selima

Selinum Monnieri

Linn.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: East Bengal, Bhutan and Assam.

Folk: Muraa (var.).

Action: Fruits—extracts used for osteoporosis, gynaecological problems and stress-related disorders. Seeds—prescribed in rheumatism and renal diseases.

In Japan, the plant is mainly used for the treatment of swelling of women's genitals.

The aerial parts contain the chromo- nes, cnidimol and karenin. The fruits contain the benzofurans, cnidioside A, B and C, cnidiol b and C; besides fura- nocoumarins, imperatorin, bergapten, xanthotoxin, osthol and several ter- penoids. The seeds and volatile oil from the fruits also contain osthol and other coumarins.

The coumarins prevented glucocor- ticoid-induced osteoporosis in rats; they also reversed bone loss at early menopausal stage. Osthol showed antiallergic activity. Cnidioside A and B and cnidiol b alleviate physiological disorders caused by physical and mental stress; enhancement of sexual activity has also been observed.... selinum monnieri

Selinum Tenuifolium

Wall. ex DC.

Synonym: S. candollei DC.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at altitudes of 1,800-4,200 m.

Ayurvedic: Muraa, Surabhi, Daitya, Gandhakuti, Gandhavati. (Substitute for Nardostachys jatamansi.)

Siddha/Tamil: Mural.

Folk: Bhuutakeshi (Kashmir), Muur (Garhwal).

Action: Roots—sedative, analgesic.

Isoimperatorin and oxypeucedanin have been isolated as major inotropic constituents from the rhizomes.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the root in syncope, giddiness, also for asthma.

Dosage: Root—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... selinum tenuifolium

Selma

(German) Form of Anselma, meaning “having divine protection” Selmah... selma

Sema

(Arabic) A divine omen; a known symbol Semah... sema

Semadar

(Hebrew) Resembling a berry Semadarr, Semadarre, Semadara, Semadaria, Semadarea... semadar

Semaeostomeae

The taxonomic order of scalloped jellyfish.... semaeostomeae

Semele

(Greek) In mythology, one of Zeus’s lovers and the mother of Dionysus Semelle, Semyle... semele

Semelparous

Giving birth only once.... semelparous

Selinum Vaginatum

C. B. Clarke.

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: North-Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at altitudes of 1,800-3,900 m.

Ayurvedic: Rochanaa-Tagara.

Folk: Peshaavari-Bhuutakeshi (Kashmir), Taggar (Garhwal).

Action: Roots—used as a nervine sedative. Oil—sedative, analgesic, hypotensive.

The roots gave coumarins, angelicin, oroselol, lomatin, selinidin, vaginidin, vaginol; a flavone derivative selinone; a sesquiterpene vaginatin.

The dry roots yield an essential oil containing alpha-pinene 45.5 limonene 25.3, camphene 5.7, beta-phellandrene 5.2, alpha-thujene 1.2, fenchyl alcohol 3.2, terpineol 3.8, and a ketone 2.6%. Beta-pinene and fenchone have also been reported.

The roots are sold in the drug markets of Jammu mixed with those of Seseli sibiricum. The roots are also used as a substitute for Nardostachys jata- mansi.... selinum vaginatum

Semecarpus Anacardium

Linn. f.

Family: Anacardiaceae.

Habitat: Punjab, Assam, Khasi Hills, Madhya Pradesh and Peninsular India.

English: Marking-Nut.

Ayurvedic: Bhallaataka, Bhallata, Arushkara, Agnik, Agnimukha, Sophkrit, Viravrksha.

Unani: Balaadur, Bhilaayan, Bhilaavaan.

Siddha/Tamil: Shenkottei, Erimugi. (Kattu shen-kottai is equated with S. travancorica Bedd., found in evergreen forests of Tinnevelly and Travancore.)

Folk: Bhilaavaa.

Action: Toxic drug, used only after curing. Fruit—caustic, astringent, anti-inflammatory, antitumour. Used in rheumatoid arthritis and for the treatment of tumours and malignant growths.

A decoction, mixed with milk or butter fat, is prescribed in asthma, neuralgia, sciatica, gout, hemiplegia, epilepsy. Kernel oil—antiseptic; used externally in gout, leucoderma, psoriasis and leprosy. Bark gum—used for nervous debility; in leprous, scrofulous and venereal affections.

Bigger var. is equated with S. kurzii Engler.

The nut shells contain biflavonoids, including tetrahydrobustaflavone, tet- rahydroamentoflavone and anacardu- flavanone; nallaflavone; anacardic acid; aromatic amines and bhilawanol. Bhi- lawanol is a mixture of phenolic compounds, including cis and trans isomers of urushenol (3-pentadecenyl-8' catechol), monohydroxy phenol and semicarpol. These are the major constituents of the shell liquid, isolated from the nuts (about 46% of the weight of extract).

A mixture of closely related pentade- cyl catechols exhibits anticancer activity. Extracts of the fruit was found effective against human epidermoid carcinoma of the naso-pharynx in tissue culture.

Milk extract of the nut showed anti-inflammatory activity against car- rageenin, 5-HT and formaldehyde- induced rat paw oedema in acute anti- inflammatory studies. (About 20% animals developed gangrene of limbs, tail and ears.)

Dosage: Detoxified fruit—1-2 g in milk confection. (API, Vol. II.)... semecarpus anacardium

Semilla De

Means “seed of (plant name)”; look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.... semilla de

Semilunar Cartilages

Two crescentic layers of ?bro-cartilage on the outer and inner edges of the knee-joint, which form hollows on the upper surface of the tibia in which the condyles at the lower end of the femur rest. The inner cartilage is especially liable to be displaced by a sudden and violent movement at the KNEE.... semilunar cartilages

Seminal Receptacle

A dilated organ in the female genital tract of cestodes which stores sperms.... seminal receptacle

Seminal Vesicles

These are a couple of spongy glands, l.5 to 2 inches long, that secrete high-sugar, acidic, and thick, ropy colloid into the ductus deferens (containing sperm from the testes) during ejaculation. The two fluids empty into the prostate, where they are mixed with alkaline prostatic fluids to form semen.... seminal vesicles

Semine

(Danish) In mythology, the goddess of the sun, moon, and stars Semyne, Semeene, Semeane, Semeine, Semiene... semine

Seminiferous Tubules

The long tortuous tubules that form much of the testis (see TESTICLE) and carry the SEMEN to the URETHRA.... seminiferous tubules

Semira

(African / Hebrew) One who is fulfilled / from heaven Semirah, Semeera, Semyra, Semeira, Semeyra, Semeara... semira

Semiramis

(Hebrew) From the highest heaven

Semyramis, Semiramys, Semyramys... semiramis

Sena

(Latin) One who is blessed Senna, Senah, Sennah... sena

Senalda

(Spanish) A sign; a symbol Senaldah, Senaldia, Senaldiya, Senaldea, Senaldya... senalda

Seneca

(Native American) A tribal name Senecka, Senecca, Seneka... seneca

Senga

(Greek) Form of Agnes, meaning “one who is pure; chaste” Sengah, Sengya, Sengyah, Sengia, Sengiah, Sengea, Sengeah, Sengiya, Sengiyah... senga

Sempervivum Tectorum

Linn.

Family: Crassulaceae.

Habitat: Nilgiris, as ornament. (A common garden plant in Britain and Europe.)

English: Houseleek

Action: Leaves—refrigerant, astringent, antispasmodic; applied as poultice to inflammatory conditions of skin. Juice of the leaves is applied topically for treating corns.

The leaves sliced in two and the inner surface applied to warts, act as a positive cure for corns.

The leaves contain tannin, malic acid and mucilage. Three related species are found in the alpine Himalayan range from Kumaon to Kashmir.... sempervivum tectorum

Senecio Jacquemontianus

Benth.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: The Western Himalayas and Kashmir at elevation of 3,0003,900 m.

Folk: Poshkar, Hatermuula (Kashmir).

Action: Root—nervine tonic. Used as an adulterant of Saussurea lappa.

Whole plant extract gave senecio- nine.

Habitat: The Nilgiris and Uttar Pradesh. Introduced into Indian gardens

English: Groundsel.

Action: Formerly used as a diuretic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue, in dysmenorrhoea and bilious pains. No more recommended for internal use due to high concentration of hepatotoxic alkaloids. Infusion is used as a lotion in chronic mastitis, gout and haemorrhoids. Extracts of the plant are haemostatic.

From the dried plant material alkaloids (0.053-00.095%) have been isolated, including, seneciphylline, sene- cionine and retrorsine. Senecionine and retrorsine have been demonstrated to induce hepatic necrosis in experimental animals. The plant contains 950 mcg/kg of iodine on fresh basis.

A related species used in Western herbal, Senecio aureus Linn. (Golden Groundsel, Squaw Weed) is a uterine relaxant, stimulant to gravid uterus and a soothing drug for nervous and vascular irritability, menopausal symptoms, hot flushes. Alkaloids include senecifo- line, senescine, senecionine and otose- nine—pyrrolizidine alkaloids, in isolation, are highly toxic to liver. The plant is recommended only for external use as a douche for excessive vaginal discharge.... senecio jacquemontianus

Senior Apartment

An age-restricted apartment where the resident is expected to live with a high degree of independence. The age of eligibility varies and is often waived for the spouse of a resident.... senior apartment

Senior Centre

A centre that provides a variety of onsite programmes (and sometimes outreach services) for older adults, including recreation, socialization, congregate meals, and some health services. Usually a good source of information about area programmes and services.... senior centre

Senior Citizen

Alternative term for an older person.... senior citizen

Sennett

(French) One who is wise Senett, Sennette, Senette, Senet, Senete, Sennetta, Senetta, Senneta, Seneta... sennett

Senona

(Spanish) A lively woman Senonah, Senonna, Senonia, Senoniya, Senonea... senona

Señora Mueller

Manufactured herbal preparation sold at botánicas and used for women’s health conditions, including menopause, infertility, vaginal infections, menstrual irregularities and uterine fibroids.... señora mueller

Sensitisation

See ALLERGY; ANAPHYLAXIS.... sensitisation

Sensors

Cells or tissues that monitor the internal and external environment, either neurologically or chemically, and can initiate compensatory action or communicate to other parts that can react.... sensors

Senna Tea

Senna tea is made out of senna, which is an herb that contains compounds called anthraquinones, resulting in intestinal contractions. It is a purgative, similar to aloe and rhubarb and is mainly used in alleviating constipation. It can be found in Middle Eastern, African and Asian countries. Description of Senna Tea Sennas plants are mainly shrubs, its yellow flowers don’t produce nectar and its fruit is a legume. You can find sennas also as herbs or even small trees, used for ornamental purposes. Benefits of Senna Tea Little is known about the potential benefits of senna tea, but being a purgative herb it is used today as a laxative by making muscles to contract, thus stimulating bowel movements, helping in the reduction of constipation. It is sometimes used before undertaking colonoscopy-a procedure used in screening colon cancer. Besides senna tea is being used as a way of losing weight, although there are some potential risks involving the intake of senna, as we are about to find out. Side effects and risks of Senna Tea Senna tea has to be used no more than 2 weeks, because of its high risk of dysfunction of bowel, according to the national institute of Health (NIH). Other risks imply: muscle weakness, liver damage, or heart function disorders. A side effect of taking senna medication is abdominal cramps and even Malanosis coli, a brown discoloration of the colon wall. The consumption of senna tea over an extensive period of time can produce toxicity to the liver according to a 2005 report of the Annals of Pharmacotherapy. Because there is no significant medical research taken into sennas beneficial effects on the body it cannot be used in health purposes yet. Preparation of Senna Tea You can boil 100 grams of the tea leaves in distilled water with 5 grams of fresh sliced ginger. Cover it for almost 15 minutes, strain, and drink hot or cold. Careful though if you leave it long enough to steep it will become stronger and therefore it could lead to abdominal cramping. Senna tea is a strong, dangerous medicine used in modern times mostly in colon issues. You shouldn’t try to use Senna tea as a cure for more than a week and do it preferably at the doctor’s advice.... senna tea

Senta

(German) Acting as an assistant Sentah, Sente... senta

Sentia

(Latin) In mythology, goddess of children’s development Sentiah, Sensia, Senzia... sentia

Sentinel Event

An unexpected occurrence or variation involving death or serious physical or psychological injury, or the risk thereof. Serious injury specifically includes loss of limb or function. The event is called “sentinel” because it signals a need for closer attention.... sentinel event

Seonaid

(Gaelic) A gift from God Seonaide, Seonayde, Seonayd, Seonaede, Seonaed, Seonade... seonaid

Seosaimhin

(Irish) A fertile woman Seosaimhthin... seosaimhin

Sepal

A leaf or segment of the calyx.... sepal

Sephora

(Hebrew) A beautiful bird Sephorah, Sefora, Sephorra, Seforra, Sephoria... sephora

September

(American) Born in the month of September

Septimber, Septymber, Septemberia, Septemberea... september

Septicemia

The presence of pathogenic bacteria or other microbes in the blood stream...a serious business, since most defenses are focused outside the bloodstream and the infection has bypassed them either due to its virulence, the depth and severity of the original focal infection or the weakened state of the body’s immunity and life energy. Blood poisoning.... septicemia

Septima

(Latin) The seventh-born child Septimah, Septeema, Septyma, Septeama... septima

Sequelae

The term applied to symptoms or effects which are liable to follow certain diseases. For example, BRONCHITIS and other chest complaints may be sequelae of MEASLES; heart disease is often a sequelae of RHEUMATIC FEVER; PARALYSIS may follow DIPHTHERIA.... sequelae

Sequoia

(Native American) Of the giant redwood tree

Sequoya, Sequoiya, Sekoia, Sekoya... sequoia

Serafina

(Latin) A seraph; a heavenly winged angel

Serafinah, Serafine, Seraphina, Serefina, Seraphine, Sera... serafina

Seren

(Welsh) From the starlight Serin, Seran, Seron, Serun... seren

Serena

(Latin) Having a peaceful disposition

Serenah, Serene, Sereena, Seryna, Serenity, Serenitie, Serenitee, Serepta, Serina, Sereana... serena

Serendipity

(American) A fateful meeting; having good fortune Serendipitey, Serendipitee, Serendipiti, Serendipitie, Serendypyty... serendipity

Serenity

(English) Serene, calm, peaceful Serenitie, Serenitee, Serepta, Serina, Sereana, Serena, Serenah, Serene, Sereena, Seryna... serenity

Serilda

(Greek) An armed woman of war Serild, Serilde, Sarilda, Sarildah, Serildah, Serylda, Seryldah... serilda

Seroconversion

The production of speci?c ANTIBODIES to antigens (see ANTIGEN) present in the body. This may happen as a result of infection by a virus, or IMMUNISATION with a VACCINE. Thus, if blood has been tested before the event there may be little or no evidence of antibody to the condition in question; but when a sample is taken 1–2 weeks later there may be a high level of antibody con?rming that recent infection has taken place. Sometimes this is the only way to prove that a particular infection has occurred or that a vaccination has ‘taken’.... seroconversion

Seronoa Repens

(Bartram) Small.

Synonym: Sabal serrulata (Michaux) Nichols.

Family: Palmae.

Habitat: Southeastern North America.

English: Sabal, Saw Palmetto.

Action: Ripe fruit—diuretic, urinary antiseptic, antiandrogenic, and antiexudative.

The fruit contains fatty acids, especially capric, caproic, caprylic, lau- ric, myristic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, stearic and palmitic acids; sterols, principally beta-sitosterol and its 3-gluco- side (and fatty acid derivatives), cam- pesterol and stigmasterol; triglycerides; triterpenes; alkanols; polysaccharides; flavonoids; essential oil and anthranilic acid.

Key application: In urination problems due to benign prostatic hyperplasia stages I and II (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.) (The lipophilic extracts of Saw Palmetto berries are used in France and Germany for the treatment of BPH. In a study (1999), shrinkage of the epithelial tissue in the transition zone of the prostate has been recorded. (Expanded Commission E Monographs.) (For Clinical studies, see ESCOP.)

In India, Sabal palmetto Lodd. Ex Roem. & Schult (Sabal or Cabbage Palm) is planted in gardens for ornament. The sweet drupes are eaten as such or cooked for preparing a syrup. Other species of Sabal introduced into Indian gardens are: S. mauritiiformis Griseb. & Wendl., S. mexicana Mart., S. umbraculifera Mart., and S. minor Pers. The leaves of S. mexicana contain cyanidin. The leaves of S. minor contain caffeic, p-coumaric and sinapic acids.... seronoa repens

Serpinigerous

A lesion which takes on a winding tunnel-like appearance (eg in cutaneous larva migrans and the larva currens rash).... serpinigerous

Serpuhi

(Armenian) One who is pious Serpuhie, Serpuhy, Serpuhey, Serpuhee, Serpuhea... serpuhi

Serum Therapy

See IMMUNOLOGY.... serum therapy

Service

A result of a provider’s actions aimed at meeting the needs of a consumer.... service

Service Package

See “care package”.... service package

Service Plan

See “care plan”.... service plan

Serwa

(African) As precious as a jewel Serwah, Serwi, Serwy, Serwia, Serwiya, Serwie... serwa

Sesamoid Bones

Rounded nodules of bone usually embedded in tendon. They are usually a few millimetres in diameter, but some are larger, such as the PATELLA, or knee-cap.... sesamoid bones

Sesamum Indicum

Linn.

Synonym: S. orientale Linn.

Family: Pedaliaceae.

Habitat: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra.

English: Sesame, Gingelly.

Ayurvedic: Tila, Snehphala.

Unani: Kunjad, Til.

Siddha: Ellu (seed), Nallennai (oil).

Action: Seeds—an important source of protein; also rich in thiamine and niacine. Nourishing, lactagogue, diuretic, laxative, emollient. Powdered seeds—given internally in amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea. (Black seeds are preferred in Indian medicine.) Paste is applied to burns, scalds, piles. Leaves—used in affections of kidney and bladder. Bland mucilage is used in infantile diarrhoea, dysentery, catarrh and bladder troubles, acute cystitis and strangury.

Non-saponifiable fraction of the seed oil gave sterols, a lignans, sesamin and a nitrolactone, sesamolin. Sesamin and sesamolin are not found in any other vegetable oil. Sesamin is present in a concentration of 0.5 to 1.0%. The oil from the white seeds from West Bengal and Assam is reported to contain about 2.5% sesamin. Sesamol, a phenolic antioxidant, is present in traces.

The leaves gave a flavonoid, pedalin. Pinoresinol has also been reported from the plant.

The seed contains thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, folic acid, biotin, pyridoxine, in- ositol, choline, p-aminobenzoic acid, ascorbic acid, vitamin A, alpha-and beta-tocopherol. Sugars present are glucose, surcose, galactose, planteose, raffinose. Fatty acid in the seed are myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, hexadecenoic, oleic, linoleic and lig- noceric.

Basic aroma compounds of the roasted seeds consisted of mainly dimethyl thiazole and substituted pyrozines.

Dosage: Seed—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.)... sesamum indicum

Sesen

(African) One who longs for more Sesenn, Sesenne, Sesena, Sesenna... sesen

Serpentwood

Rauvolfia serpentina

Apocynaceae

San: Sarpagandha

Hin: Chandrabhaga

Mal: Sarpagandhi, Amalpori

Tam: Chivan amelpodi

Kan: Sutranbhi

Tel: Patalagandhi

Introduction: Serpentwood is an erect, evergreen , perennial undershrub whose medicinal use has been known since 3000 years. Its dried root is the economical part which contains a number of alkaloids of which reserpine, rescinnamine, deserpidine, ajamalacine, ajmaline, neoajmalin, serpentine, -yohimbine are pharmacologically important. The root is a sedative and is used to control high blood pressure and certain forms of insanity. In Ayurveda it is also used for the treatment of insomnia, epilepsy, asthma, acute stomach ache and painful delivery. It is used in snake-bite, insect stings, and mental disorders. It is popular as “Madman’s medicine” among tribals. ‘Serpumsil’ tablet for high blood pressure is prepared from Rauvolfia roots. Reserpine is a potent hypotensive and tranquillizer but its prolonged usage stimulates prolactine release and causes breast cancer. The juice of the leaves is used as a remedy for the removal of opacities of the cornea.

Distribution: Rauvolfia serpentina is native to India. Several species of Rauvolfia are observed growing under varying edaphoclimatic conditions in the humid tropics of India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Bangladesh, Indonesia , Cambodia, Philippines and Sri Lanka. In India, it is cultivated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Assam, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh (Dutta and Virmani, 1964). Thailand is the chief exporter of Rauvolfia alkaloids followed by Zaire, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Nepal. In India, it has become an endangered species and hence the Government has prohibited the exploitation of wild growing plants in forest and its export since 1969.

Botany: Plumier in 1703 assigned the name Rauvolfia to the genus in honour of a German physcian -Leonhart Rauvolf of Augsburg. The genus Rauvolfia of Apocynaceae family comprises over 170 species distributed in the tropical and subtropical parts of the world including 5 species native to India. The common species of the genus Rauvolfia and their habitat as reported by Trivedi (1995) are given below.

R. serpentina Benth. ex Kurz.(Indian serpentwood) - India ,Bangladesh, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Indonesia

R. vomitoria Afz. (African serpentwood) - West Africa, Zaire, Rwanda, Tanzania R. canescens Linn. syn. R. tetraphylla (American serpentwood) - America, India R. mombasina - East Africa , Kenya, Mozambique

R. beddomei - Western ghats and hilly tracts of Kerala

R. densiflora - Maymyo, India

R. microcarpa - Thandaung

R. verticillata syn. R. chinensis - Hemsl

R. peguana - Rangoon-Burma hills

R. caffra - Nigeria, Zaire, South Africa

R. riularis - Nmai valley

R. obscura - Nigeria, Zaire

R. serpentina is an erect perennial shrub generally 15-45 cm high, but growing upto 90cm under cultivation. Roots nearly verticle, tapering up to 15 cm thick at the crown and long giving a serpent-like appearance, occasionally branched or tortuous developing small fibrous roots. Roots greenish-yellow externally and pale yellow inside, extremely bitter in taste. Leaves born in whorls of 3-4 elliptic-lanceolate or obovate, pointed. Flowers numerous borne on terminal or axillary cymose inflorscence. Corolla tubular, 5-lobed, 1-3 cm long, whitish-pink in colour. Stamens 5, epipetalous. Carpels 2, connate, style filiform with large bifid stigma. Fruit is a drupe, obliquely ovoid and purplish black in colour at maturity with stone containing 1-2 ovoid wrinkled seeds. The plant is cross-pollinated, mainly due to the protogynous flowers (Sulochana ,1959).

Agrotechnology: Among the different species of Rauvolfia, R. serpentina is preferred for cultivation because of higher reserpine content in the root. Though it grows in tropical and subtropical areas which are free from frost, tropical humid climate is most ideal. Its common habitats receive an annual rain fall of 1500-3500 mm and the annual mean temperature is 10-38 C. It grows up to an elevation of 1300-1400m from msl. It can be grown in open as well as under partial shade conditions. It grows on a wide range of soils. Medium to deep well drained fertile soils and clay-loam to silt-loam soils rich in organic matter are suitable for its cultivation. It requires slightly acidic to neutral soils for good growth.

The plant can be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings, stem cuttings or root stumps and by seeds. Seed propagation is the best method for raising commercial plantation. Seed germination is very poor and variable from 10-74%. Seeds collected during September to November give good results. It is desirable to use fresh seeds and to sock in 10% sodium chloride solution. Those seeds which sink to the bottom should only be used. Seeds are treated with ceresan or captan before planting in nursery to avoid damping off. Seed rate is 5-6 kg/ha. Nursery beds are prepared in shade, well rotten FYM is applied at 1kg/m2 and seeds are dibbled 6-7cm apart in May-June and irrigated.

Two months old seedlings with 4-6 leaves are transplanted at 45-60 x 30 cm spacing in July -August in the main field. Alternatively, rooted cuttings of 2.5-5cm long roots or 12-20cm long woody stems can also be used for transplanting. Hormone (Seradix) treatment increases rooting. In the main field 10-15 t/ha of FYM is applied basally. Fertilisers are applied at 40:30:30kg N: P2O5 :K2O/ha every year. N is applied in 2-3 splits. Monthly irrigation increases the yield. The nursery and the main field should be kept weed free by frequent weeding and hoeing. In certain regions intercroping of soybean, brinjal, cabbage, okra or chilly is followed in Rauvolfia crop.

Pests like root grubs (Anomala polita), moth (Deilephila nerii), caterpillar (Glyophodes vertumnalis), black bugs and weevils are observed on the crop, but the crop damage is not serious. The common diseases reported are leaf spot (Cercospora rauvolfiae, Corynespora cassiicola), leaf blotch (Cercospora serpentina), leaf blight (Alternaria tenuis), anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), die back (Colletotrichum dematrium), powdery mildew (Leviellula taurica), wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), root-knot (Meloidogyne sp.), mosaic and bunchy top virus diseases. Field sanitation, pruning and burning of diseased parts and repeated spraying of 0.2% Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 are recommended for controlling various fungal diseases. Rauvolfia is harvested after 2-3 years of growth. The optimum time of harvest is in November -December when the plants shed leaves, become dormant and the roots contain maximum alkaloid content. Harvesting is done by digging up the roots by deeply penetrating implements (Guniyal et al, 1988).

Postharvest technology: The roots are cleaned washed cut into 12-15cm pieces and dried to 8-10% moisture.

The dried roots are stored in polythene lined gunny bags in cool dry place to protect it from mould. The yield is 1.5-2.5 t/ha of dry roots. The root bark constitutes 40-45% of the total weight of root and contributes 90% of the total alkaloids yield.

Properties and activity: Rauvolfia root is bitter, acrid, laxative, anthelmintic, thermogenic, diuretic and sedative. Over 200 alkaloids have been isolated from the plant. Rauvolfia serpentina root contains 1.4-3% alkaloids. The alkaloids are classsified into 3 groups, viz, reserpine, ajmaline and serpentine groups. Reserpine group comprising reserpine, rescinnamine, deserpine etc act as hypotensive, sedative and tranquillising agent. Overdose may cause diarrhoea, bradycardia and drowsiness. Ajmaline, ajmalicine, ajmalinine, iso-ajmaline etc of the ajmaline group stimulate central nervous system, respiration and intestinal movement with slight hypotensive activity. Serpentine group comprising serpentine, sepentinine, alstonine etc is mostly antihypertensive. (Husain,1993; Trivedi, 1995; Iyengar, 1985).... serpentwood

Sesbania Bispinosa

W. f. Wight.

Synonym: S. aculeata (Willd.) Poir.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Western Himalayas and plains, southwards to Peninsular India.

English: Prickly Sesban, Dhaincha.

Ayurvedic: Jayanti (var.), Itkata (var.).

Siddha/Tamil: Mudchembai.

Action: Seeds—used externally in ringworm and skin diseases. Plant—used for treating wounds.

The leaf, stem and fruit gave positive test for alkaloids. A mixture of saponins, reported to be present in the seeds, yields on hydrolysis oleanolic acid and neutral sapogenin. Colloidal substances similar to those of marine algae, locust bean gum, guar gum and gum tragacanth are reported in the seeds.... sesbania bispinosa

Sesbania Grandiflora

(L.) Poir.

Synonym: Agati grandiflora Desv.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Native to tropical Asia; grown in Assam, Bengal, Punjab, Vadodara, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

English: Agati Sesban, Swamp Pea.

Ayurvedic: Agastya, Agasti, Munidrum, Munitaru, Muni, Vangasena, Vakrapushpa, Kumbha.

Siddha/Tamil: Agatti.

Action: Plant—astringent, antihistamine, febrifuge. Used for intermittent fevers, catarrh, cough, consumption, glandular enlargement.

The aqueous extract of flowers has been found to produce haemolysis of human and sheet erythrocytes even at low concentration due to methyl ester of oleanolic acid. Flowers also gave nonacosan-6-one and kaempferol-3- rutinoside.

The seed gave kaempferol-3,7-diglu- coside, (+)-leucocyanidin and cyani- din-3-glucoside. Seed also contains galactomannan.

A saponin present in the leaves on hydrolysis gave an acid sapogenin oleanoic acid, galactose, rhamnose and glucuronic acid. Besides saponin, the leaves contain an aliphatic alcohol, grandiflorol.

The bark contains gum and tannin. The red gum is used as a substitute for Gum arabic. An infusion of the bark is given in first stages of smallpox and other eruptive fevers (emetic in large doses).

Dosage: Whole plant—10- 20 ml juice; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... sesbania grandiflora

Sesbania Sesban

(Linn.) Merrill.

Synonym: S. aegyptiaca Pers.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated and wild throughout India.

English: Common Sesban.

Ayurvedic: Jayantikaa, Jayanti, Jayaa, Jwaalaamukhi, Suukshma-muulaa, Suukshma-patraa, Keshruuhaa, Balaamotaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Sembai, Karum- sembai (leaf).

Folk: Jainta.

Action: Seed and bark—astringent, emmenagogue. Used in menorrhagia, spleen enlargement and diarrhoea. Leaves—anti- inflammatory. Bark—juice applied to cutaneous eruptions. Unsaponifi- able matter of fixed oil from seeds— cardiac depressant, antibacterial.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the use of the leaf in dysuria.

The pods and leaves contain cholesterol, campesterol and beta-sitosterol. Flowers contain cyanidin and delphini- din glucosides. Pollen and pollen tubes contain alpha-ketoglutaric, oxaloacetic and pyruvic acids.

Dosage: Leaf—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... sesbania sesban

Seseli Indicum

W. & A.

Synonym: S. diffusum (Roxb. ex Sm.) Santapau & Wagh

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Outer hills of the Himalayas in Kumaon and in the plains from Punjab to Bengal, and in Tamil Nadu and Mysore.

Ayurvedic: Vanya-yamaani.

Action: Seeds—stimulant, an- thelmintic (used for round worms), carminative.

Seselin, isolated from the seeds, exhibited significant and dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity in carragee- nan-induced acute inflammation in rats. It also exhibited significant analgesic activity and was found to be safe in oral doses up to 6 g/kg (body weight) in 72 h mortality test in mice.

A sample of commercial oil, available as Ajmod Oil, is reported to contain (+)-limonene (50%), seselin, (-)- beta-selinene andbeta-cyclolavendulic acid.... seseli indicum

Sesha

(Hindi) In Hinduism, a serpent who represents time Seshia, Seshea, Seshiya... sesha

Sesheta

(Egyptian) In mythology, goddess of the stars... sesheta

Settings For Health

The place or social context in which people engage in daily activities in which environmental, organizational and personal factors interact to affect health and well-being.... settings for health

Sevati

(Indian) Resembling the white rose Sevatie, Sevatti, Sevate, Sevatee, Sevatea, Sevaty, Sevatey, Sevti, Sevtie, Sevtee, Sevtea, Sevty, Sevtey... sevati

Sevda

(Turkish) A parent’s great love Sevdah... sevda

Severa

(Italian) Feminine form of Severo; one who is stern

Severra, Severah, Severia, Severea, Severiya, Severya, Severana, Severanna, Severeen, Severeene, Severine, Severyne... severa

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (sars)

See SARS.... severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars)

Seseli Sibiricum

Benth. ex C. B. Clarke

Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.

Habitat: Jammu and Kashmir at altitudes of 2,500 to 3,500 m.

Ayurvedic: Bhuutakeshi. Selinum sp. are also known as Bhuutakeshi.

Action: Used for mental disorders as a tranquilizer. Volatile oil— hypotensive.

The volatile oil, distilled from the root, contains alpha-and beta-pinene, myrcene, limonene, p-cymene, beta- phellandrene (major constituent), fen- chone, fenchyl alcohol and acetate, fenchyl hydroxy cinnamate, osthol, p- hydroxy cinnamate (0.1%), sesibricin, imperatorin and bergapten.

The volatile oil from aerial parts causes a fall in blood pressure, vasoconstriction and stimulation of respiration. The action appears to be tranquillizing. It potentiates the effects of pentobarbital in rats and has no an- ticonvulsant activity. Smooth muscle activity is inhibited by the oil and negative inotropic and chronotropic effects are observed on heart muscle.... seseli sibiricum

Setaria Italica

(Linn.) Beauv.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

English: Italian Millet, Fox-tail Millet.

Ayurvedic: Kangu, Kanguni, Kangunikaa, Priyangu Dhaanya (Millet). (Priyangu, aromatic flower buds or seed kernels, is a different drug. Callicarpa macrophylla and Prunus mahaleb are equated with Priyangu.)

Action: Plant—used as a sedative to the gravid uterus. Grain—used for alleviating pain after parturition. Applied externally in rheumatism.

(The grain is reported injurious to horses. Overfeeding affects kidneys and causes swelling and inflammation of joints.)

Analysis of a dehusked sample (79% of whole grain) gave following values: protein 12.3, fat 4.3, minerals 3.3, crude fibre 8.0, and other carbohydrates 60.9%. The principal protein of the millet is prolamin (48%), albumin and globulin together form 1314% of the total protein, and glutelin 37%. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, present in the grain, during the cold winter months is reported to yield toxic substances.... setaria italica

Severity Of Illness

A risk prediction system to correlate the “seriousness” of a disease in a particular person with the statistically “expected” outcome.... severity of illness

Sevilen

(Turkish) One who loves and is loved

Sevilene, Sevilyn, Sevilynn, Sevilynne, Sevileen, Sevileene, Seviline, Sevilyne... sevilen

Sevilla

(Spanish) A woman from Seville Sevil, Sevila, Sevilah, Sevile, Sevill, Sevillah, Seville, Sevyl, Sevyla, Sevylah, Sevyle, Sevyll, Sevylla, Sevyllah, Sevylle... sevilla

Sevita

(Indian) One who is cherished Sevitta, Sevitah, Seveta, Seveeta, Sevyta, Sevieta, Seveita, Seveata... sevita

Sevoflurane

A quick-acting volatile liquid anaesthetic (see ANAESTHESIA). Emergence and recovery from anaesthetic are rapid, and early post-operative measures to control pain are advised.... sevoflurane

Sezja

(Russian) A protector of mankind... sezja

Sgot And Sgpt

Liver enzymes that are normally only present in minute quantities in the blood, they become elevated under a variety of circumstances, particularly hepatitis.... sgot and sgpt

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (stds)

Sexually transmitted diseases – traditionally called venereal diseases – are infections transmitted by sexual intercourse (heterosexual and homosexual). In the United Kingdom they are treated in genito-urinary medicine (GUM) clinics. The incidences of these diseases are more common among people who have several sexual partners, as STDs are very infectious; some of the major STDs, particularly AIDS/HIV, are also transmitted by blood and so can result from needle-sharing by drug addicts, or by TRANSFUSION. The ‘traditional’ STDs – SYPHILIS, GONORRHOEA and CHANCROID – now comprise only 10 per cent of all such diseases treated in STD clinics: these clinics also treat patients with CHLAMYDIA, TRICHOMONIASIS, HERPES GENITALIS, MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM and genital WARTS. SCABIES and pubic lice (see PEDICULOSIS – Pediculus pubis) can also be transmitted by sexual intercourse, and HEPATITIS B is also recognised as an STD.

The incidence of STDs rose sharply during World War II but the advent of PENICILLIN and subsequent antibiotics meant that syphilis and gonorrhoea could be treated e?ectively. The arrival of oral contraception and more tolerant public attitudes to sexual activities resulted in an increase in the incidence of sexually transmitted infections. The diagnosis of NONSPECIFIC URETHRITIS (NSU), once given to many patients whose symptoms were not due to the traditional recognised infections, was in the 1970s realised to be wrong, as the condition was proved to be the result of infection by chlamydia.

Most STDs are treatable, but herpes is an infection that could become chronic, while hepatitis B and, of course, AIDS/HIV are potentially fatal – although treatment of HIV is now proving more e?ective. As well as the treatment and subsequent monitoring of patients with STDs, one of the important functions of clinics has been the tracing, treatment and follow-up of sexual contacts of infected individuals, a procedure that is conducted con?dentially.

Apart from AIDS/HIV, the incidence of STDs fell during the 1980s; however in some countries the agents causing syphilis and gonorrhoea began to develop resistance to antibiotics, which showed the continued importance of practising safe sex – in particular by restricting the number of sexual partners and ensuring the regular use of condoms. In the United Kingdom the rates per million of the male population infected by syphilis rose from 8.8 in 1991 to 9.7 in 1999; in females the ?gures were 4.0 to 4.5, respectively. For gonorrhoea, the ?gures for men were 399.4 in 1991 and 385 in 1999, with women also showing a reduction, from

216.5 to 171.3. In 1991, 552.6 per million of men had chlamydia, a ?gure which rose to

829.5 in 1999; for women in the same period the incidence also rose, from 622.5 to 1,077.1 per million. For genital herpes simplex virus, the infection rate for men fell from 236.6 per million to 227.7, whereas the ?gures for women showed a rise, 258.5 to 357. The incidence of AIDS/HIV is given under the relevant entry. (These ?gures are based on information in United Kingdom Health Statistics, 2001 edition, UKHSI, published by the O?ce of National Statistics.)... sexually transmitted diseases (stds)

Sha’ira

(Arabic) Poetess or singer Shairah, Shaira, Shaa’ira, Shira, Sheera, Shiri... sha’ira

Sha’ista

(Arabic) One who is polite and well-behaved

Shaistah, Shaista, Shaa’ista, Shayista, Shaysta... sha’ista

Shabana

(Arabic) A maiden belonging to the night

Shabanah, Shabanna, Shabaana, Shabanne, Shabane... shabana

Shabiba

(Arabic) A godmother Shabibah, Shabeebah, Shabeeba, Shabyba, Shabibba, Shabeba, Shabeaba, Shabeabah... shabiba

Shabnam

(Arabic) Of the morning’s dew Shabname, Shabnamn... shabnam

Shabnan

(Persian) A falling raindrop Shabnane, Shabnann, Shabnanne... shabnan

Shada

(Native American) Resembling a pelican

Shadah, Shadda, Shaddah... shada

Shadha

(Arabic) An aromatic fragrance Shadhah... shadha

Shadi

(Persian) One who brings happiness and joy

Shadie, Shady, Shadey, Shadee, Shadea... shadi

Shadiyah

(Arabic) A singer; one who is musical

Shadiya, Shadiyya, Shadiyaa, Shadeeya, Shadeya... shadiyah

Shadow

(English) Shade from the sun Shadowe, Shadoe... shadow

Shafiqa

(Arabic) A compassionate woman Shafiqah, Shafiqua, Shafeeqa, Shafeequa... shafiqa

Shagufa

(Arabic) A flourishing woman; budding

Shagufah, Shagupha, Shagoofa, Shagoopha, Shagufta, Shagoufa, Shagoupha... shagufa

Shahdi

(Persian) One who is happy Shahdie, Shahdy, Shahdey, Shahdee, Shahdea... shahdi

Shahida

(Arabic) A witness Shahidah, Shahyda, Shaahida, Shaahyda... shahida

Shahina

(Arabic) Resembling a falcon Shahinah, Shaheenah, Shaheena, Shahyna, Shahinna, Shaheana, Shahynah, Shaheanah... shahina

Shahla

(Arabic) Having bluish-black eyes Shahlah, Shahlaa... shahla

Shahnaz

(Arabic) A king’s pride Shanaz, Shahnaaz, Shahnazze, Shanazz, Shanazze... shahnaz

Shahzadi

(Arabic) A princess; born into royalty

Shahzadie, Shahzaadee, Shahzadee, Shahzady, Shahzadey, Shahzadea... shahzadi

Shai

(Gaelic) A gift of God Shay, Shae, Shayla, Shea, Shaye... shai

Shaibya

(Indian) A faithful wife Shaibyah, Shaybya, Shabya, Shaibia, Shaibiya, Shaebya... shaibya

Shaila

(Indian) Of the mountain stone Shailah, Shayla, Shaylah, Shaela, Shailla... shaila

Shaken Impact Syndrome

A type of non-accidental head-injury to infants. A study published in 2000 (Lancet, 4 November) suggests that almost 25 out of 100,000 children under a year old sustain brain damage from shaken impact syndrome, even if they do not strike any hard surface. So, of around 685,000 babies in this age-group in Britain, as many as 170 a year may suffer injury from violent shaking. The median age for admission to hospital for the condition in Scotland was 2.2 months in the 18 months from July 1998. A Swedish report has concluded that children at risk from CHILD ABUSE can be identi?ed and the incidence reduced by legislation banning corporal punishment. (See also NON-ACCIDENTAL INJURY (NAI).)... shaken impact syndrome

Shakila

(Arabic) Feminine form of Shakil; beautiful one

Shakilah, Shakela, Shakeela, Shakeyla, Shakyla, Shakeila, Shakiela, Shakina, Shakilla, Shakeala... shakila

Shakira

(Arabic) Feminine form of Shakir; grateful; thankful

Shakirah, Shakiera, Shaakira, Shakeira, Shakyra, Shakeyra, Shakura, Shakirra, Shakeara... shakira

Shakti

(Indian) A divine woman; having power

Shaktie, Shakty, Shaktey, Shaktee, Shaktye, Shaktea... shakti

Shalimar

(Indian) A Guerlain perfume; a famous garden in Pakistan Shalimarr, Shalimare, Shalimarre, Shalimara, Shalimarra... shalimar

Shalini

(Indian) One who is modest Shalinie, Shaliny, Shalyni, Shalinee, Shalyny, Shalinea, Shalynee... shalini

Shaliqa

(Arabic) One who is sisterly Shaliqah, Shaliqua, Shaleeqa, Shaleequa, Shalyqa, Shalyqua... shaliqa

Shalishah

(Hebrew) Place name from the Bible

Shalesa, Shalesah, Shalese, Shalessa, Shalice, Shalicia, Shaliece, Shalisa, Shalisah, Shalise, Shalisha, Shalishea, Shalisia, Shalisiah, Shalissa, Shalissah, Shalisse, Shalyce, Shalys, Shalysa, Shalysah, Shalyse, Shalyss, Shalyssa, Shalyssah, Shalysse, Shaleashah, Shaleesha, Shaleashah, Shaleeshah... shalishah

Shallot

Purification... shallot

Shalom

(Hebrew) One who is peaceful... shalom

Shama

(Arabic) The lighted mark Shamah, Shamma, Shammah... shama

Shamara

(Arabic) Woman who is ready for battle

Shamarah, Shamarra, Shamarrah, Shamaria, Shamarie... shamara

Shamima

(Arabic) A woman full of flavor Shamimah, Shameema, Shamiema, Shameima, Shamyma, Shameama... shamima

Shamira

(Hebrew) A guardian; protector Shamirah, Shameera, Shamiera, Shameira, Shamyra, Shameara... shamira

Shamita

(Indian) A peacemaker Shamitah, Shamyta, Shameeta, Shamitta, Shameata... shamita

Shana

(Hebrew) God is gracious Shanah, Shanna, Shania, Shanae, Shanaia, Shane, Shanessa, Shanelle, Shanell, Shandi, Shanice, Shaniece, Seana, Shaana, Shaanah, Shan, Shanda, Shandae, Shandah, Shannda... shana

Shandy

(English) One who is rambunctious; boisterous

Shandey, Shandee, Shandi, Shandie, Shandye, Shandea... shandy

Shani

(African) A marvelous woman Shanie, Shany, Shaney, Shanee, Shanni, Shanea, Shannie, Shanny, Shanney, Shannee, Shannea... shani

Shanice

(American) Form of Janice, meaning “God is gracious” Shaneace, Shanease, Shaneece, Shaneese, Shaneise, Shanicea, Shannice, Sheneice, Shenyce... shanice

Shanika

(American) A woman from a settlement in Africa Shanica, Shanicah, Shanicca, Shanicka, Shanickah, Shanieka, Shanikah, Shanike, Shanikia, Shanikka, Shanikqua, Shanikwa, Shanyca, Shanycah, Shanycka, Shanyckah, Shanyka, Shanykah, Shineeca, Shonnika, Shaneeka, Shaneaka... shanika

Shanley

(Gaelic) Small and ancient woman Shanleigh, Shanlee, Shanly, Shanli, Shanlie, Shanlea... shanley

Shannelle

(English) Form of Chanel, meaning “from the canal; a channel” Shanele, Shanel, Shanell, Shanelle, Shannele, Shannelle, Shannell... shannelle

Shannon

(Gaelic) Having ancient wisdom; river name

Shanon, Shannen, Shannan, Shannin, Shanna, Shannae, Shannun, Shannyn... shannon

Shanta

(Hindi) One who is calm Shantah, Shantta, Shantia, Shantea, Shantiya... shanta

Shantelle

(American) Form of Chantal, meaning “from a stony place; a beautiful singer” Shantell, Shantel, Shantele, Shanton, Shantal, Shantale... shantelle

Shanti

(Indian) One who is peaceful; tranquil

Shantie, Shanty, Shantey, Shantee, Shantea, Shanata, Shante... shanti

Shaquana

(American) Truth in life Shaqana, Shaquanah, Shaquanna, Shaqanna, Shaqania... shaquana

Sharara

(Arabic) Born of lightning; a spark Shararah, Sharaara, Shararra... sharara

Shared Services

The coordinated, or otherwise explicitly agreed upon, sharing of responsibility for provision of medical or nonmedical services on the part of two or more otherwise independent hospitals or health programmes.... shared services

Sharifah

(Arabic) Feminine form of Sharif; noble; respected; virtuous Sharifa, Shareefa, Sharufa, Sharufah, Sharyfa, Sharefa, Shareafa, Shariefa, Shareifa... sharifah

Sharik

(African) One who is a child of God Shareek, Shareake, Sharicke, Sharick, Sharike, Shareak, Sharique, Sharyk, Sharyke, Sharyque... sharik

Sharikah

(Arabic) One who is a good companion

Sharika, Shareeka, Sharyka, Shareka, Shariqua, Shareaka... sharikah

Sharise

(English) Form of Charis, meaning “having grace and kindness” Shareace, Sharease, Shereece, Shareese, Sharese, Sharesse, Shariece, Sharis, Sharise, Sharish, Shariss, Sharisse, Sharyce, Sharyse... sharise

Sharlene

(French) Feminine form of Charles; a small, strong woman Sharleene, Sharleen, Sharla, Sharlyne, Sharline, Sharlyn, Sharlean, Sharleane... sharlene

Sharmane

(English) Form of Charmaine, meaning “charming and delightful woman” Sharman, Sharmaine, Sharmain, Sharmayne, Sharmayn, Sharmaen, Sharmaene... sharmane

Sharmila

(Indian) One who provides comfort, joy, and protection Sharmilah, Sharmyla, Sharmeela, Sharmilla, Sharmylla... sharmila

Sharon

(Hebrew) From the plains; a flowering shrub

Sharron, Sharone, Sharona, Shari, Sharis, Sharne, Sherine, Sharun, Sharin, Sharan, Sharen... sharon

Shashi

(Hindi) Of the moonlight; a moonbeam

Shashie, Shashy, Shashey, Shashee, Shashea... shashi

Shasmecka

(African) A princess; highborn girl

Shasmecca, Shasmeka, Shasmeckia, Shasmeckiya... shasmecka

Shasta

(Native American) From the triple- peaked mountain

Shastah, Shastia, Shastiya, Shastea, Shasteya... shasta

Shasti

(Hindi) In Hinduism, a protective goddess of children

Shastie, Shasty, Shastee, Shastey, Shastea... shasti

Shatavari Tea Benefits

Shatavari tea is the main remedy if you suffer from sexual problems. Some say that Shatavari is the most important herb in Ayurvedic medicine. For centuries, the Indians used its roots and rhizomes to treat and even cure some of the most important health problems. Shatavari is a plant with sharp and shiny leaves, white flowers and dark fruits that grows in the rocky areas of the high plains in India, but also in the Himalayan region. Shatavari tea properties Shatavari means “a woman who has a hundred husbands ” because it is well known that this plant is used to treat the female reproductive system and not only: it can also be used for men’s wellness (combined with ashwagandha, makes a great male reproductive treatment and a very good sexual endurance enhancer). Also, the sweet roots of Shatavari could very well replace any meal , turning this particular herb into a “superfood” for women. And let’s not forget the fact that it is also a good remedy for stress, a well-known antioxidant and a great help when it comes to anti-aging solutions.  Treatments- Shatavari tea benefits Shatavari tea is useful for chronic fever and dehydration, ulcers and gastritis, dysentery and diarrhea, infertility, it helps fighting heart problems and calming the nerves. The good news is that you can take it even if you’re pregnant. In fact, Shatavari is a very good galactologue, so it actually helps with lactation (but do not drink too much or it will quickly cause leaking). Also, Shatavari tea helps with menstrual and menopausal problems and strengthens the female reproductive system. How to make Shatavari Infusion First thing you need to do is make sure the roots and rhizomes you’re about to use are clean and very dry. Simmer them in hot water for 15 minutes. For better results, wait another 15 minutes for the wellness benefits of Shatavari tea to be infused and you’ve got your own medicine cabinet in a pot. Take the Shatavari tea once or twice a day. Shatavari tea side effects If you’re sensitive to asparagus, you’ll be sensitive to Shatavari tea as well so it is better to avoid it. The same advice goes for patients with edema due to kidney disorder or impaired heart function. Another aspect you should really keep an eye on is your weight: a well balanced diet will prevent you from gaining weight while taking the tea. Shatavari tea- Contraindications Do not take Shatavari tea in case you have massive fibrocystic breasts or estrogen induced problems. To make sure everything will be fine, talk to your doctor before starting the treatment. It’s not hard to imagine why the Indians named this plant the most important herb of the Ayurvedic medicine: great benefits, few side effects. So, if you are looking for something to boost your energy and health really fast, look for Shatavari tea next time you’re in a tea shop.... shatavari tea benefits

Shauna

(Irish) Feminine form of Shaun; God is gracious

Shawna, Shaunna, Shawnna, Seana, Seanna, Shawnessa, Shawnnessy, Shona... shauna

Shavon

(American) Variant of Siobhan, meaning “God is gracious” Shavonne, Schavon, Schevon, Shavan, Shavaun, Shavone, Shavonia, Shavonn, Shavonni, Shavonnia, Shavonnie, Shavontae, Shavonte, Shavoun, Sheavon, Shivaun, Shivawn, Shivon, Shivonne, Shyvon, Shyvonne... shavon

Shawnee

(Native American) A tribal name Shawni, Shawnie, Shawnea, Shawny, Shawney, Shawnea... shawnee

Shayla

(Irish) Of the fairy palace Shaylah, Shaylagh, Shaylain, Shaylan, Shaylea, Shayleah, Shaylla, Sheyla... shayla

Shaylee

(Gaelic) From the fairy palace; a fairy princess

Shalee, Shayleigh, Shailee, Shaileigh, Shaelee, Shaeleigh, Shayli, Shaylie, Shayly, Shayley, Shaeli, Shaelie, Shaely, Shaeley, Shaili, Shailie, Shaily, Shailey... shaylee

Shayna

(Hebrew) A beautiful woman Shaynah, Shaine, Shaina, Shaena, Shayndel, Shana, Shaynae, Shaynee, Shayney, Shayni, Shaynia, Shaynie, Shaynna, Shaynne, Shayny, Shayne... shayna

Shea

(Gaelic / Irish) Of admirable character / from the fairy palace Shearra, Sheah... shea

Sheba

(Hebrew) An oath; a biblical place Shebah, Sheeba, Shyba, Sheyba, Sheaba... sheba

Sheehan

(Celtic) Little peaceful one; peacemaker

Shehan, Sheyhan, Shihan, Shiehan, Shyhan, Sheahan... sheehan

Sheela

(Indian) One of cool conduct and character Sheelah, Sheetal... sheela

Sheena

(Gaelic) God’s gracious gift Sheenah, Shena, Shiena, Sheyna, Shyna, Sheana, Sheina... sheena

Sheep Sorrel

Rumex acerosella

Description: These plants are seldom more than 30 centimeters tall. They have alternate leaves, often with arrowlike bases, very small flowers, and frequently reddish stems.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for these plants in old fields and other disturbed areas in North America and Europe.

Edible Parts: The plants are edible raw or cooked.

CAUTION

These plants contain oxalic acid that can be damaging if too many plants are eaten raw. Cooking seems to destroy the chemical.... sheep sorrel

Sheep Sorrel Tea

Sheep Sorrel is a sour perennial plant that grows up to three feet in height, native to Europe and Asia. It is commonly found in fields, woods and shaded areas. The leaves of the plant are thin and delicate, having a purplish hue. It has been used for centuries as a herbal remedy for cancer and degenerative conditions. Sheep Sorrel is also used as a garnish for salads due to its sour, lemony flavour. Sheep Sorrel Tea Brewing The most simple and fastest method of brewing Sheep Sorrel tea is to use tea bags. Pour hot water into the cup over the tea bag and let it steep for approximately five minutes. You can add fruit juice for a more pleasant taste. Enjoy! If you want to brew a larger quantity, add ten grams of Sheep Sorrel in one litre of water. Sheep Sorrel Tea Health Benefits Sheep Sorrel tea has antioxidant, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, laxative and detoxifying properties. Due to its high content of vitamins and minerals, Sheep Sorrel tea promotes overall glandular health and has blood cleansing effects. The antioxidants found in the plant boost the immune system, lower cholesterol and aid in the relief of cancer. Sheep Sorrel tea in believed to have anti-cancerous properties that help prevent and reduce tumours and cysts. Other health benefits of Sheep Sorrel tea include its ability to regulate digestion, remove toxins, reduce fever and inflammation, treat intestinal worms, diarrhea or heavy menstrual flow. Sheep Sorrel Tea Side Effects Sheep Sorrel tea has no known side effects when consumed in normal quantities, but excessive intake can lead to unpleasant side effects, such as nausea, gastric problems, diarrhea and even poisoning. Sheep Sorrel Tea is a rich source of vitamins and minerals which strengthen the immune system and it can also help in the weight loss process due to its diuretic properties.... sheep sorrel tea

Sheherezade

(Arabic) One who is a city dweller... sheherezade

Sheila

(Irish) Form of Cecilia, meaning “one who is blind”

Sheilah, Sheelagh, Shelagh, Shiela, Shyla, Selia, Sighle, Sheiletta, Sheilette, Sheilett, Sheileta, Sheyla, Sheala... sheila

Sheiramoth

(Hebrew) Musician of the temple

Sheiramothe, Sheramoth, Shyramoth, Shiramoth, Sheeramoth... sheiramoth

Shelby

(English) From the willow farm Shelbi, Shelbey, Shelbie, Shelbee, Shelbye, Shelbea... shelby

Shelley

(English) From the bank’s meadow Shelly, Shelli, Shellie, Shellee, Shelleigh, Shella, Shellaine, Shellana, Shellany, Shellea, Shelleah, Shellei, Shellene, Shellian, Shelliann, Shellina, Shell... shelley

Shellfish Poisoning

In the United Kingdom this occurs in two main forms. Shell?sh may be the cause of typhoid fever (see ENTERIC FEVER) as a result of their contamination by sewage containing the causative organism. They may also be responsible for what is known as paralytic shell?sh poisoning. This is caused by a toxin, or poison, known as saxotoxin, which is present in certain planktons which, under unusual conditions, multiply rapidly, giving rise to what are known as ‘red tides’. In these circumstances the toxin accumulates in mussels, cockles and scallops which feed by ?ltering plankton. The manifestations of such poisoning are loss of feeling in the hands, tingling of the tongue, weakness of the arms and legs, and di?culty in breathing. There is also growing evidence that some shell?sh poisoning may be due to a virus infection. (See also FOOD POISONING.)... shellfish poisoning

Shepry

(American) A mediator who is honest and friendly

Sheprey, Shepri, Sheprie, Shepree, Sheprye, Sheprea... shepry

Shera

(Aramaic) A very bright light Sheara, Shearah, Sheera, Sheerah, Sherae, Sherah, Sheralla, Sheralle, Sheray, Sheraya... shera

Sheridan

(Gaelic) One who is wild and untamed; a searcher Sheridann, Sheridanne, Sherydan, Sherridan, Sheriden, Sheridon, Sherrerd, Sherida, Sheridane, Sherideen, Sheridian, Sheridin, Sheridyn, Sherridana, Sherridane, Sherridanne, Sherridon, Sherrydan, Sherrydana, Sherrydane, Sherrydin, Sherrydon, Sherrydyn, Sherydana, Sherydane... sheridan

Sherise

(Greek) Form of Charis, meaning “having grace and kindness” Sherisse, Sherissa, Sheris, Sheriss, Sherys, Sheryse, Sherysse, Sherysa, Sherisa, Scherise, Sherece, Shereece, Sherees, Shereese, Sherese, Shericia, Sherrish, Sherryse, Sheryce... sherise

Sherry

(English) Form of Cherie, meaning “one who is greatly loved; a darling” Sherrey, Sherri, Sherrie, Sherie, Sheri, Sherree, Sherea, Sherrea... sherry

Shepherd`s Purse Tea

Shepherd’s Purse tea is made from a medicinal plant used traditionally in easing menstrual symptoms, treating water retention, dysentery and eye afflictions. It has the property of enhancing coagulation and constricting blood vessels. The plant has small white flowers, pointed, arrow-shaped leaves and gets its name from the resemblance of its heart-shaped seed-pouches with an old-fashioned leather purse. Shepherd’s Purse Tea Brewing In order to brew Shepherd’s Purse tea, you must bring 300 ml of water to a boil, add 10 grams of the herb and let it steep for 30 minutes, then drain it. Shepherd’s Purse Tea Health Benefits Shepherd’s Purse tea is reputed for its ability to stop internal and external bleeding. In Europe, people have been using the beverage to stop stomach haemorrhage and to treat urinary tract bleeding. Midwives used it to prevent post-partum bleeding. Shepherd’s Purse tea has anti-inflammatory properties which may account for its traditional use in the treatment of haemorrhoids and wounds. Shepherd’s Purse tea is also an effective natural remedy for blood pressure problems or irregular heartbeat. It can be applied externally on wounds and burns. Shepherd’s Purse Tea Side Effects There are no reported side effects ofShepherd’s Purse tea consumption, but it is advisable to ask the opinion of a specialist before drinking it, especially if you are taking any medications. Excessive intake of this beverage may interfere with blood pressure and thyroid drugs. Pregnant women are not advised to consume Shepherd’s Purse tea, because it can cause uterine contractions and miscarriage. People suffering from kidney or liver diseases should also avoid Shepherd’s Purse tea.... shepherd`s purse tea

Shepherd's Purse

Capsella bursa-pastoris. N.O. Cruciferae.

Synonym: Mother's Heart, Pickpocket, Shepherd's Sprout.

Habitat: Hedgerows, meadows, waysides, waste places.

Features ? Stem erect, slightly branched, varies from a few inches to over a foot in height with the richness of the soil. Leaves irregular-lanceolate, also differing largely in size and shape with the plant's environment. Identifiable by the triangular seed vessels, thought to resemble in shape the purses of olden days. Blossoms during most of the year ; flowers very small, white, short-stalked. Odour unpleasant.

Part used ? Herb.

Action: Diuretic, stimulant.

The infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint is administered in wineglass doses for kidney complaints and dropsy. Often combined with Pellitory-of-the-Wall and Juniper berries.... shepherd's purse

Sheryl

(English) Form of Cheryl, meaning “one who is greatly loved; a darling” Sheryll, Sherylle, Sherylyn, Sheryle, Sherile, Sherill, Sherille, Sharilyn, Sherilin, Sherilina, Sherilinah, Sheriline, Sherilyna, Sherilynah, Sherilyne, Sherilynn, Sherilynna, Sherilynnah, Sherilynne, Sherilyn... sheryl

Sheshebens

(Native American) Resembling a small duck... sheshebens

Shields

(English) A loyal protector Sheelds, Sheylds, Shylds, Shilds, Shealds... shields

Shifra

(Hebrew) A beautiful midwife Shifrah, Shiphrah, Shiphra, Shifria, Shifriya, Shifrea... shifra

Shika

(Japanese) A little, gentle deer Shicka, Shicca, Sheka, Shecka, Shyka, Shycka, Sheeka... shika

Shikha

(Indian) Flame burning brightly Shikhah, Shikkha, Shekha, Shykha... shikha

Shiloh

(Hebrew) One who is peaceful; abundant Shilo, Shyloh, Shylo... shiloh

Shilpa

(Indian) Strong as a rock Shilpah, Shilpha, Shylpa, Shylpha... shilpa

Shima

(Native American) Little mother Shimah, Shimma, Shyma, Shymah... shima

Shin

(Korean) One having faith and trust Shinn, Shyn, Shynn... shin

Shina

(Japanese) A virtuous woman; having goodness

Shinah, Shinna, Shyna, Shynna... shina

Shira

(Hebrew) My joyous song Shirah, Shiray, Shire, Shiree, Shiri, Shirit... shira

Shirin

(Persian) One who is sweet and pleasant

Sheerin, Sheereen, Shirina, Shirinia, Shiriniya, Shiryn, Shirynn, Shirynne... shirin

Shirley

(English) From the bright clearing Shirly, Shirlie, Shirli, Shirleigh, Shirlee, Shirl, Shirlyn, Shirlea, Sherle, Sherley, Sherly, Sherli, Sherlie, Sherlee, Sherlea, Sherleigh... shirley

Shobha

(Indian) An attractive woman Shobhah, Shobbha, Shoba, Shobhan, Shobhane... shobha

Shobhna

(Indian) A shiny ornament Shobhnah, Shobbhna, Shobna, Shobhnan, Shobhnane... shobhna

Shock Lung

See ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (ARDS).... shock lung

Shona

(Irish) Form of Joan, meaning “God is gracious”

Shiona, Shonagh, Shonah, Shonalee, Shone, Shonette... shona

Shoney

(Celtic) In mythology, a sea goddess Shony, Shoni, Shonie, Shonee, Shonni, Shonea, Shonnie... shoney

Shorea Robusta

Gaertn. f.

Family: Dipterocarpaceae.

Habitat: North, east and central India.

English: Sal tree. Oleoresin: Sal Dammer or Bengal Dammer.

Ayurvedic: Shaala, Saalasaara, Dhuupa-vriksha. (Substitute: Vateria indica.)

Siddha/Tamil: Kungiliyam, Venkungiliyam (resin).

Action: Fruit—a paste is prescribed in diarrhoea. Resin—astringent, detergent; antidiarrhoeal and antidysenteric. Essential oil of Sal resin—antiseptic. Used for skin diseases.

The bark contains 7-12, young leaves 20, twigs and leaves 22, and powder dust 12% tannin. The spray-dried aqueous extract of the bark contains 39.6% of tannins with a trans/non-trans ratio of 0.73. The tannins are of pyrogal- lol type. Oleanolic acid has also been isolated from the bark.

Several triterpenoids have been isolated from the resin. Hydroxy-hopano- ne, dammarenediol II (20S) and dam- marenolic acid are reported to exhibit antiviral activity against Herpes simplex. The resin on dry distillation yields an essential oil, known as Chuaa Oil. It consists of 96.0% neutral and 3.0 and 1.9% phenolic and acidic fractions respectively. Non-phenolic portion of the oil is reported to have a depressing effect on the central nervous system, the phenolic portion is less effective.

Dosage: Heartwood, flower—3- 5 g powder; 50-100 ml decoction; resin—1-3 g. (CCRAS.)... shorea robusta

Short-sight

A condition in which objects near at hand are seen clearly, while objects at a distance are blurred. The condition is technically known as myopia. (See EYE, DISORDERS OF – Errors of refraction; VISION.)... short-sight

Short-term Aged Care

Involves care designed to improve the physical wellbeing and restore the health of older people to an optimum level following a serious illness.... short-term aged care

Short-term Supportive Psychotherapy

is aimed at stabilising and strengthening the psychological defence mechanisms of those patients who are confronted by a crisis which threatens to overwhelm their ability to cope, or who are struggling with the aftermath of major life events.... short-term supportive psychotherapy

Shoshana

(Arabic) Form of Susan, meaning “resembling a graceful white lily” Shosha, Shoshan, Shoshanah, Shoshane, Shoshanha, Shoshann, Shoshanna, Shoshannah, Shoshauna, Shoshaunah, Shoshaunah, Shoshawna, Shoshona, Shoushan, Shushana, Sosha, Soshana... shoshana

Shoshone

(Native American) A tribal name Shoshoni, Shoshonie, Shoshonee, Shoshonea, Shoshony, Shoshoney... shoshone

Shradhdha

(Indian) One who is faithful; trusting

Shraddha, Shradha, Shradhan, Shradhane... shradhdha

Shreya

(Indian) A lucky woman Shreyah... shreya

Shriya

(Indian) One who is wealthy; prosperous

Shriyah, Shreeya, Shreeyah... shriya

Shruti

(Indian) Having good hearing Shrutie, Shruty, Shrutey, Shrutee, Shrutye, Shrutea... shruti

Shulamit

(Hebrew) One who is peaceful; tranquil

Shulamite, Schulamit, Scholamit, Shulamitte, Shulamith, Shulamithe, Shulamitha... shulamit

Shuman

(Native American) One who charms rattlesnakes

Shumane, Shumaine, Shumayne, Shumanne, Shumanna, Shumaene... shuman

Shunnareh

(Arabic) Pleasing in manner and behavior

Shunnaraya, Shunareh, Shunarreh... shunnareh

Shura

(Russian) Form of Alexandra, meaning “helper and defender of mankind” Shurah, Shurra, Shurrah... shura

Shyann

(English) Form of Cheyenne, meaning “unintelligible speaker” Shyanne, Shyane, Sheyann, Sheyanne, Sheyenne, Sheyene... shyann

Shyla

(English) Form of Sheila, meaning “one who is blind”

Shya, Shyah, Shylah, Shylan, Shylana, Shylane, Shylayah, Shyle, Shyleah, Shylee, Shyley, Shyli, Shylia, Shylie, Shylyn... shyla

Shysie

(Native American) A quiet child Shysi, Shysy, Shysey, Shysee, Shycie, Shyci, Shysea, Shycy, Shycey, Shycee, Shycea... shysie

Sialagogues

Substances which produce a copious ?ow of SALIVA.... sialagogues

Sian

(Welsh) Form of Jane, meaning “God is gracious”

Sianne, Siann, Siane, Sione, Siana, Siania, Sianya, Sianna... sian

Siany

(Irish) Having good health Sianie, Sianey, Sianee, Siani, Sianea... siany

Siara

(Arabic) One who is holy and pure Siaraa, Siarah, Syara, Siarra, Syarra... siara

Sibbaldia Parviflora

Willd.

Family: Rosaceae.

Habitat: Garwal region.

Ayurvedic: Bajradanti. Barleria prionitis L. and Potentilla arbuscula D. Don. are also used as Bajradanti.)

Action: Used as a tooth powder for strengthening gums and teeth.... sibbaldia parviflora

Sibeal

(Irish) Form of Isabel, meaning “my God is bountiful”

Sibeall, Sibealle, Sibeale, Sybeal, Sybeale, Sybeall... sibeal

Siberian Ginseng

Siberian ginseng restores balance to the body both biochemically and physically. it also helps your hypothalamus... siberian ginseng

Sibyl

(English) A prophetess; a seer Sybil, Sibyla, Sybella, Sibil, Sibella, Sibilla, Sibley, Sibylla, Sibly, Sibli, Siblie, Siblee, Siblea, Sibleigh... sibyl

Sicily

(Italian) A woman from the large island off Italy

Sicilie, Sicili, Siciley, Sicilee, Sicilea, Sicileigh... sicily

Sickness

See VOMITING; MOTION (TRAVEL) SICKNESS.... sickness

Sida Acuta

Burm. f.

Synonym: S. carpinifolia auct. non Linn f.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the warmer parts of India.

English: Hornbeam-Leaved Sida.

Ayurvedic: Balaa (white-flowered var.).

Folk: Jangali Methi.

Action: Root—astringent, cooling, stomachic, febrifuge, diuretic; used for nervous and sexual debility, haemorrhoids, biliary disorders. Leaves—demulcent; applied to testicular swellings and elephantiasis.

The root contains alkaloids—phen- ethylamine, ephedrine (major), si- ephedrine, vasicinol, vasicinone, va- sicine, choline, hypaphorine and betaine. (These alkaloids are also present in aerial parts.) The root also contains alpha-amyrin and an hormone, ecdys- terone. Whole plant, as well as the root, contains an alkaloid cryptolepine. Cryptolepine exhibits hypotensive and antimicrobial activity.

The seeds contain 0.26% of the alkaloids and roots 0.066%.

The water-soluble portion of the alcoholic extract of the plant exerts spasmodic action of the smooth muscles of ileum, trachea, uterus and heart of experimental animals. (The activity bears similarity to that of acetylcholine.)... sida acuta

Siddhi

(Hindi) Having spiritual power Sidhi, Syddhi, Sydhi... siddhi

Siddiqa

(Arabic) A righteous friend Siddiqua, Sidiqa, Siddeeqa, Siddyqa, Siddeequa, Siddyqua... siddiqa

Sidera

(Latin) A luminous woman Siderra, Sydera, Syderra, Sideria, Sideriya, Siderea... sidera

Sida Cordifolia

Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India in moist places.

English: Country Mallow.

Ayurvedic: Balaa (yellow-flowered var.), Sumanganaa, Khara- yashtikaa, Balini, Bhadrabalaa, Bhadraudani, Vaatyaalikaa.

Unani: Bariyaara, Khirhati, Khireti, Kunayi.

Siddha/Tamil: Nilatutti.

Action: Juice of the plant— invigorating, spermatopoietic, used in spermatorrhoea. Seeds— nervine tonic. Root—(official part in Indian medicine) used for the treatment of rheumatism; neurological disorders (hemiplegia, facial paralysis, sciatica); polyuria, dysuria, cystitis, strangury and hematuria; leucorrhoea and other uterine disorders; fevers and general debility. Leaves—demulcent, febrifuge; used in dysentery.

Ephedrine and si-ephedrine are the major alkaloids in the aerial parts. The total alkaloid content is reported to be 0.085%, the seeds contain the maximum amount. In addition to alkaloids, the seeds contain a fatty oil (3.23%), steroids, phytosterols, resin, resin acids, mucin and potassium nitrate.

The root contains alkaloids—ephed- rine, si-ephedrine, beta-phenethyl- amine, carboxylated tryptamines and hypaphorine, quinazoline alkaloids— vasicinone, vasicine and vasicinol. Choline and betaine have also been isolated.

A sitoindoside, isolated from the plant, has been reported to exhibit adaptogenic and immunostimulatory activities. Alcoholic extract of the plant possesses antibacterial and antipyretic propeptide. Ethanolic extract of the plant depresses blood pressure in cats and dogs.... sida cordifolia

Sida Spinosa

Linn.

Synonym: S. alba Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the hotter parts of India, ascending to an altitude of 1,350 m.

English: Prickly Sida.

Ayurvedic: Naagabalaa, Balaa- kantakini, Gangaati.

Siddha/Tamil: Arivalmanai-poondu.

Folk: Gulasakari, Gangeti, Jangali- methi.

Action: Root—nervine tonic and diaphoretic; used in debility and fevers. Decoction given as a demulcent in irritability of bladder and genitourinary tract. Leaves—demulcent and refrigerant; used for scalding urine.

The root contains alkaloids—beta- phenethylamine, ephedrine, si-ephed- rine, vasicinol, vasicinone, vasicine, choline, hypaphorine, methyl ester, hy- paphorine and betaine. These alkaloids are present in aerial parts as well.

Ethanolic extract of the plant exhibits hypoglycaemic activity. It depressed the normal blood pressure and lowered the activity ofsmooth muscles of the ileum of experimental animals.... sida spinosa

Sidonie

(French) Feminine form of Sidonius; woman of Sidon Sidonia, Sidone, Sidoniya, Sidonea, Sidony, Sidoni, Sidoney, Sidonee... sidonie

Sidra

(Latin) Resembling a star Sidrah, Sydra, Sidriya, Sydriya... sidra

Sieglinde

(German) Winning a gentle victory... sieglinde

Siempreviva

See Bruja.... siempreviva

Sienna

(Italian) Woman with reddish- brown hair

Siena, Siennya, Sienya, Syenna, Syinna, Syenya... sienna

Sierra

(Spanish) From the jagged mountain range

Siera, Syerra, Syera, Seyera, Seeara... sierra

Sigfreda

(German) A woman who is victorious

Sigfreeda, Sigfrida, Sigfryda, Sigfreyda, Sigfrieda, Sigfriede, Sigfrede... sigfreda

Sigismonda

(Teutonic) A victorious defender Sigismunda... sigismonda

Sida Veronicaefolia

Lam.

Synonym: S. cordata (Burm. f.) Borssum. S. humilis Cav.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Throughout hotter parts of India.

Ayurvedic: Raajabalaa, Bhumibalaa, Prasaarini, Suprasaraa (also equated with Naagabalaa, Grewia hirsuta).

Siddha/Tamil: Palampasi.

Folk: Farid-booti.

Action: Fruits and flowers—used for burning sensation in micturition. Leaves—juice, used for diarrhoea; poultice applied to cuts and bruises. Root bark—used for leucorrhoea and genitourinary affections.

In experimental animals, the herb prevented arthritic swellings.

The plant contains beta-phenethyl- amines, quinazoline, carboxylated tryptamine, linoleic acid, malvalic acid, sterculic acid and gossypol.

Dosage: Root—10-20 ml juice; 50100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... sida veronicaefolia

Siegesbeckia Orientalis

Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Throughout India up to 2,000 m.

English: The Holy Herb, Siegesbeckia.

Siddha/Tamil: Katampam, Kadambu.

Folk: Pili-badkadi (Gujarat), Lat- latiaa (Bihar), Lichkuraa (Garhwal).

Action: Plant—antiscorbutic, sial- agogue, cardiotonic, diaphoretic. Used for the treatment of rheumatism, renal colic and ague. Also used as a lotion for gangrenous ulcers and sores, syphilis, leprosy, ringworm.

The aerial parts contain sesquiter- pene lactone, orientin; melampolides including orientolide; diterpene, dru- tigenol and the corresponding gluco- side darutoside. The whole plant, in addition, gave 3,7-dimethylquercetin.

The plant exhibited antiviral, CVS active, spasmolytic and hypoglycaemic activity.... siegesbeckia orientalis

Signia

(Latin) A distinguishing sign Signiya, Signea, Signeia, Signeya, Signa... signia

Signy

(Scandinavian) A newly victorious woman

Signe, Signi, Signie, Signey, Signee, Signild, Signilde, Signilda, Signea... signy

Sigourney

(Scandinavian / French) A woman who conquers / a daring queen Sigourny, Sigourni, Sigournie, Sigournee, Sigournye, Sigournea, Sigurney, Sigurny, Sigurni, Sigurnie, Sigurnea, Sigurnee... sigourney

Sigrid

(Scandinavian) A victorious advisor Sigryd, Sigryde, Sigrith, Sigrath, Sigrathe, Siri... sigrid

Sigrun

(Scandinavian) Having won a secret victory... sigrun

Sigyn

(Norse) In mythology, the wife of Loki... sigyn

Siham

(Arabic) Resembling an arrow... siham

Sihar

(Arabic) An enchanting woman Syhar, Sihara, Syhara, Sihari, Siharie, Sihary, Siharey, Siharee, Siharea, Siharia... sihar

Sihu

(Native American) As delicate as a flower... sihu

Sika

(African) A woman with money Sikah, Sikka, Sicka, Syka, Sykka, Sicca... sika

Sikina

(Arabic) A devout and peaceful woman

Sikinah, Sikyna, Sickina, Sickyna, Sikeena, Sikena, Sikeyna, Sikeana... sikina

Sila

(Indian) A well-behaved, chaste woman Silah, Silla, Syla, Sylah, Sylla... sila

Silana

(French) One who is dignified; a lady Silanah, Silanna, Sylana, Sylanna, Silane, Silann, Silan, Silanne... silana

Sileas

(Scottish) A woman who remains youthful

Silis, Silys, Syleas, Silias, Sile, Silyas... sileas

Silence

(American) A quiet and well- behaved child

Silince, Silense, Silinse, Sylence, Sylense, Sylince, Sylinse... silence

Silica

A major constituent of the earth’s crust. Its main danger to health arises from free silica, present mainly as quartz and ?int and as an important constituent of granite, sandstone and slate. (See SILICOSIS.)... silica

Silka

(Latin) Form of Cecelia, meaning “one who is blind”

Silke, Silkia, Silkea, Silkie, Silky, Silkee, Sylka, Sylke, Silja, Silken, Silkan... silka

Silvana

(Latin) Feminine form of Silvanus; a woodland dweller

Silvanna, Silvane, Silvanne, Silva, Silvia, Silviya, Sylvia, Sylvya, Sylva, Sylvana, Sylvanna, Sylvane, Sylvanne, Silvestra... silvana

Silver

(English) A precious metal; white- skinned

Sylver, Silvera, Sylvera, Silvere, Sylvere... silver

Silwa

(Arabic) Resembling a quail Silwah, Sylwa, Sylwah... silwa

Sildenafil Citrate

An oral drug – better known to the public as Viagra® – for treating erectile dysfunction of the PENIS (see also ERECTION; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION). Sildena?l citrate was originally developed to treat ANGINA PECTORIS; during clinical trials, patients reported that they were having more erections than before taking the drug. Clinical trials were then conducted on 4,000 men, and 70 per cent of them found sildena?l e?ective. The men, of an average age of 55 years, had experienced erectile problems for around ?ve years before taking part in the trials. The medical conditions associated with their problems included high blood pressure, high concentrations of CHOLESTEROL, DIABETES MELLITUS, surgery and psychological disorders. Among side-effects, headache was the most common; others included facial ?ushing, indigestion and a stu?y nose. The drug is a vasodilator so that blood ?ow to the penis is enhanced. It works in response to sexual stimulation and has no properties as an aphrodisiac; nor does it provoke sexual fantasies. Sildena?l must not be taken with drugs containing nitrates such as GLYCERYL TRINITRATE or isosorbide trinitrate as the subject may suffer a sudden fall in blood pressure. Nitrates inhaled for recreational use (poppers) have a similar e?ect. Recent research suggests that the drug may help women with low LIBIDO or who have di?culty in achieving ORGASM.... sildenafil citrate

Silicones

Organic compounds of silicone, with a structure of alternate atoms of silicone and oxygen, and organic groups – such as methyl and phenyl – attached to the silicone atoms. As they produce a ?exible and stable water-repellent ?lm on the skin, they are used as BARRIER CREAMS.

Silicone is also used to make implants for RECONSTRUCTIVE (PLASTIC) SURGERY. Silicone oil in a silicone rubber bag is used in breast reconstruction after surgery for breast cancer, and for enlargement of the breast. Although usually an inert substance, it has been found to cause side-effects, including possible immunological reactions following leakages, so that its use in breast surgery in particular has now been restricted.... silicones

Silver Needle Tea

Silver Needle tea is a rare type of white tea,with a delicate flavor and great health benefits. Recommended to consumers willing to reduce the amount of caffeine, it is a special beverage both for connoisseurs and beginners. About Silver Needle Tea Silver Needle Tea is a type of white tea, originating from the Chinese Fuding county, and considered to be the finest type of this kind of tea. It was once reserved to Royal Chinese Family due to its benefits and rareness. Silver Needle Tea is hand-harvested only two days a year, during spring. It contains only the unopened tea buds, one of the reasons the Royal Family was the only one to drink it. Silver Needle Tea brewing Silver Needle Tea has a subtle taste and a low quantity of caffeine. It is recommended to consumers searching for the benefits of green tea, but not enjoying its strong flavor .
  • Silver Needle tea brews best with water at 180 degrees Fahrenheit (the water should be almost boiling, but not rolling)
  • After adding the water to the tea, steep it for five minutes
  • In case of adding more tea to the pot, it needs three minutes to steep
Silver Needle Tea benefits Being a whitetea, Silver Needle tea is helpful in cancer prevention, due to its high content of antioxidants. These compounds are able to fight free radicals, best known for causing tumors growth and spreading cancer cells. Silver Needle tea properties were also acknowledged to:
  • detoxify the body
  • relieve stress
  • lift mood
Silver Needle Tea side effects Silver Needle Tea has few side effects, especially related to overconsumption. It is indicated that individuals suffering from cardiac problems or hypertension should consume it moderately. Silver Needle teais a good choice for consumers who want to keep a good physical and mental state, enjoying both a delicate taste and a healthy beverage.... silver needle tea

Sima

(Arabic) One who is treasured; a prize Simma, Syma, Simah, Simia, Simiya... sima

Simcha

(Hebrew) One who is joyous Simchia, Simchea, Symcha, Symchia, Symchea... simcha

Simin

(Iranian) A silvery woman Simeen, Seemeen, Symeen, Symyn, Simyn... simin

Simona

(Italian) Feminine form of Simon; one who listens well Simonah, Simonna, Symona, Simone, Symone, Simoni, Simony, Simonee, Simoney, Simonie... simona

Simran

(Indian) One who meditates Simrana, Simrania, Simrann, Simranne, Simrane, Simranna... simran

Silybum Marianum

(L.) Gaertn.

Habitat: Western Himalayas at 1,800 and Kashmir at 2,400 m, also grown in gardens.

English: Holy Thistle, Milk Thistle.

Action: Seeds—liver protective, gallbladder protective, antioxidant. Used in jaundice and other biliary affections, intermittent fevers, uterine trouble, also as a galactagogue. Alcoholic extract used for haemorrhoids and as a general substitute for adrenaline. Seeds are used for controlling haemorrhages. Leaves—sudorific and aperient. Young leaves and flowering heads are consumed by diabetics.

Key application: In dyspeptic complaints. As an ingredient of formulations for toxic liver damage; chronic inflammatory liver disease and hepatic cirrhosis induced by alcohol, drugs or toxins. (Expanded Commission E Monographs, WHO.)

The seeds gave silymarin (flavanol lignin mixture), composed mainly of silybin A, silybin B (mixture known as silibinin), with isosilybin A, isosilybin B, silychristin, silydianin. In Germany, Milk Thistle has been used extensively for liver diseases and jaundice. Sily- marin has been shown conclusively to exert an antihepatotoxic effect in animals against a variety of toxins, particularly those of death cap mushroom, Amanita phalloides. Silybin, when given by intravenous injection to human patients up to 48 hours after ingestion of the death cap, was found to be highly effective in preventing fatalities.

Silymarin has been used successfully to treat patients with chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis; it is active against hepatitis B virus, and lowers fat deposits in the liver in animals.

(For hepatic cirrhosis: 420 mg per day; for chronic active hepatitis 240 mg twice daily—extract containing 7080% silimarin.)... silybum marianum

Simuliid

A family of biting flies commonly called blackflies including the important Simulium, sometimes vectors of onchocerciasis.... simuliid

Sina

(Samoan) In mythology, goddess of the moon... sina

Sine

(Scottish) Form of Jane, meaning “God is gracious”

Sinead, Sineidin, Sioned, Sionet, Sion, Siubhan, Siwan, Sineh... sine

Singer’s Nodule

A small excrescence on the vocal cords (see LARYNX) which causes hoarseness. This tends to develop in people who abuse their voices – for example, singers, or people who shout excessively.... singer’s nodule

Single Assessment Process

The process whereby a person is assessed for care needs using one form/mechanism so that agencies do not duplicate each other’s assessment.... single assessment process

Single Point Of Entry

A local or regional access point where older persons receive information, assessment of needs, care planning, referrals to health and social services and, in some systems, authorization of services for home care, community-based care or residential care facilities.... single point of entry

Single-blind Trial

See “blinding”.... single-blind trial

Sinmore

(Norse) In mythology, the wife of Surt

Sinmorre, Sinmora, Sinmorra, Synmore, Synmora... sinmore

Sinobia

(Greek) Form of Zenobia, meaning “sign or symbol”

Sinobiah, Sinobya, Sinobe, Sinobie, Sinovia, Senobia, Senobya, Senobe, Senobie, Senobey, Senovia... sinobia

Sinopa

(Native American) Resembling a fox... sinopa

Sinope

(Greek) In mythology, one of the daughters of Asopus... sinope

Sinovitis

Inflammation of the synovial membrane of a joint... sinovitis

Sintra

(Spanish) A woman from the town in Portugal... sintra

Siobhan

(Irish) Form of Joan, meaning “God is gracious”

Shibahn, Shibani, Shibhan, Shioban, Shobana, Shobhana, Siobahn, Siobhana, Siobhann, Siobhon, Siovaun, Siovhan... siobhan

Siphonaptera

(Aphaniptera) Order of jumping and blood-sucking, wingless (apterous) insects known as fleas.... siphonaptera

Siphonophora

The taxonomic group of hydroids that are not single animals, but colonies of animals. They may be either free swimming or floating, with or without a float. The genus of dominating medical importance is Physalia.... siphonophora

Sippora

(Hebrew) A birdlike woman Sipporah, Sipora, Syppora, Sypora, Siporra, Syporra... sippora

Siran

(Armenian) An alluring and lovely woman... siran

Siren

(Greek) A seductive and beautiful woman; in mythology, a sea nymph whose beautiful singing lured sailors to their deaths

Sirene, Sirena, Siryne, Siryn, Syren, Syrena, Sirine, Sirina, Sirinia, Sirenia... siren

Siria

(Spanish / Persian) Bright like the sun / a glowing woman

Siriah, Sirea, Sireah, Siriya, Siriyah, Sirya, Siryah... siria

Siroun

(Armenian) A lovely woman Sirune... siroun

Sirpuhi

(Armenian) One who is holy; pious Sirpuhie, Sirpuhy, Sirpuhey, Sirpuhea, Sirpuhee... sirpuhi

Sirvat

(Armenian) Resembling a beautiful rose... sirvat

Sisay

(African) A blessing from God; an omen of good things to come Sisaye, Sissay, Sissaye... sisay

Sisi

(African) Born on a Sunday Sisie, Sisea, Sisee, Sisy, Sisey... sisi

Sisika

(Native American) Resembling a bird... sisika

Sissy

(English) Form of Cecilia, meaning “one who is blind”

Sissey, Sissie, Sisley, Sisli, Sislee, Sissel, Sissle, Syssy, Syssi... sissy

Sisymbrium Irio

Linn.

Family: Cruciferae; Brassicaeae.

Habitat: Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana and from Rajasthan to Uttar Pradesh in moist soils.

English: London Rocket.

Ayurvedic: Khaaksi.

Unani: Khuubkalaan.

Action: Seeds—expectorant, restorative, febrifuge, rubefacient, antibacterial. Used in asthma.

Leaves—rich in vitamin C (176 mg/ 100 g), beta-carotene (10,000 IU/100 g) and minerals. Used in throat and chest infections.

Aerial parts yield beta-sitosterol, 3 beta-D-glucoside, isorhamnetin and quercetin.

The seed contains a flavonoid, iso- rhamnetin. Fatty oil from seeds contain linolenic and oleic acids (as chief constituents), along with erucic, palmitic and stearic acids.

Ethanolic extract of seeds exhibited marked antibacterial action, also antipyretic and analgesic effects.

S. loeselii Linn. (Kashmir and Hi- machal Pradesh) is used in scrofula and as an antiscorbutic. The seed oil contains erucic acid and larger amounts of tetracosenoic acid. The plant contains alkaloids, organic acids, tannins, glycosides, saponins, coumarins and flavonoids.... sisymbrium irio

Sita

(Hindi) In Hinduism, goddess of the harvest and wife of Rama... sita

Sitara

(Indian) Of the morning star Sitarah, Sitarra, Sitaara, Siteare... sitara

Sitembile

(African) A woman worthy of trust Sitembyle... sitembile

Siti

(African) A distinguished woman; a lady Sitie, Sity, Sitey, Sitee, Sitea... siti

Sitka

(English) A woman from a city in western Alaska Sytka... sitka

Sitting Service

A service which involves a worker or volunteer going into an older person’s home to provide care whilst the carer takes a break for up to six hours.... sitting service

Sive

(Irish) A good and sweet girl Sivney, Sivny, Sivni, Sivnie, Sivnee, Sivnea... sive

Siyanda

(African) The village is expanding... siyanda

Skaoi

(Norse) In mythology, a mountain giantess and goddess of skiers... skaoi

Sjogren’s Syndrome

A disorder of CONNECTIVE TISSUE, with dryness of the mouth (xerostomia) and dryness of the eye (kerato conjunctivitis sicca) occurring in association with RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS. It occurs in approximately 10 per cent of patients with the latter condition, but it can occur – and frequently does so – independently of rheumatoid disease. The lack of tears gives rise to symptoms of dryness and grittiness of the eyes; the dry mouth can occasionally be so severe as to cause a DYSPHAGIA. The disease is due to the autoimmune destruction of the SALIVARY GLANDS and the lacrimal glands (see EYE – Lacrimal apparatus). The disorder is usually associated with speci?c HLA antigen (see HLA SYSTEM). Treatment is unsatisfactory and is limited to oral and ocular hygiene as well as the provision of arti?cial tears in the form of cellulose eye drops.... sjogren’s syndrome

Skewed

A distribution that is asymmetrical.... skewed

Skilled Care

“Higher level” of care (such as injections, catheterization and dressing changes) provided by trained health professionals, including nurses, doctors and therapists.... skilled care

Skilled Nursing Care

Daily nursing and rehabilitative care that can only be performed by, or under the supervision of, skilled nursing personnel.... skilled nursing care

Skilled Nursing Facility

Nursing homes that are certified to provide a fairly intensive level of care, including skilled nursing care.... skilled nursing facility

Skunk Cabbage

Legal Matters ... skunk cabbage

Skye

(Gaelic) Woman from the Isle of Skye... skye

Skylar

(English) One who is learned; a scholar

Skylare, Skylarr, Skyler, Skylor, Skylir, Skylur... skylar

Slaine

(Irish) A woman of good health Slain, Slayne, Slane, Slany, Slanee, Slania, Slainie, Slanie, Slaney, Siany, Slaen, Slaene... slaine

Skin-grafting

An operation in which large breaches of SKIN surface due to wounding, burns or ulceration are closed by TRANSPLANTATION of skin from other parts. There are three methods by which this is done. Most frequently the epidermis only is transplanted, using a method introduced by Reverdin and by Thiersch, and known by their names. For this purpose, a broad strip of epidermis is shaved o? the thigh or upper arm, after the part has been carefully sterilised, and is transferred bodily to the raw or ulcerated surface, or is cut into smaller strips and laid upon it. A second method is for small pieces of the skin in its whole thickness to be removed from the arm and thigh, or even from other people, and then implanted and bound upon the raw surface. (This method has the disadvantage that the true skin must contract at the spot from which the graft is taken, leaving an unsightly scar.) When very large areas require to be covered, a third method is commonly used. A large ?ap of skin, amply su?cient to cover the gap, is raised from a neighbouring or distant part of the body, in such a way that it remains attached along one margin, so that blood vessels can still enter and nourish it. It is then turned so as to cover the gap; or, if it be situated on a distant part, the two parts are brought together and ?xed in this position until the ?ap grows ?rmly to its new bed. The old connection of the ?ap is then severed, leaving it growing in its new place.

Researchers are having success in growing human skin in the laboratory for grafting on to people who have been badly burned and have insu?cient intact skin surface to provide an autologous graft (one provided by the recipient of the graft). Other techniques being researched are the use of specially treated shark skin and the production of arti?cial skin.... skin-grafting

Skin, Diseases Of

They may be local to the SKIN, or a manifestation of systemic disorders – inherited or acquired. Some major types are described below.

Others appear under their appropriate alphabetical headings: ACNE; ALBINISM; ALOPECIA; ALOPECIA AREATA; APHTHOUS ULCER; BASAL CELL CARCINOMA; BOILS (FURUNCULOSIS); BOWEN’S DISEASE; CALLOSITIES; CANDIDA; CHEILOSIS; CHEIRAPOMPHOLYX; DANDRUFF; DERMATOFIBROMA; DERMATOMYOSITIS; DERMATOPHYTES; DERMOGRAPHISM; ECTHYMA; ERYSIPELAS; ERYTHEMA; ERYTHRASMA; ERYTHRODERMA; ESCHAR; EXANTHEM; FUNGAL AND YEAST INFECTIONS; HAND, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE; HERPES GENITALIS; HERPES SIMPLEX; HERPES ZOSTER; IMPETIGO; INTERTRIGO; KELOID; KERATOSIS; LARVA MIGRANS; LICHEN; LUPUS; MADURA FOOT; MELANOMA; MILIARIA; MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM; MOLE; MYCOSIS FUNGOIDES; NAEVUS; ORF; PEDICULOSIS; PEMPHIGUS; PHOTOCHEMOTHERAPY; PHOTODERMATOSES; PITYRIASIS; PORPHYRIAS; PRURITUS; PSORIASIS; RINGWORM; ROSACEA; SARCOIDOSIS; SCABIES; SCLERODERMA; URTICARIA; VITILIGO; WARTS; XANTHOMATA.

Skin cancer Primary cancer is common and chronic exposure to ultraviolet light is the most important cause. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA is the most common form; squamous cell carcinoma is less common and presents as a growing, usually painless nodule which may ulcerate. Squamous cancer may spread to regional lymph glands and metastasise, unlike basal cell cancer. Occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens may cause squamous carcinoma – for example, cancer from pitch warts or the scrotal carcinoma of chimney sweeps exposed to coal dust in earlier centuries. Squamous carcinoma of the lip is associated with clay-pipe smoking.

Cancer may arise from the population of melanocytes of the skin (see MELANOCYTE; MELANOMA).

Apart from these three most frequent forms of skin cancer, various forms of cancer can arise from cells of the dermis, of which LYMPHOMA is the most important (see also MYCOSIS FUNGOIDES).

Lastly, secondary deposits from internal cancer, particularly from the breast, may metastasise to the skin.

Dermatitis and eczema These are broadly synonymous, and the terms are frequently interchangeable. Eczema is a pattern of in?ammation with many potential causes. Dermatitis is commonly used to suggest an eczema caused by external factors; it is a common pattern of in?ammation of the skin characterised by redness and swelling, vesiculation (see VESICLE), and scaling with intense itching and often exudation (weeping). Fissuring, thickening (licheni?cation – see LICHEN) and secondary bacterial infection may follow. Dermatitis can affect any part of the body. It may be genetically detemined or due to other ‘internal’ factors, such as venous HYPERTENSION in a leg, or stress. Often it is ‘external’ in origin – due to strong irritants or chemical allergens. (See also ALLERGY; ALLERGEN.) ATOPIC DERMATITIS is genetic in origin and usually begins in infancy. It may persist for years, and ASTHMA, allergic RHINITIS and conjunctivitis (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF) – ‘hay fever’ – may be associated. Atopic children tend to have multiple allergies, especially to inhaled allergens such as house-dust mite, cat and dog dander and pollens. Allergy to foods is less common but potentially more dangerous, especially if to nuts, when it can cause acute URTICARIA or even ANAPHYLAXIS. Atopic subjects are particularly prone to persistent and multiple verrucae (see WARTS) and mollusca (see MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM) and to severe HERPES SIMPLEX infections. (See also ATOPY.)

EXFOLIATE DERMATITIS (PITYRIASIS RUBRA)

Generalised exfoliation and scaling of the skin, commonly with ERYTHEMA. Drugs may cause it, or the disorder may be linked with other skin diseases such as benign dermatoses and lupus erythematosus (see under LUPUS). SUMMER POMPHOLYX is an acute vesicular eczema of the palms and soles recurring every summer. Inhaled allergens are a frequent cause. VENOUS (STASIS) DERMATITIS begins on a lower calf, often in association with PURPURA, swelling and sometimes ulceration. Chronic venous hypertension in the leg, consequent on valvular incompetence in the deep leg veins owing to previous deep vein thrombosis (see VEINS, DISEASES OF), is the usual cause. NEURODERMATITIS A pattern of well-de?ned plaques of licheni?ed eczema particularly seen on the neck, ulnar forearms or sides of the calves in subjects under emotional stress. IRRITANT CONTACT DERMATITIS Most often seen in an industrial setting (occupational dermatitis), it is due to damage by strong chemicals such as cutting oils, cement, detergents and solvents. In almost all cases the hands are most severely affected. ALLERGIC CONTACT DERMATITIS, in contrast, can affect any part of the body depending on the cause – for example, the face (cosmetics), hands (plants, occupational allergens) or soles (rubber boots). Particularly common allergens include metals (nickel and chromate), rubber addititives, and adhesives (epoxy resins).

Treatment Avoidance of irritants and contact allergens, liberal use of EMOLLIENTS, and topical application of corticosteroid creams and ointments (see CORTICOSTEROIDS) are central.... skin, diseases of

Skullcap Tea Health Benefits

Skullcap tea gets its name from the perennial herb shaped like a human skull, native to North America. Skullcap tea has been used for centuries as a natural and effective sedative and nerve tonic which relieves fear, anxiety and promotes relaxation. Skullcap Tea Brewing Skullcap teabrewing should be made with water that is not too hot, because otherwise it will spoil the tea and its benefits will not be fully enjoyed. The infusion will last three to five minutes. Skullcap tea has a pleasant taste which will make you perceive it less like a medicinal sleeping aid. Skullcap Tea Health Benefits Skullcap tea has a wide range ofbeneficial effects on the human body. It has been used as a sedative for centuries and nowadays been proven effective as a cure for insomnia, anxiety and headaches. Skullcap tea has a calming effect which soothes stress, muscle spasms, menstrual cramps and other problems that require the use of a remedy with sedative properties. Skullcap tea consumption may also be useful as a complimentary treatment method for more serious illnesses such as bladder and liver cancer, asthma, arthritis, gout or allergies. Research suggests that the tea could be beneficial for the prevention of heart diseases and strokes as well. Skullcap Tea Side Effects Excessive Skullcap tea intake may lead to unpleasantside effects such as irregular heartbeat, mental confusion, slow responsiveness to stimuli and even seizures. Skullcap tea should not be consumed with other with other medications that have the same relaxing effects because it may enhance their sedation properties and it is not recommended for pregnant or nursing women. Patients suffering from spleen, liver or stomach problems and diabetics should avoid Skullcap tea. It is advisable to consult a doctor prior to adding skullcap tea to your dietary plan. Sleep is essential for the well-being of our body. Drinking Skullcap tea nightly before bed when you feel the need of easing your mind or calming your nerves will work miracles. You will turn off your brain and enjoy a good night’s sleep!... skullcap tea health benefits

Sloane

(Irish) A strong protector; a woman warrior Sloan, Slone... sloane

Sloe

Exorcism, Protection ... sloe

Small-bowel Transplantantion

Before the advent of small-bowel transplants, long-term intravenous feeding (total parenteral nutrition or TPN) was the last option for patients with chronic intestinal failure. Most recipients are children, and small-bowel transplantation is currently reserved for patients unable to continue on long-term parenteral nutrition. The main constraints to small-bowel transplantation are the intensity of rejection (necessitating high levels of immunosuppression), and the lack of donors who are the same size as the recipient (a particular problem for children).... small-bowel transplantantion

Sleep Apnoeas

A sleep apnoea is conventionally de?ned as the cessation of breathing for ten seconds or more. Apnoeas, which affect around 5 per cent of adults and are markedly more common in men, may occur as frequently as 400 times per night. They can be due to a failure of the physiological drive to breathe (central sleep apnoeas) but much more often are due to a transient obstruction of the airway between the level of the soft PALATE and the LARYNX (obstructive sleep apnoeas) when the airway dilator muscles over-relax. Any factor such as alcohol or sedative drugs that accentuates this, or that makes the airway narrower (such as obesity or large TONSILS), will tend to cause sleep apnoeas.

Vigorous respiratory movements are made to overcome the obstruction during each apnoea. These are associated with snoring and snorting noises. The apnoea ends with a mini-arousal from sleep. As a result, sleep becomes fragmented and sleep deprivation, manifested as sleepiness during the day, is common. This may result in accidents – for instance, at work or while driving – and sleep apnoea is also linked with an increased risk of STROKE, heart attacks and HYPERTENSION.

The diagnosis of sleep apnoea has recently been facilitated by linking specially designed software with ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY performed during sleep, with minimal disturbance of the subject.

Initial treatment is directed at correcting the cause (e.g. obesity), but if the apnoeas persist or are severe a nasal mask and pump which introduces air under slight pressure into the upper airway (continuous positive airway pressure, CPAP) is almost invariably e?ective.... sleep apnoeas

Sleep, Disorders Of

There are three main groups of SLEEP disorders:

Parasomnias These include medical disorders such as ASTHMA, ANGINA PECTORIS or EPILEPSY which are made worse by sleep, and a range of behavioural alterations which are usually related to a speci?c sleep stage or to a change from one state of sleep to another. Sleepwalking, night terrors, and nightmares are examples.

Insomnia Insomnia is de?ned as a di?culty in initiating or maintaining sleep. It affects around 15 per cent of the population at any one time, and is often due to a poor pre-sleep routine (e.g. taking excessive stimulants such as ca?eine); unsatisfactory sleep due to poor environments such as an uncomfortable bed or a cold or noisy bedroom; anxiety and/or depression; or occasionally to a physical problem – for example, pain – or a medical disorder associated with sleep such as obstructive SLEEP APNOEAS or periodic limb movements.

Excessive daytime sleepiness This is usually due to sleep deprivation caused either by inadequate duration of sleep, or by poor quality of sleep. The individual’s lifestyle is often a cause and modi?cation of this may relieve the problem. Other common causes of excessive daytime sleepiness are depression, obstructive sleep apnoeas, periodic limb movements, excessive alcohol or other drug intake, and, less commonly, NARCOLEPSY.... sleep, disorders of

Smilax Aspera

Linn.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: The tropical and temperate regions, from Kashmir, Sikkim and Assam to South India.

English: Italian Sarsaparilla.

Action: Roots used as a substitute for Hemidesmus indicus. Rutin has been isolated as a major flavonoid from the plant.... smilax aspera

Smilax Lanceifolia

Roxb.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Sikkim Himalayas, Assam and Manipur.

Ayurvedic: Hindi Chobachini.

Folk: Shukchin (Maharashtra), Hariaa.

Action: Roots—used for rheumatic affections.... smilax lanceifolia

Slippery Elm Tea Benefits And Side Effects

Slippery Elm Tea is made from the inner bark of a tree that typically grows in the eastern part of North America and it has been used as medicine for centuries.Slippery Elm Tea contains mucilage, a gel-like substance that has the property of soothing pain, irritation and inflammation. Slippery Elm Tea Brewing The reddish sticky inner bark of Slippery Elm Tea si dried and powdered. In order tobrewthe tea, you must boil two cups of water in which you will stir four grams of powdered slippery elm and allow it to steep for about five minutes. Slippery Elm Tea Health Benefits Slippery Elm Tea has many beneficial effects. Due to its mucilage content, it can lessen the effects of gastrointestinal disorders like upset stomach and heartburn. It also protects the esophagus from acid damage caused by acid reflux. The antioxidant content ofSlippery Elm Teamakes it extremely beneficial in easing the inflammation caused by bowel disorders such as ulcerative colitis, which produces highly unpleasant symptoms, including diarrhea, cramping bloody stools and pain.   Slippery Elm Tea is also effective in treating coughs, respiratory irritations and sore throats. It can also be used externaly to smoothen and soften the skin or to treat certain skin conditions, wounds or burns. Slippery Elm Tea Side Effects Research shows that the components of Slippery Elm Tea display a low risk of side effects or toxicity, but it is not advisable to drink it along orally administered medications, as it may interfere with their absorption and weaken their efficiency. As a countermeasure, you can drink the tea two hours before or after administering the medications. Despite its numerous benefits, Slippery Elm Tea is not recommended as treatment for serious diseases such as bronchitis and cancer. Slippery Elm Tea can be safely consumed by pregnant or nursing women and by children. You can drink Slippery Elm Tea three times a day. It is a nutritious beverage that will considerably contribute to your well-being.... slippery elm tea benefits and side effects

Smilax Aristolochiaefolia

Miller.

Family: Liliaceae; Smilacaceae.

Habitat: Native to tropical America and the West Indies.

English: Sarsaparilla.

Unani: Ushbaa Maghrabi (Ushbaa Desi is equated with Decalepis hamiltonii.)

Action: Alterative, anti- inflammatory, antipruritic, blood purifier, antiseptic. (It was first introduced in 1563 as a drug for syphilis.)

In Western herbal, Sarsaparilla is equated with Smilax aristolochiaefo- lia (American, Mexican, Vera Cruz or Grey Sarsaparilla); S. medica, S. regelii (Jamaican, Honduras or Brown Sarsaparilla); S.febrifuga (Ecuadorian or Guayaquil Sarsaparilla). Hemides- mus indicus is equated with Indian Sarsaparilla.

Key application: Preparations of sarsaparilla root are used for skin diseases, psoriasis and its sequel, rheumatic complaints, kidney diseases, and as a diaphoretic and diuretic. (The claimed efficacy has not been established clinically.) Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.

The roots and rhizomes of sarsaparil- la contain saponins based on aglycones sarsapogenin and smilagenin, the major one being parillin (sarsaponin), with smilasaponin (smilacin) and sar- saparilloside; beta-sitosterol, stigmas- terol and their glucosides. Chief components of saponins (0.5-3%) are sar- saparilloside, along with parillin as a breakdown product. Parillin shows antibiotic activity.

Sarsaparilla root sterols are not anabolic steroids, nor are they converted in vivo to anabolic steroids. Testosterone, till now, has not been detected in any plant including sarsaparilla. Hemidesmus indicus contains none of the saponins or principal constituents found in sarsaparilla. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... smilax aristolochiaefolia

Smilax China

Linn.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Japan, China and Cochin China.

Ayurvedic: Chobachini, Chopachi- ni, Dweepaantar-Vachaa, Madhus- nuhi, Hriddhaatri.

Unani: Chobchini.

Siddha/Tamil: Parangi chakkai.

Action: Tubers—used as alterative in venereal diseases, chronic skin diseases and rheumatic affections. Used as official sarsaparilla. (China of homoeopathic medicine is Peruvian bark, not Smilax china.)

Sarsaparilla (Smilax species) is used in Oriental as well as in Western herbal for its alterative, gentle circulatory stimulant and mild testosterone activity.

The root is known for its steroidal saponins. Pro-sapogenin-A of dioscin, dioscin, gracillin. Me-protogracillin, Me-protodioscin and its 22-hydroxy- analog; besides beta-sitosterol gluco- side, smilaxin, two furostan and one spirostane glycosides have been isolated from the root.

Dosage: Root—50-100 mg powder. (CCRAS.)... smilax china

Smilax Ornata

Hook.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Tropical Himalayas from Kumaon eastwards to Khasi, Garo and Naga Hills, and in Bihar.

Unani: Ushbaa. (Jamaica sak- saparilla.)

Action: Roots—used as a blood purifying drug.... smilax ornata

Smilax Ovalifolia

Roxb.

Synonym: S. macrophylla Roxb.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Tropical parts of India.... smilax ovalifolia

Smilax Zeylanica

Linn.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Tropical parts of India including hills. Common in eastern Himalayas.

Unani: Jangali Ushbaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Malai-thaamara.

Action: Root—used in prescriptions for venereal diseases. Decoction, used for abscesses, boils, swellings and rheumatism; also for dysentery Used as a substitute for S. ornata.

Diosgenin is reported from the root and leaf.... smilax zeylanica

Smilax Glabra

Roxb.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: Assam, Khasi and Garo Hills, eastwards to upper Burma, Indo-China and southern China.

Ayurvedic: Dweepaantara-Vachaa, Chobachini (bigger var.).

Action: Roots—used for syphilis, venereal diseases and sores, as a blood purifier.

Astilbin, 3-O-caffeoyl-shikimic, fer- ulic, palmitic, shikimic and succinic acids; engeletin, isoengeletin; glucose; daucosterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmas- terol are major constituents of the root.

Crude saponins, isolated from the plant, produced preventive effect on cholesterol-fed atherosclerosis in quails.

Ayurvedic: Maitri.

Unani: Ushbaa (wild species).

Folk: Ghot-vel (Maharashtra).

Action: Roots—used as a substitute for Hemidesmus indicus. Used for venereal diseases, urinary infections, rheumatism. Also used for dysentery. (S. perfoliata Lour., synonym S. prolifera Roxb. is used as a substitute for S. ovalifolia.)... smilax glabra

Smita

(Indian) One who smiles a lot... smita

Smoke Inhalation

Smoke is made up of small particles of carbon in hot air and gases. The particles are covered with organic chemicals and smoke may also contain carbon monoxide and acids. When smoke is inhaled, the effects on breathing may be immediate or delayed, depending upon the density of smoke and its composition. Laryngeal stridor (obstruction of the LARYNX), lack of oxygen and PULMONARY OEDEMA are life-threatening symptoms that require urgent treatment. Immediate removal of the victim from the smoke is imperative, as is the administration of oxygen. The victim may require admission to an intensive-care unit.... smoke inhalation

Snake-bite

See BITES AND STINGS.... snake-bite

Snakeroot/black

Love, Lust, Money... snakeroot/black

Snana

(Native American) Having a sound like bells

Snanah, Snanna, Snannah... snana

Snapdragon

Protection... snapdragon

Snapping Finger

See TRIGGER FINGER.... snapping finger

Snottie

A colloquial term for Cyanea. Also known as the Lion’s mane and Hair jellyfish.... snottie

Snow

(American) Frozen rain Snowy, Snowie, Snowi, Snowey, Snowee, Snowea, Sno... snow

Snowdrop

(English) Resembling a small white flower... snowdrop

Snuffles

The traditional name applied to noisy breathing in children due to the constant presence of nasal discharge. (For treatment, see under NOSE, DISORDERS OF.)... snuffles

Social Capital

Kin and other sources of support available to an individual.... social capital

Social Care Service

Assistance with the activities of daily life (personal care, domestic maintenance, self-direction) delivered by a personal care helper, home helper or social worker and aimed at supporting older people who experience disabilities in functioning.... social care service

Social Classes

As factors such as the cause of death and the incidence of diseases vary in di?erent social strata, the Registrar-General evolved the following social classi?cation, which has now been in o?cial use for many years:

Class I Professional occupations, such as lawyers, clergymen, and commissioned o?cers in the Armed Forces.

Class II Intermediate occupations, such as teachers, managers and nurses.

Class III N: non-manual – for example, clerical workers.

Class III M: skilled manual occupations such as miners and bricklayers.

Class IV Partly skilled occupations, such as agricultural workers.

Class V Unskilled occupations, such as building and dock labourers.... social classes

Snow Bud Tea

White tea is one of the most subtle and delicate of all varieties of tea. Discover the unique features of a well known type of white tea - Snow bud tea and learn more about its benefits. About Snow bud tea Snow bud tea belongs to the family of white teas which is one of the softest types of tea. Coming from Fujian province of China, this tea is delicious and fascinating, most appreciated by tea lovers. From each bush, only the finest tea leaves are used, with a minimal amount of processing. Tea buds and leaves are harvested in early spring before opening, when they are still covered with white hair. After that they are left in natural sunlight for whitening and drying. Also called Xue Ya, Snow bud tea is an airy, light tea with a subtle, gentle taste. It has a very delicate body, with an effervescent texture. Its transparent infusion has a flavor similar to toasted grains or baked sweet potatoes. The color of this tea can be similar to both green or white tea, but mostly it is light yellow. How to brew Snow bud tea When preparing the Snow bud tea, spring water would be most suitable, in order to avoid impurities. Remember to never boil the water, as it will ruin the taste of infusion. The ideal temperature for this tea ranges from 70ºC to 80ºC (approx. 160ºF to 175ºF). Infuse it for approximately 5 minutes and enjoy the rich taste. Because it is a quite expensive tea assortment, you can brew it more than once using the same leaves. This will also lower the caffeine content and will result in a mellow, gentle taste. Benefits of Snow bud tea Chinese people believe that Snow bud tea is refreshing and it has even cooling and detoxifying properties. Recent studies have demonstrated that, compared to other types of tea, this one has one of the highest concentration of catechins, almost three times bigger than green tea. Lack of fermentation process, Snow bud tea has also more polyphenols, believed to be a possible anti-cancer agent. This tea is low on caffeine, so, due to this, the possible side effects are quite rare. Studies have shown that this tea has a strong effect in halting cell mutation in an early stage of cancer, thus it successfully fights many types of cancer. The Snow bud tea is also excellent for hydrating the body and skin, having a natural anti-aging effect. It also boosts the metabolism, making you burn fat faster. So it is ideal for diets. Snow bud tea may help in fighting viruses and bacterial growth, reduce infections, pneumonia and even dental plaque, thus strengthening the whole immune system of your body. Let’s not forget about its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect. It also improves cardiovascular function. Side effects of Sun bud tea As far as the side effects, there are no identified ones when drinking Snow bud tea, except few related to low caffeine content. People with intolerance to caffeine, should, however, avoid drinking it at night. Snow bud tea is best for those who prefer green tea but want to experience the benefits of white tea. The long list of health benefits and the lack of side effects makes it ideal for daily consumption. So enjoy a relaxing cup of tea.... snow bud tea

Social Control

A process within society which both formally, through law, and informally, through customs, norms and mores, attempts to influence and order the actions of social groups and their members and thus maintain public order.... social control

Social Exclusion

A situation in which individuals are prevented from fully participating in society by factors such as age, poverty, disability or ethnicity.... social exclusion

Social Group

Any set of persons within society with particular demographic, economic or social characteristics.... social group

Social Integration

The extent to which individuals are engaged with their families, friends, neighbours and communities.... social integration

Social Isolation

A condition in which an individual has extremely limited social networks and supports.... social isolation

Social Network

An individual’s web of kinship, friendship and community ties.... social network

Social Network Care

See “informal care”.... social network care

Social Security Benefits

Benefits that include income for eligible persons from social security, old age, disability, and survivors’ pension schemes.... social security benefits

Soapwort

Saponaria officinalis. N.O. Caryophyllaceae.

Synonym: Bouncing Bet, Bruisewort. Fuller's Herb, Soaproot.

Habitat: Roadsides and waste places near habitations.

Features ? Stem two feet high, smooth, round, thick. Leaves stalked, ovoid, two to three inches long. Flowers (August) flesh-coloured to white, five cordate petals, clustered towards end of stem.

Part used ? Leaves, root.

Action: Alterative, detergent.

Skin diseases generally. Decoction of 1 ounce to 1 1/2 pints water simmered to 1 pint is taken in wineglass doses three or four times daily. Pronounced "soapy" properties will remove grease.... soapwort

Soapwort Tea Benefits

For many years, the uses of Soapwort tea only involved laundry cleaning. According to today’s herbalists, it’s not the case anymore. Soapwort is a plant that grows in Europe, North America and Asia. You can easily recognize it by its pink flowers and green leaves. This is a perennial plant, whose aerial parts are picked during the summer, while the roots can only be harvested in the fall. Ancient Greeks used this herb to clean their laundry, making it a very good natural detergent, but the benefits of Soapwort plant consist mainly of its medical use. Properties of Soapwort Tea You can use Soapwort tea for external use, but some say that a diet based on this plant can be a great treatment for your health. Soapwort is a strong purgative and vomit inducer (not to mention that it tastes like a soap), so it’s up to you if you’re going to drink it or not. Also, you need to decide if you’re using the aerial parts or the roots. If the first ones are excellent in case of severe diarrhea, the roots of Soapwort plant are a bit stronger and may have a negative effect on you and your health. Soapwort Tea Benefits You can use Soapwort Tea in case you have a mild skin condition, such as irritation or eczema, but you can also use the boiled solution as a natural shampoo. Herbalists say that Soapwort tea can clean your hair better than any cosmetic product, since it doesn’t have any chemical ingredients. All you have to do is poor it on your hair and leave it in for about 5-10 minutes, depending on how long your hair is. Soapwort tea is a great gout and rheumatism cure: drink a cup of tea every day and you’ll feel a lot better because of the anti-inflammatory properties that this plant has. If you suffer from arthritis, add Soapwort plant to your shopping list for the same reason. How to make Soapwort Infusion Soapwort tea infusion is more of a boiled solution that you can keep in a jar for a very long time (in your refrigerator), since it has the same benefits both cold and hot. What you need to do is make sure the parts you are about to use are clean (you don’t want any bacteria to interfere with your treatment). Then, you boil the ingredients for 15-30 minutes: 15 minutes if you’re using Soapwort powder and 30 minutes if you’re using the dry roots. Soapwort Tea side effects If you are using Soapwort tea internally, make sure you are supervised by a qualified herbalist, because it can cause stomach pain and other digestive track problems, such as ulcers and gastritis. It’s best to think of Soapwort plant as of any other detergent, so if drinking a detergent solution sounds bad, you should probably think again about drinking Soapwort tea. Although the benefits of this plant are great, make sure you are well-informed before starting an internal treatment and ask for help from advised personnel only. Soapwort Tea Contraindications Do not take Soapwort tea if you are already suffering from gastric problems, laryngitis and other throat conditions. Soapwort tea is basically used topically because of its corrosive property. However, if you are in a good shape and you’ve got the green light from your doctor concerning an internal treatment, go for it: the benefits are great! So, if you want your hair to be healthy and shiny in a natural way, don’t forget to give Soapwort tea a try next time you are looking for a good shampoo!... soapwort tea benefits

Social Support

Emotional, instrumental and financial assistance obtained from an individual’s social network. Social support provided by family, friends and neighbours is referred to as ‘informal support’, whereas social support provided by formal service agencies is called ‘formal support’.... social support

Social Work

An intervention designed to enhance an individual’s physical, mental and social functioning through improved coping skills and use of social supports and community health care services. Those who practise social work are generally called social workers. There are many different types, specialties and grades of social worker. Those who specialize in care of older adults are often called geriatric or gerontological social workers.... social work

Socorro

(Spanish) One who offers help and relief

Socoro, Sokorro, Sokoro, Sockorro, Sockoro... socorro

Sodium Cromoglycate

Used in the prophylaxis of ASTHMA, it is administered by inhalation and can reduce the incidence of asthmatic attacks but is of no value in the treatment of an acute attack. It acts by preventing the release of pharmacological mediators of BRONCHOSPASM, particularly HISTAMINE, by stabilising mast-cell membranes. It is of particular use in patients whose asthma has an allergic basis; children over four may respond better than adults. It is less potent than inhaled steroids. The dose frequency is adjusted to the patient’s response but is usually administered by inhalation four times daily. Sodium cromoglycate is also used in the prophylaxis of allergic RHINITIS and to treat allergic conjunctivitis (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF).... sodium cromoglycate

Sodium Diatrizoate

An organic iodine salt that is radio-opaque and therefore used as a contrast medium to outline various organs in the body in X-ray ?lms (see XRAYS). It is given intravenously. Its main use is in PYELOGRAPHY – that is, in rendering the kidneys radio-opaque – but it is also used to outline the blood vessels (ANGIOGRAPHY) and the gall-bladder and bile ducts (CHOLANGIOGRAPHY).... sodium diatrizoate

Sodomy

Sexual intercourse in which the penis penetrates the anus and the rectum. Sodomy may occur between men, between a man and a woman, or between a man and an animal (bestiality).... sodomy

Sohalia

(Indian) Of the moon’s glow Sohaliah, Sohalea, Sohaliya, Sohaleah, Sohalya... sohalia

Sokanon

(Native American) Born of the rain... sokanon

Solace

(Latin) One who gives comfort Solase... solace

Solada

(Thai) One who listens well... solada

Solaina

(French) A dignified and respected woman

Solaine, Solayna, Solanya, Solaynya, Solainia, Solaena... solaina

Solana

(Latin / Spanish) Wind from the East / of the sunshine Solanah, Solanna, Solann, Solanne... solana

Solange

(French) One who is religious and dignified... solange

Solanum Aculeatissimum

Jacq.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Assam and Kerala, in damp and waste places.

Ayurvedic: Brihati (related species, used in Kerala). Brihati and Kantakaari have been used in Indian medicine as synonyms.

Action: Both fruit and leaves contain glycoalkaloid solanine; immature fruits contain more of it than the ripe ones. Air-dried leaves and fruits contain 0.26 and 0.14% of alkaloids, respectively. See S. indicum Linn.... solanum aculeatissimum

Solanum Dubium

Fresen.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Sandy coast of Saurashtra (Gujarat).

Ayurvedic: Kantakaari (related species).

Action: Seeds are soaked and eaten in Africa for the treatment of venereal diseases. See S. xanthocarpum.... solanum dubium

Solanum Spirale

Roxb.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Assam, Khasi Hills. Banga (Bengal); Titakuchi (Assam); Soh- jhari (Khasi); Mungas-kajur (root, Bihar).

Action: Root—diuretic, narcotic. Unripe berries—poisonous.

The leaves contain 1.29% alkaloids. Partial synthesis of etiolin has been reported.... solanum spirale

Solanums

Solanum spp.

Solanaceae

Solanums comprise a very important group of medicinal plants having multifarious uses.

These plants belong to the family Solanaceae and genus Solanum. A number of species are reported to be medicinal which are briefly described below.

1. S. anguivi Lam. syn. S. indicum auct. non Linn.

Eng: Poison berry; San: Brhati, Simhi;

Hin: Barhauta, Birhatta;

Mal: Puthirichunda, Cheruchunda;

Tam: Karimulli, Puthirichundai;

Kan: Ramagulla;

Tel: Cittimulaga, Tellamulaka It is found throughout the tropics, in plains and at low elevations. It is much branched, very prickly undershrub, 0.3-1.5m in height. Leaves are simple, large, ovate, subentire, sinuate or lobed. Flowers are blue in extra-axillary cymes having stellately hairy and prickly peduncles. Fruits are globose berries, reddish or dark yellow with smooth or minutely pitted seeds. Its roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, odontalgia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, verminosis, diarrhoea, pruritus, leprosy, skin diseases, strangury, cough, asthma, bronchitis, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, fever, cardiac disorders and vomiting. Roots bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, anodyne, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, stomachic, constipating, resolvent, demulcent, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, febrifuge and cardiotonic.

2. S. dulcamara Linn.

Eng: Bittersweet, Bitter night shade; San: Kakmachi; Pun: Rubabarik It is found in tropical situations in India and Sikkim. The plant is rich in alkaloidal glycosides like solamarine, tomatidenol, solasodine and soladulcine. The berry and twig are alterative, antisyphilitic, diaphoretic, resolvent, narcotic, diuretic, antirheumatic and used in liver disorders and psoriasis.

3. S. erianthum D. Don, syn. S. verbascifolium auct. non Linn.

San: Vidari;

Hin: Asheta;

Mal: Malachunda;

Tam: Malaichundai, Anaisundaikkai

Pun: Kalamena;

Tel: Rasagadi

The plant is distributed over the tropical and subtropical zones of India. The plant contains alkaloids and steroidal sapogenins. Leaves and fruits contain solasodine, solasodiene, solafloridine, diosgenin, vespertilin and pregnenolone. The plant is CNS depressant, antiinflammatory and useful in burns.

4. S. melongena Linn.

Eng: Brinjal, Egg plant; San: Varttaki;

Hin: Bengan, Badanjan;

Mal: Vazhuthina

Tam: Kattirikkai;

Kan: Badanekaya, Doddabadane;

Tel: Vankaya, Niruvanga

It is mainly cultivated as a vegetable throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is an erect or suffrutescent, herbaceous, armed or unarmed perennial shrub. Leaves are simple, large, entire and lobed. Flowers are blue, in clusters of 2-5. Fruits are large, white, yellow or dark purple berries of different shapes capped with thick persistent calyx. Seeds are many, yellow or cream and discoid. The roots, leaves and unripe fruits are useful in cholera, bronchitis, asthma, odontalgia and fever. The roots are laxative, analgesic and cardiotonic. Leaves are sialagogue, narcotic and antiherpetic. The unripe fruits are bitter, acrid, sweet, aphrodisiac, cardiotonic and haematinic.

5. S. melongena var. incanum (Linn.) Prain syn. S. incanum Linn., S. coagulens Forsk.

San: Brihati;

Hin: Baigan;

Mal: Cheruvazhuthina

It is a herbaceous prickly plant found in warm humid tropics. It is grown almost throughout the year in the plains and during summer on the hills. It grows 0.6-2m in height. Leaves are simple, alternate lobed. Flowers are blue or white, 5 lobed, calyx with spines. Fruits are ellipsoid berries. The plant is a constituent of the dasamoola which helps to overcome vitiated tridoshas and cures dyspepsia, fever, respiratory and cardiac disorders, skin ailments, vomiting, ulcers and poisonous affections. In Ayurveda the formulations like Brihatyadi Kashaya, dashamoolarishta, Indukantaghritam, Dasamoolaharithaki, etc are the important preparations with the roots. It is also used in the treatment of toothache and sore throat. The fruit is reported to stimulate the intrahepatic metabolism of cholesterol. Roots are antiasthmatic and stimulant. Leaves are used in cholera, bronchitis and asthma. Fruits are useful in liver complaints.

6. S. nigrum Linn. syn. S. rubrum Mill.

Eng: Black night shade; San: Kakamachi;

Hin: Makoy, Gurkkamai;

Mal: Karimthakkali;

Tam: Manathakkali, Milagutakkali;

Kan: Kakarndi;

Tel: Kamachi, Kachi

It is seen wild throughout India. It is an erect, divaricately branched, unarmed, suffrutescent annual herb. Leaves are ovate or oblong, sinuate-toothed or lobed and glabrous. Flowers are 3-8 in extra-axillary drooping subumbellate cymes. Fruits are purplish black or reddish berries. Seeds are many, discoid, yellow, minutely pitted. The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of tridosha, rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, strangury, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting, cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, haemarrhoids, nephropathy, dropsy and general debility. The plant is bitter, acrid, emollient, antiseptic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

7. S. spirale Roxb.

Hin: Munguskajur

It is seen wild in Assam and Khasi hills in India. Its root is diuretic and narcotic.

8. S. stramoniifolium Jacq., syn. S. ferox auct. non Linn.

San: Garbhada;

Hin: Rambaigan;

Mal: Anachunda;

Tam: Anaichundai;

Tel: Mulaka

It is observed in India in the states of Assam, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Its berries contain glycoalkaloids such as solasonine and solasodine. Its roots and berries are bechic, antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, antiviral, anticancerous and spermicidal.

9. S. surattense Burm. F. syn. S. xanthocarpum schrad. & Wendl., S. jacquinii Willd.

Eng: Yellow-berried nightshade; San: Kantakari, Nidigdhika;

Hin: Remgani,Kateli;

Mal: Kantakarichunda;

Tam: Kantankattiri;

Kan: Nelagulli;

Tel: Callamulaga

It is found throughout India and Pakistan in dry situations as weed on roadsides and wastelands. It is prickly, diffuse, bright green, suffrutescent, perennial undershrub, with zigzag branches. Leaves are ovate-oblong, hairy on both sides and armed on the midrib and the nerves. Flowers are bluish purple, in extra-axillary cymes. Fruits are glabrous, globular drooping berry, yellow or white with green veins, surrounded by the calyx. Seeds are many, small, reniform, smooth and yellowish brown.

The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, helminthiasis, dental caries, inflammations, flatulence, constipation, dyspepsia, anorexia, leprosy, skin diseases, hypertension, fever, cough, asthma, bronchitis, hiccough, lumbago, haemorrhoids and epilepsy. The plant is bitter, acrid, thermogenic, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, carminative, appetiser, stomachic, depurative, sudorific, febrifuge, expectorant, laxative, stimulant, diuretic, rejuvenating, emmenagogue and aphrodisac. Fruits contain solasonine, solamargine and solasodine.

10. S. torvum Sw.

Eng: West Indian Turkey Berry;

Hin,

Ben: Titbaigan;

Mal: Kattuchunda;

Kan: Kadu Sunde;

Tam: Sundaikai, Amarakai;

Tel: Kundavustic, Kotuvestu; Ass: Hathibhekuri

It is seen throughout tropical India, particularly in Orissa, Bihar and Manipur. The plant is CVS active and used in splenomegaly. Fruits and leaves contain solasonine, solasodine, jurubine, jurubidine, torvonin, torvogenin, chlorogenin, paniculogenin, sisalogenone, neosolaspigenin and solaspigenin.

11. S. trilobatum Linn.

Eng: Climbing Brinjal; San: Alarka;

Mal: Tutavalam;

Tam: Tuduvalai;

Kan: Mullumusta;

Tel: Telavuste

It is mostly seen in South and Western India. The plant contains alkamine and solamarine. The berry and flowers are bechic and used in bronchitis. The alkaloid solamarine is antibiotic and possesses antitumour activity.

12. S. viarum Dunal, syn. S. Khasianum C. B. Clarke

Hin: Kantakari

It is widely distributed in Khasi, Jaintia and Naga hills of Assam and Manipur upto 2000m and in Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa and in the Niligiris. The plant and berries contain solasonine (which on hydrolysis yields solasodine), solamargine, khasianine, nantigenin, solasodine, diosgenin and saponin-solakhasianin. The plant is spasmolytic and CNS active. The berry is a source of solasodine used in the synthesis of corticosteroidal hormones.

Agrotechnology: The agrotechnology for the solanaceous group of plants are almost similar. They come up very well in tropical and subtropical climate upto 2000m altitude. They can be raised on a variety of soils good in organic matter. Propagation is by seeds. The seedlings are first raised in the nursery and transplanted to the main field 30-45 days after sowing when the plants attain 8-10cm height. During rainy season, planting is done on ridges while during summer in furrows, at a spacing ranging from 30-90cm depending upon the stature and spreading habit of the plant. The transplanted seedlings should be given temporary shade for 2-4 days during summer. FYM or compost at 20-25t/ha is applied at the time of land preparation. A moderate fertiliser dose of 75:40:40 N, P2O5, K2O/ha may be given. P is given as basal dose, N and K are applied in 2-3 split doses. One or two intercultural operations are needed to control weeds. The plants need earthing up after weeding and topdressing. Irrigation is needed at 3-4 days interval during summer and on alternate days during fruiting period. Plants need staking to avoid lodging due to heavy bearing. Shoot borers, mealy bugs, leaf webbers and miners are noted on the crop, which can be controlled by spraying mild insecticides. Root knot nematode, wilting and mosaic diseases are also noted on the crop. Field sanitation, crop rotation and burning of crop residues are recommended.... solanums

Solaris

(Greek) Of the sun Solarise, Solariss, Solarisse, Solarys, Solaryss, Solarysse, Sol, Soleil, Solstice... solaris

Solita

(Latin) One who is solitary Solitah, Solida, Soledad, Soledada, Soledade... solita

Solanum Albicaule

Kotschy ex Dunal.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Saurashtra (Gujarat) and Rajasthan.

Ayurvedic: Brihati (related species).

Folk: Narkanta (Rajasthan).

Action: A decoction of the plant is prescribed for the treatment of ulcers.

See S. indicum Linn. contains solamargine and solasodamine. The average alkaloidal content (calculated as solasodine) of leaves collected from Kashmir, is reported to be 0.3% (dry weight basis).... solanum albicaule

Solanum Dulcamara

Linn.

Solanum aviculare Forst. f.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Introduced to Kashmir for experimental cultivation.

Ayurvedic: Kantakaari (related species).

Action: An important source of solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenin and one of the starting materials for the synthesis of corticosteroids and other steroidal hormones.

See S. xanthocarpum. The leaves, stems, flowers and green fruits contain the glycoalkaloid, solaso- nine, of which solasodine is the agly- cone. Besides solasonine, the plant

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 1,200-2,400 m.

English: Woody Night Shade, Bittersweet, Bitter Nightshade, Felonwort.

Ayurvedic: Kaakamaachi-vishesha, Valli-kantakaarikaa.

Unani: Mako (red var.).

Action: Twigs and root bark— stimulating, expectorant, hepatic, astringent, antirheumatic, alterative, antifungal. Dried branches— sedative and analgesic. Used for chronic bronchitis, chronic eczema and rheumatism.

Key application: As a supportive therapy for chronic eczema. (German Commission E.)

The plant is rich in alkaloidal glyco- sides. Alpha-, beta-, gamma-solamari- ne were isolated from the fruits. Toma- tidenol I existed in the plant as alpha- and beta-solamarine. Solasodine was obtained in traces as secondary alkaloid; it existed as solasonine and sola- margine. Aerial parts gave alpha-and beta-soladulcine, the glycoalkaloids. The sterols were present in free form and as esters, glucosides and palmitic esters of glucosides.

Beta-solamarine shows significant tumour-inhibiting activity. Steroidal saponins are antifungal; alkaloids are anticholinergic; solasodine exhibit antiphlogistic activity.... solanum dulcamara

Solanum Elaeagnifolium

Cav.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Native to tropical America; naturalized in India as a weed (met with in cultivated fields and gardens in Coimbatore).

English: White Horse-Nettle.

Action: Plant—used as a poultice for sores and ulcers. The plant is a rich source of the steroidal alkaloid, solasodine. The fruit and leaves contain 3-4% (solasodine 3.2%) and 0.18% total alkaloids. Fruits also contain 0.55% diosgenin.

A related species S. khasianum (Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa and the Nilgiris, ascending to an altitude of 1,600 m) is also a good source of solaso- dine. The fruits collected from Nilgiris contain 5.4% solasodine on dry weight basis.... solanum elaeagnifolium

Solanum Erianthum

D. Don.

Synonym: S. verbascifolium auct. non Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: The tropical and subtropical India and the Andamans. Cultivated in South India. (for berries).

Folk: Chundai (Tami Nadu, Kerala); Rasagadimaanu (Andhra Pradesh); Sowdangigida, Kadusinde (Karnataka); Kutri (Maharashtra). Vidaari is a confusing synonym (used by The Wealth of India). (Vidaari is equated with Pureraria tuberosa.)

Action: Roots—a decoction is prescribed for vertigo. Leaves— prescribed for vaginal discharges. Various plant parts are ground with warm water and applied externally to lessen inflammation, burning sensation and pain. The glycoalkaloid, solasonine is present in the leaves and fruits.... solanum erianthum

Solo Practice

The practice of a health occupation as a self-employed individual.... solo practice

Solona

(Greek) Feminine form of Solon; wisdom

Solonah, Solone, Solonie, Soloni, Solony, Soloney, Solonee, Solonea... solona

Solution

A liquid preparation containing one or more soluble drugs, usually dissolved in water.... solution

Solveig

(Norse) The strength of the house Solvig, Solveige, Solvige... solveig

Somatalgia

Body pain... somatalgia

Somatoform Diseases

A group of disorders in which the affected individuals suffer from repeated physical symptoms for which no physical cause can be discovered. Somatisation is the process by which a person’s psychological needs are expressed in the form of physical symptoms. (See also PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES.)... somatoform diseases

Solanum Ferox

Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Throughout warmer parts of India, up to an elevation of 1,500 m.

Ayurvedic: Brihati, Brihatikaa, Mahati, Hinguli, Prasaha, Vartaki, Kaantaa, Kshudra-bhantaki, Simhi, Bana-bhantaa. Kateri (bigger var.)

Unani: Katai Kalaan.

Siddha/Tamil: Mulli, Pappara-mulli, Karimulli.

Folk: Raam-begun (Bengal).

Action: Plant and root—stimulant, digestive, carminative, astringent, expectorant, diaphoretic, anthelmintic. Used for catarrhal affections, asthma, dry cough; dysuria; intestinal worms; colic, flatulence, vomiting. Berries—used in asthma and rheumatism.

Air-dried fruits and leaves contain solanine; 0.30 and 0.43% of total alkaloids respectively.

Dosage: Fruit, root—3-6 g powder; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... solanum ferox

Solanum Indicum

Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India in the plains and foot hills.

English: Poison Berry.

Ayurvedic: Brihati, Kshudra- bhantaaki, Kateri (bigger var.).

Unani: Hadaq, Kataai Kalaan.

Siddha: Mullamkatti, Papparamulli (root).

Folk: Barahantaa.

Action: Root—carminative, expectorant; used for colic, dysuria, coughs and catarrhal affections.

A decoction is prescribed in difficult parturition.

The fruits and leaves contain gly- coalkaloid, solasonine; the presence of solanine in roots, leaves and fruits has been reported. Diosgenin is also present in leaves, stems and fruits.

The total alkaloid content of fruit varies from 0.2 to 1.8% (dry weight basis); plants growing in Jammu and Kashmir bear fruits with high alkaloid content (total alkaloid 1.8%).

An alcoholic extract of fruits is active against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli. The extract of leaves is also active against E. coli.

The bigger var. of Kateri (Indian Nightshade) is also equated with S. an- guivi Lam., synonym S. indicum auct. non L. It contains salasonine, dios- genin, beta-sitosterol, lanosterol, sola- margine, solasodine and tomatidenol. The seed oil contains carpestrol.

Dosage: Root—10-20 g for decoction. (API, Vol. II.)... solanum indicum

Solanum Melongena

Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Native to India; cultivated throughout India.

English: Eggplant, Brinjal.

Ayurvedic: Bhantaki, Bhantaa, Vaartaaka, Vaartaaku, Vaartaakini, Vrintaaka.

Unani: Baingan.

Siddha/Tamil: Kathirikai.

Folk: Baingan, Bhantaa.

Action: Fruit—recommended in liver complaints and for amenorrhoea. The fruit is reported to stimulate the intrahepatic metabolism of cholesterol, produces a marked drop in blood cholesterol level. Aqueous extract of fruit is reported to inhibit choline esterase activity of human plasma. Root—anti- asthmatic. Leaves—toxic; used mostly externally for the treatment of burns, cold sores and abscesses. Seeds—anticholesterolemic.

Steroidal saponins, melongosides were isolated from seeds; tigogenin, diosgenin were also obtained. Querce- tin, 3-O-rhamnoside and kaempferol- 3-O-rutinoside have been isolated from the leaves. The ethanol extract (80%) showed anti-inflammatory activity in paw oedema and cotton pellet method in rats. Crude extract of fruits showed diuresis and dose-dependent hypotensive response in normotensive rats. Ether-soluble methanolic extract exhibited strong inhibitory activity on lipoxygenase, involved in atherosclerotic processes and platelet aggregation in rats.

Solanum melongena Linn. var. incanum Kuntze, synonym S. coagulans Forsk. is known as Bana-bhantaa (also a synonym of Solanum ferox) and is used as Brihati in Kerala. Air-dried fruits and leaves from coimbatore contain 1.05 and 0.97% of alkaloids respectively. The fruits contain solaso- dine, campesterol and beta-sitosterol. Solamargine, solasodine, ursolic acid and its derivatives exhibited significant cytotoxic effects against human P2C/PRF/5 cells in vitro.... solanum melongena

Somatra

(Indian) Of the excellent moon... somatra

Somnifacient

Causing sleep... somnifacient

Somnolence

Sleepiness... somnolence

Sona

(Arabic) The golden one Sonika, Sonna... sona

Sonora

(Spanish) A pleasant-sounding woman

Sonorah, Sonoria, Sonorya, Sonoriya... sonora

Sooleawa

(Native American) Resembling silver... sooleawa

Sopa

Soup; many different types of soups can be given as a nourishing food to support the immune system and strengthen the body to facilitate healing.... sopa

Solanum Nigrum

Linn.

Synonym: S. rubrum Mill.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, in dry parts, up to an elevation of 2,100 m.

English: Black Nightshade.

Ayurvedic: Kaakamaachi, Kaakaahya, Kaakamaataa, Dhvankshamaachi.

Unani: Mako (smallar var., black var.)

Siddha/Tamil: Manittakkali.

Action: Plant—anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, sedative, diuretic, laxative, antiseptic; fresh extract is used for inflammatory swellings, enlargement of liver and spleen and in cirrhosis of liver. Berries— antidiarrhoeal, antipyretic. Berries and flowers—prescribed in cough and cold. Leaves— applied hot to swollen testicles; paste used as poultice to gout, rheumatic swellings and skin diseases.

The berries contain steroidal alkaloid glycosides, solasonine, alpha- and beta-solanigrine, alpha-and beta- solamargine; steroidal sapogenins, di- osgenin and tigogenin; solasodine and solasodine.

Solamargine and solasonine are present also in leaves. The total alkaloid content of fruits and leaves are 0.101 and 0.431% respectively.

Dosage: Whole plant—5-10 ml juice. (API, Vol. II.)... solanum nigrum

Solanum Torvum

Sw.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Throughout tropical parts of India, in waste places.

English: West Indian Turkey Berry.

Ayurvedic: Brihati (White-flowered- var.), Goshtha-vaartaaku.

Siddha/Tamil: Chundai.

Folk: Ran-Baingan, Goth-begun.

Action: Plant—digestive, diuretic, sedative. Leaves—haemostatic. Fruits—useful in liver and spleen enlargement (cooked and eaten as a vegetable); decoction used for cough. Root—used for poulticing cracks in feet.

Unripe fruits and leaves contain the glycoalkaloid, solasonine (0.37% total alkaloids in air-dried fruits of the plant from Khasi and Jaintia hills). Hydrolysis of the neutral glucosidal fraction yields a steroidal sapogenin, chloro- genin, which is rare in Solanum sp.

The fruits gave sitosterol-D-gluco- side.

Extracts of the plant affect the rate and amplitude of respiration, also blood pressure. They also contract isolated ileum of guinea-pig. Leaves contain no vitamin K or derivatives of naphthoquinone; their haemostatic action may be due to the oil or pectins or both.... solanum torvum

Solanum Trilobatum

Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Deccan Peninsula.

English: Climbing Brinjal.

Ayurvedic: Alarka, Valli- kantakaarikaa, Kantakaari-lataa.

Siddha/Tamil: Toothuvilai.

Action: Berries and flowers—a decoction is used for cough and chronic bronchitis.

The steroidal alkaloid, solasodine, is present in fruit and leaf of the plant (air-dried fruits and leaves from Coim- batore gave 0.96 and 0.36% respectively). A crude glycoalkaloid mixture, isolated from the plant material, contained about 20% beta-solamarine. The plant exhibited antimitotic, antitu- mour, antibacterial and antifungal activities and showed promising results in two cancer test systems—KB cell and sarcoma 180 in mice.... solanum trilobatum

Solanum Tuberosum

Linn.

Habitat: Native to South America; grown almost throughout India.

English: Patoto.

Ayurvedic: Aaluka, Aaruka, Golaalu. (Aaluka, yam of Indian medicine, is equated with species of Dioscorea.)

Folk: Aaluu.

Action: Potatoes are consumed as food. Extract of leaves is used as antispasmodic in cough. Potato juice is given as an adjuvant in the treatment of peptic ulcer for bringing relief from pain and acidity. Starch and very small quantities of atropine alkaloids reduce digestive secretions and stomach acids. Potatoes are good for patients suffering from hyperacidity; boiled potatoes make an excellent diet for those having hypertension.... solanum tuberosum

Sophia

(Greek) Form of Sophie, meaning “having great wisdom and foresight” Sofia, Sofiya... sophia

Sophie

(Greek) Having great wisdom and foresight

Sofie, Sofi, Sofiyko, Sofronia, Sophronia, Sophy, Sonia, Sonya, Sonja... sophie

Soporifics

Sopori?cs are measures which induce SLEEP. (See also HYPNOTICS.)... soporifics

Sopubia Delphinifolia

G. Don.

Habitat: Western India, as a root parasite.

Folk: Dudhaali (Maharashtra).

Action: Root—juice applied to sores on feet, caused by constant exposure to water and moisture.

Alcoholic extract of air-dried powdered stems yielded isoflavonoids, which were found to be estrogenically active in albino rats.... sopubia delphinifolia

Sora

(Native American) Resembling a chirping songbird Sorah, Sorra, Sorrah... sora

Sorano

(Japanese) Of the heavens... sorano

Sorcha

(Gaelic) One who is bright; intelligent; form of Sarah, meaning “princess; lady”

Sorchah, Sorchia, Sorchiah, Sorchea, Sorcheah, Sorchiya, Sorchiyah, Sorchya, Sorchyah... sorcha

Solanum Xanthocarpum

S. & W.

Synonym: S. surattense Burm.f. S. virginianum Linn. S. maccanni Sant.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India.

English: Wild Eggplant, Yellow- Berried Nightshade.

Ayurvedic: Kantakaari, Kan- takaarikaa, Vyaaghri, Nidigdhikaa, Nidigdhaa, Duhsparshaa, Dhaa- vani, Kshudraa, Keteri (Smallar var.), Bhatakataiyaa. Used as Lakshmanaa.

Unani: Kataai Khurd, Hadaq.

Action: Stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, laxative, febrifuge. Used in the treatment of cough, bronchitis, asthma, for dislodging tenacious phlegm; also used against rheumatism, enlargement of liver and spleen, vomiting, difficult urination, bladder stones, skin diseases. Fruit—used as an adjuvant for promoting conception.

Fruits gave solasonine, solamargine, beta-solamargine and solasodine; petals yielded apigenin; stamens gave quercetin diglycoside and sitosterol. The glycoalkaloid content of fruits collected from Jammu and Kashmir is reported to be 3.5% (total alkaloids, 1.1%). The presence of diosgenin in the plant has been reported.

Both glycoalkaloid and fatty acid fractions of the plants extracts cause liberation of histamine from chopped lung tissue. The beneficial effect of the drug on bronchial asthma may be attributed to the depletion of histamine from bronchial and lung tissue.

Dosage: Whole plant—20-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)... solanum xanthocarpum

Solidago Virga-aurea

Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir eastwards and in Khasi Hills, up to 3,000 m.

English: European Goldenrod, Woundwort.

Action: Anticatarrhal, diaphoretic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic to mucous membranes.

Key application: In irrigation therapy for inflammatory diseases of the lower urinary tract, urinary calculi and kidney gravel. (German Commission E.) ESCOP also indicates its use as an adjuvant in the treatment of bacterial infections of the urinary tract.

Anti-inflammatory activity is due to phenolic glycosides; antifungal activity is due to saponins based on polygalic acid (acts specifically against the candida fungus, the cause of vaginal and oral thrush). As a diuretic, aerial parts are used for nephritis and cystitis and to flush out kidney and bladder stones; urine volume is increased but not sodium excretion.

The plant contains quercitrin, rutin, iso-quercitrin, astragalin, kaempfer- ol, rhamnoglucoside, quercetin, caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid. Aerial parts contain diterpenoids of cis-clerodane lactone group.... solidago virga-aurea

Solvent Abuse (misuse)

Also known as volatile-substance abuse, this is the deliberate inhalation of intoxicating fumes given o? by some volatile liquids. Glue-sni?ng was the most common type of solvent abuse, but inhalation of fuel gases such as butane, especially in the form of lighter re?lls, is now a greater problem and has become common among children – particularly teenagers. Solvents or volatile substances are applied to a piece of cloth or put into a plastic bag and inhaled, sometimes until the person loses consciousness. He or she may become acutely intoxicated; chronic abusers may suffer from ulcers and rashes over the face as well as damage to peripheral nerves. Death can occur, probably as a result of an abnormal rhythm of the heart. TOLERANCE to the volatile substances may develop over months, but acute intoxication may lead to aggressive and impulsive behaviour. Treatment of addiction is di?cult and requires professional counselling. Victims with acute symptoms require urgent medical attention. In Britain, most solvent misusers are males under 20 years of age. Around 150 deaths occur every year. (See also DEPENDENCE.)... solvent abuse (misuse)

Sorghum

Sorghum species

Description: There are many different kinds of sorghum, all of which bear grains in heads at the top of the plants. The grains are brown, white, red, or black. Sorghum is the main food crop in many parts of the world.

Habitat and Distribution: Sorghum is found worldwide, usually in warmer climates. All species are found in open, sunny areas.

Edible Parts: The grains are edible at any stage of development. When young, the grains are milky and edible raw. Boil the older grains. Sorghum is a nutritious food.

Other Uses: Use the stems of tall sorghum as building materials.... sorghum

Sorina

(Romanian) Feminine form of Sorin; of the sun

Sorinah, Sorinna, Sorinia, Soriniya, Sorinya, Soryna, Sorynia, Sorine, Soreena, Soreana... sorina

Solomon`s Seal Tea Health Benefits

Solomon’s Seal Tea is a very good remedy when it comes to heart problems and not only. Solomon’s Seal plant is a medicinal herb well known for its healing properties that can easily be recognized by its long green leaves and pale yellow flowers. You are probably more familiar to its cultivated cousin, Lily of the Valley. Solomon’s Seal plant has a large variety of types and it can be found in North America, Northern Europe and Siberia and it can be grown by division or by seeds. Solomon’s Seal was named after King Solomon the Hebrew, who was granted a lot of wisdom from God. According to herbal lore, Solomon put his royal seal on this plant’s leaves after recognizing its great benefits. Solomon’s Seal Tea Properties Solomon’s Seal tea is best known for its therapeutic use. You can make a tonic out of it, a hot tea or a tincture. All you need to do is find the use that bits you best and go for it! But make sure you do not eat or even touch the fruits, the leaves or the stems: they are poisonous ! The main substances of Solomon’s Seal tea are vitamins, saponins (similar to diosgenin), flavonoids. A solution made of roost or rhizomes is used in alternative medicine as an astringent, demulcent, and tonic. The dried roots are a great laxative and restorative, and is does wonders when it comes to inflammations of the stomach, indigestion, profuse menstruation, piles, general debility, bowels and chronic dysentery. You can also apply Solomon’s Seal roots on open cuts or eczema. Solomon’s Seal Tea Benefits Solomon’s Seal tea is useful for a lot of things and it has proven its medical and culinary utility in time. Ladies will find this plant very interesting and nevertheless important: a decoction made of Solomon’s Seal can be used as an excellent face rinse (think of it as a natural makeup remover or an organic face treatment). Solomon’s Seal tea is also a good remedy when it comes to kidney problems, heart conditions and nevertheless sexual problems. A solution of Solomon’s Seal can be used in case of internal bleeding, indigestion and other stomach and digestive system complaints. Let’s not forget that oil infused with Solomon’s Seal tea should always be kept in the medical cabinet: is great for broken bones or strains, torn ligaments and joint problems. How to make Solomon’s Seal Tea Infusion Solomon’s Seal tea can only be made from this herb’s rhizomes. What you need to do is take the roots and boil them for 15-20 minutes (depending on how dry they are). If they are freshly harvested, 10 minutes should do the trick. Put the solution in a bottle and drink it whenever you feel like it, but not more that 2 cups per day. Drinking too much Solomon’s Seal tea can cause diarrhea and other stomach problems. Solomon’s Seal Tea Side Effects Solomon’s Seal tea has few side effects. However, a high dosage may cause aching finger joints or heart burn. If any of that happened to you, see a doctor as soon as possible! Solomon’s Seal Tea- Contraindications Do not take Solomon’s Seal tea if you are suffering from diarrhea or other digestive track conditions, such as ulcer. It may cause serious damage to you and your body. Before starting any type of diet or treatment that involves Solomon’s Seal tea, see a doctor first. The benefits of Solomon’s Seal tea are many. Next time you’re looking for a natural treatment, add Solomon’s Seal Tea to your shopping list and just give it a try!... solomon`s seal tea health benefits

Sonchus Arvensis

Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Waste places and fields throughout India, up to an altitude of 2,400 m.

English: Corn Sow Thistle.

Ayurvedic: Sahadevi (bigger var.). (Vernonia cinerea is equated with Sahadevi.)

Action: Plant—sedative, hypnotic, anodyne, expectorant, diuretic. Used for nervous debility. Seeds— used for asthma, bronchitis, cough, pertussis, fever; decoction in insomnia. Leaves—applied to swellings. Root—used for diseases of the respiratory tract.

The plant contains amino acids, lipids, polymeric hydrocarbons, polyphenols, protein; alpha- and beta- amyrins, lupeol, pseudotaraxasterol, taraxasterol. The latex contains manni- tol, alpha-and beta-lactucerols. Aerial parts and fruits contain ceryl alcohol, choline, palmitic, tartaric and stearic acids.... sonchus arvensis

Sorosí

See Cundeamor.... sorosí

Soroushi

(Persian) A bringer of happiness Soroushie, Soroushy, Soroushey, Soroushee, Soroushea, Sorushi, Sorushie, Sorushy, Sorushey, Sorushea, Sorushee... soroushi

Sorrel

(French) From the surele plant Sorrell, Sorrelle, Sorrele, Sorrela, Sorrella... sorrel

Sorrel Wood

Healing, Health... sorrel wood

Soubrette

(French) One who is coquettish Soubrett, Soubret, Soubrete, Soubretta, Soubreta... soubrette

Source Of Infection

The person, animal, object or substance from which an infectious agent passes immediately to a host. Source of infection should be clearly distinguished from source of contamination, such as overflow of septic tank contaminating a water supply, or an infected cook contaminating a salad.... source of infection

Soursop

See Guanábana.... soursop

Southern

(American) Woman of the South... southern

Southern Wood

Love, Lust, Protection... southern wood

Sovann

(Cambodian) The golden one Sovane, Sovanne, Sovana, Sovanna, Sovania, Sovaniya... sovann

Soya Bean

The bean of Glycine soja, a leguminous plant related to peas and beans. It has a high protein and fat content. Starch is almost completely absent and there is much mineral matter, for example a variable but large amount of iron: 6·7 to 30 mg per 100 grams of soya ?our compared with 1 mg in white ?our and 3 mg in 100 grams of wholemeal ?our. It is a good source of thiamine and ribo?avine, and of vitamin A in the form of carotene. It is used in infant formulas, especially for those babies thought to have cows’ milk protein intolerance.... soya bean

Sonchus Asper

Hill

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Waste places and fields throughout India, up to elevation of 3,600 m.

English: Spinyleaved Sow Thistle.

Ayurvedic: Sahadevi (bigger var.).

Folk: Didhi, Mhaataaraa (Maharashtra).

Action: Emollient. Pounded and applied to wounds and boils.

The latex contains rubber, alpha- and beta-lactucerols, ceryl alcohol, mannitol and traces of acetic acid. The whole plant contains the sesquiter- pene glycosides and ionone glycosides. Ascorbic acid (27 mg/100 g) is present in the plant.... sonchus asper

Sonchus Oleraceus

Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Waste places throughout India, up to elevation of 2,400 m.

English: Milk Thistle (a confusing synonym. Silybum marianum has been equated with Milk Thistle.)

Folk: Duudhi, Dodaka, Dudhaali.

Action: Galactagogue, febrifuge, sedative, vermifuge. Used in indigestion and in the treatment of diseases of the liver. An ointment is made from the decoction for wounds and ulcers.

The leaves contain luteolin, luteolin- 7-O-glucoside; hydroxycoumarins, cichoriin and scopoletin. Apigenin-7-O- glucoside was also obtained from the leaves and stems. Young leaves are reported to contain 4.1 mg/100 g of vitamin C.... sonchus oleraceus

Sonneratia Caseolaris

Engl.

Family: Sonneratiaceae.

Habitat: Tidal creeks and mangrove swamps of India.

Folk: Orchaa (Bengal), Tivar, Chipi (Maharashtra).

Action: Fruit—fermented juice is used for arresting haemorrhage. Juice of unripe fruit is given in cough. Fruit is also used as a poultice in sprains and swellings. Fruit wall—vermifuge.

The stem bark and root bark contain 9-17 and 11.0 to 11.9% tannin of the pyrogallol class.

The fruit yields 11% pectin on dry basis.... sonneratia caseolaris

Sophora Japonica

Linn.

Family: Papilionaceae, Fabaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir; also introduced into forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

English: Japanese Pagoda tree, Chinese Scholar tree, Umbrella tree.

Action: Flower—bitter, astringent, styptic, antibacterial.

Flower buds are a very rich source of rutin (16.0-23.0% dry weight basis), several times more than that present in Buckwheat which is an important source of the flavonoid.

The plant is used for the treatment of bleeding due to hemorrhoids and ulcerative colitis. The antihaemorrhagic principle, quercetin, has been isolated from aqueous extract of dried buds.

The flower extract has been reported to exhibit hepato-protective activity.... sophora japonica

Sophora Mollis

Grah. ex Baker.

Synonym: Edwardsia moltis Royle.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal, up to an altitude of 2,100 m.

English: Himalayan Laburnum.

Action: Seeds—used for destroying vermin. Root—used for promoting hair growth.

The seeds contain an alkaloid cyti- sine. The root imparts dark colour to hair.

The seeds of S. secundiflora Lag. ex DC., known as Mescal-or Coral-Bean (Native to America, grown in Indian gardens) also contain substantial amounts of cytisine.

The alkaloid, (-)-N-methylcytisine, isolated from the seeds, exhibited hy- poglycaemic activity in mice.... sophora mollis

Soyala

(Native American) Born during the winter solstice

Soyalah, Soyalla, Soyalia, Soyaliya, Soyalya... soyala

Spanish Moss

Protection... spanish moss

Spanomenorrhea

Scanty menstruation... spanomenorrhea

Sparrow

(English) Resembling a small songbird

Sparro, Sparroe, Sparo, Sparow, Sparowe, Sparoe... sparrow

Spasmodic Torticollis

A chronic condition in which the neck is rotated or deviated laterally, forwards, or backwards, often with additional jerking or tremor. It is a form of focal DYSTONIA, and should not be confused with the far commoner transient condition of acute painful wry-neck.... spasmodic torticollis

Spastic

A term applied to any condition showing increased muscle tone: for example, spastic gait, or spastic colon (see IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME (IBS)). This is especially associated with some disease affecting the upper part of the NERVOUS SYSTEM connected with movement (upper neuron), so that its controlling in?uence is lost and the muscles become overexcitable.... spastic

Sophora Tomentosa

Linn.

Family: Popilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Grown in gardens for its bright-yellow flowers.

English: Sea coast Laburnum, Silver Bush.

Action: Seeds—dangerously emetocatharitc, toxic, febrifugal, stomachic. Seeds yield a fatty oil with expectorant properties. Decoction of seeds and roots is given in bilious disorders. Leaves— emetocathartic.

Constituents of the aerial parts include benzofurans; flavonoids including sophoraisoflavone A and B, sopho- ronol, iso-sophoranone-and iso-bava- chin. The leaves and seeds contain al- kaloids—matrine, cytisine and small amounts of methylcytisine. Cytisine is also present in the roots.

Cytisine possesses insecticidal and physiological properties similar to those of nicotine.

Sophoraisoflavone A exhibits anti- fungal activity.... sophora tomentosa

Sorbus Aucuparia

Linn.

Family: Rosaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe and Asia; distributed in temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon.

English: European Mountain Ash, Rowan tree, Mountain Ash Berry.

Folk: Battal (Punjab), Syaar (Garhwal).

Action: Fruits—antiscorbutic, depurative, diuretic, astringent, aperient, emmenagogue. An infusion is given in haemorrhoids, strangury and irritation of bladder; for disorders of the uric acid metabolism, for dissolution of uric acid deposits; and for alkalization of the blood ("blood purification"). (Seeds contain cyanogenic acid; should be removed before the fruit is used.) Leaves—laxative; used as a pectoral in cough and bronchitis. Bark—astringent. Decoction is given in diarrhoea. (It is said to produce irritation of the alimentary mucous membrane.)

Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.

The fruit gave ursolic acid, parasor- boside, quercetin, iso-quercetin, rutin and anthocyanins.

Candied fruit may contain 3040 mg/100 g of vitamin C and concentrates up to 240 mg/100 g. Fresh fruit contains vitamin C 39-74 mg, carotene 6.2-9.8 mg/100 g.

Amygdalin (34.27-61.70 mg/100 g) and hydrocyanic acid (2.02-3.72 mg/ 100 g) are reported to be present in frozen fruit.

Leaves, buds, young twigs and bark contain amygdalin; tannin (4.47%); triterpenoids; sorbose, sorbitol and sorbic acid.... sorbus aucuparia

Sorghum Vulgare

(Linn.) Pers.

Synonym: Andropogon sorghum Brot.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout warmer parts of India.

English: Sorghum, Broomcorn.

Ayurvedic: Yaava-naala.

Siddha/Tamil: Makkaseelam.

Folk: Jowaar, Paneraa.

Action: Grains—demulcent, diuretic. A confection of grains and Foeniculum vulgare seeds is used as a galactagogue. Sorghum is inferior to wheat.

About 80% of sorghum in India belongs to the race Durra (Sorghum durra (Frosk.) Stapf.).... sorghum vulgare

Southernwood

Artemisia abrotanum. N.O. Compositae.

Synonym: Old Man, Lad's Love.

Habitat: The plant is frequently seen in gardens, where it is cultivated for its delicate, graceful appearance and pleasant, characteristic scent. It also grows wild on sandy heaths.

Features ? Two feet stems are at first prostrate, but become erect after producing, in August, small yellow flowers in terminal leafy clusters. The greyish-green, very slender leaves, are divided into many linear segments.

Action: Emmenagogue, stimulant, antiseptic and detergent.

Southernwood is mainly employed in menstrual obstruction, frequently in combination with Mugwort and Pennyroyal. Wineglass doses are taken of the infusion of 1 ounce of the herb to 1 pint of boiling water. The powdered herb is sometimes given in teaspoonful or smaller doses to children suffering from worms, but such agents as Tansy and Wormwood are perhaps more effective as anthelmintics.... southernwood

Spearmint

Healing, Love, Mental Powers... spearmint

Special Care Unit

A long-term care facility unit with services specifically for persons with particular diseases, disorders or injuries.... special care unit

Specialized Nursing Care Needs

Nursing care needs that require the advanced and specialized clinical skills and knowledge of a registered nurse.... specialized nursing care needs

Specialty Hospital

A hospital that admits only certain types of patients or those with specified illnesses or conditions. Examples include psychiatric hospitals and rehabilitation hospitals for the older population.... specialty hospital

Soymida Febrifuga

A. Juss.

Family: Meliaceae.

Habitat: Peninsular India, Rajasthan and Bihar.

English: Indian Red-Wood, Bastard Cedar.

Ayurvedic: Maansrohini, Rohini, Rohinaa, Prahaarvalli.

Siddha/Tamil: Somi-maram, Wond.

Action: Bark—antipyretic (particularly prescribed in malaria), bitter tonic in general debility, astringent (used for diarrhoea and dysentery); used as a gargle in stomatitis, applied to rheumatic swellings. The bark is much inferior to cinchona bark, but a good substitute for oak bark.

The plant contains mainly tetra- nor-triterpenoids and flavonoids. The heartwood gave febrifugine A and B, febrinins A and B; flavonoids— naringenin, quercetin, myricetin and dehydromyricetin. The Root heart- wood yielded sitosterol, obtusifoliol, syringetin and dihydrosyringetin. The bark contains tetranor-triterpenoids with modified furan ring.

Petroleum ether extract of the bark yielded a steroid, methyl angolensate, ether extract yielded a steroid glyco- side.

Dosage: Bark—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... soymida febrifuga

Spathodea Campanulata

Beauv.

Habitat: Native to tropical Africa. Grown as a avenue tree, in Coffee estates for shade.

English: Syringe tree, Fountain tree, African Tulip tree.

Siddha/Tamil: Patadi.

Folk: Ruugatuuraa.

Action: Bark—decoction given for dysentery, gastro-intestinal and renal ailments. Pulverized bark applied to skin diseases. Leaves— infusion administered for urethral inflammation.

The stem bark gave oleanolic and siaresinolic acids. The bark yields small quantities of tannin. Leaves gave caf- feic and chlorogenic acids, quercetin- 3-galactoside. Flowers gave malvidin and pelargonidin diglycoside.

An aqueous alcoholic extract of the leaves and the hexane and chloroform extracts of stem bark showed anti- malarial activity.... spathodea campanulata

Spatterdock Or Yellow Water Lily

Nuphar species

Description: This plant has leaves up to 60 centimeters long with a triangular notch at the base. The shape of the leaves is somewhat variable. The plant’s yellow flowers are 2.5 centimeter across and develop into bottle-shaped fruits. The fruits are green when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow throughout most of North America. They are found in quiet, fresh, shallow water (never deeper than 1.8 meters).

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. The fruits contain several dark brown seeds you can parch or roast and then grind into flour. The large rootstock contains starch. Dig it out of the mud, peel off the outside, and boil the flesh. Sometimes the rootstock contains large quantities of a very bitter compound. Boiling in several changes of water may remove the bitterness.... spatterdock or yellow water lily

Specificity

An epidemiological term (see EPIDEMIOLOGY) describing the extent to which a SCREENING TEST for the presence of the precursors of disease – for example, pre-malignant cells in the cervix – throws up false positives. A speci?c test has few false positives.... specificity

Spencer

(English) An administrator; dispenser of provisions Spenser, Spincer, Spinser... spencer

Speranza

(Italian) Form of Esperanza, meaning “filled with hope” Speranzia, Speranzea, Speranziya, Speranzya... speranza

Spergularia Rubra

(Linn.) J. Persl S C. Persl.

Synonym: Spergula rubra D. Dietr.

Family: Caryophylaceae.

Habitat: Native to Southern France and Malta; found in Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh.

English: Sand-Spurry, Sandwort, Arenaria Rubra.

Action: Diuretic. Used in cystitis and urethral colic, dysuria and urinary calculi.... spergularia rubra

Spermatic

The name applied to the blood vessels and other structures associated with the TESTICLE.... spermatic

Spearmint Tea Wonderful Benefits

Spearmint Tea is best known for treating excessive body hair or hirsutism, but its benefits involve other areas too. Spearmint looks a lot like peppermint: it has dark green leaves and pale purple flowers. It grows almost everywhere around the worlds and it’s used not only as a medicinal plant, but also as an important ingredient of the international cuisine. Its leaves, flowers and roots are not poisonous, so feel free to use any parts you like. Spearmint tea is probably the most popular tea in the world, not only for its health benefits, but also for its wonderful taste and strong fragrance. Properties of Spearmint Tea Spearmint Tea is not just some randomly boiled water: it contains vitamins and minerals, it’s rich in potassium, niacin, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium and manganese. And the good news is that it’s caffeine free and low in calories, which makes Spearmint Tea a great help in any type of diet. Spearmint Tea Benefits Spearmint Tea is a great remedy for gastrointestinal problems, hirsutism, asthma, digestion, cold and flu. If you suffer from irritable bowel, the soothing properties of this tea may come in hand. Also, the oil made from Spearmint could help with other stomach problems or digestive system conditions. Thanks to its strong fragrance, Spearmint tea can calm your throat pain and clear your stuffy nose at the same time. Also, the rosmarinic acid found in spearmint is used in asthma treatments, giving patients relief by blocking the production of proinflammatory substances (leukotrienes). Spearmint Tea also cures nausea, helps with digestion and treats acne, stomach ache and morning sickness during pregnancy. How to prepare Spearmint Tea First, you need Spearmint leaves or flowers. It doesn’t matter which or if you’re combining them when you’re making Spearmint Tea. Few people like to use the roots, even if the benefits are the same, except for the fact that these have a milder fragrance. You can either boil them for 10-15 minutes depending on the amount of water or make an infusion. Drink as much Spearmint tea as you want, but not more than 6 cups per day. Spearmint Tea Side Effects Spearmint Tea side effects are almost nonexistent; many people who give up coffee use it as a very convenient substitute. However, drinking too much Spearmint Tea may cause diarrhea. Other than that, feel free to try it anytime you want. If you’re thinking about giving up on drinking coffee or you just have a cold, Spearmint Tea is your answer! Spearmint Tea in Cosmetic Treatment Spearmint Tea has been used since ancient times as a face cleanser and its volatile substances have always been at the pick of the cosmetic industry. Even if you are buying the spearmint from the market or pick the leaves from your garden, a Spearmint Tea infusion will open your pores and make your face look healthy and shiny. You don’t need to choose between this or that product when it comes to beauty: give Spearmint Tea a chance and embrace the organic benefits of this wonderful herb! So, if you’re thinking about giving up on drinking coffee or you just have a cold, Spearmint Tea and its wonderful benefits should not be ignored. Give it a try next time you are looking for natural health remedies!... spearmint tea wonderful benefits

Spes

(Latin) In mythology, goddess of hope... spes

Sphenoid

A bone lying in the centre of the base of the SKULL, and supporting the others like a wedge or keystone.... sphenoid

Speedwell

Veronica officinalis. N.O. Scrophulariaceae.

Synonym: Bird's Eye, Cat's Eye, Common Speedwell, Fluellin (in Wales).

Habitat: Dry banks and sandy commons.

Features ? Stem slender, creeping, covered with short hairs. Leaves opposite, oval, hairy, serrate, short-stalked, about half an inch long by a quarter of an inch broad. Flowers small, pink turning blue, in axillary spikes. Astringent to the taste, odour when dry rather tea-like.

Part used ? Herb.

Action: Mildly alterative, expectorant, diuretic.

Helpful in minor skin blemishes, coughs and catarrhs. Made as tea, it resembles certain varieties of China tea, both in taste and aroma.

Tilke recommends the substitution of Speedwell and Wood Betony for tea as, in addition to their positive virtues, they produce none of the bad effects of the last-named beverage.... speedwell

Speedwell Tea Organic Health Benefits

Speedwell Tea is and it has been for centuries used mainly for its soothing effects. Speedwell is a perennial herb that grows mostly in Europe. The French people used it in the 19th century as a very good replacement for ordinary tea, because of its bitter and astringent flavor. Nowadays, Speedwell Tea is used to calm any skin irritation, throat ache or cough. Speedwell Tea Properties Speedwell Tea is a great remedy for almost any health condition that involves inflammation or localized pain. You can use it as a supplementary aid or as a main treatment as well. There are many types of Speedwell Tea solutions, such as infusions, tonics or tinctures. Also, pressing the smashed plant on a open cut will calm your pain and bring relief if you are suffering from irritated skin. You can benefit from this plant’s wonders at home, preparing the tea by yourself or buy it from the tea shop. However, if you are thinking about making it at home, pay attention to our advice on How to prepare Speedwell Tea. Speedwell Tea Benefits Speedwell Tea has been used for many years as a panacea for almost any health problems. Its main use was in treating gall stones and colds. In our times, alternative medicine found new and excited benefits of Speedwell Tea in treating light-headedness, damaged hearing, sinusitis and ear infections. Also, if you are suffering from nephritic problems, skin ailments, hemorrhages or have a small opened wound, Speedwell Tea may come in hand. The leaves and roots of speedwell are astringent, gently diuretic, stomachic, slightly expectorant and stimulant. Lately, herbalists around the world announced the benefits that Speedwell Tea offers when treating ulcers or blockages of the respiratory system. How to make Speedwell Tea Infusion When making Speedwell Tea infusion, you need to pay attention to a couple of things. First of all, you need to decide if you are using Speedwell powder, freshly picked Speedwell plants or dry roots. Put the ingredients in a pot of boiled water and wait for the benefits of Speedwell Tea to be released. If you are using powder, wait only 10 minutes. For dry roots or fresh plants, 15 to 20 minutes, depending on the amount of water used. For better results and a more concentrated solution, wait another 15 minutes. You can drink it or use it on your affected area. Also, you can use the powder directly on an open cut or wound. Speedwell Tea Side Effects Speedwell Tea has almost no side effects at all. Just make sure you don’t drink more than 3 cups a day or you’ll get diarrhea and also experience vomiting sensations. Other than that, go for it! Speedwell Tea Contraindications Don’t take Speedwell Tea if you are already suffering from diarrhea or have vomiting episodes. Also, if you have a dry throat, this tea may not be the best idea for you. However, if you experience any of the symptoms mentioned before and are still thinking about taking Speedwell Tea, talk to a specialist before boiling the water. Judging by this tea’s popularity and the great reviews that people around the world gave, it’s fair to say that Speedwell tea should have its own place in your list of herbal remedies. If you have on open cut and are tired of your medicine cabinet, add Speedwell Tea to your shopping cart next time you’re shopping for natural treatments!... speedwell tea organic health benefits

Spermacoce Hispida

Linn.

Synonym: Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) F.N. Williams. Borreria hispida (L.) K. Schum. Spermacoce articularis L. f.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: The Himalaya, from Simla westwards to Assam and southwards to Kanyakumari.

Ayurvedic: Madana Ghanti.

Siddha/Tamil: Nellichoori.

Action: Leaves—an extract is given as an astringent in haemorrhoids and gall stones. Seeds—demulcent; given in diarrhoea and dysentery. Root—prescribed as a mouthwash to cure toothache. A decoction of the herb is used in the treatment of headache.

The weed is rich in calcium and phosphorus; contains beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid and D-mannitol.

The plant gave alkaloid borreline, along with beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid and iso-rhamnetin.... spermacoce hispida

Spiderwort

Love... spiderwort

Sphaeranthus Indicus

Linn. (also auct. non L.)

Synonym: S. senegalensis DC. S. hirtus Willd.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Tropical parts of India, in rice fields, cultivated lands as a weed.

Ayurvedic: Mundi, Mundika, Munditikaa, Bhuukadamba, Alam- busta, Shraavani, Tapodhanaa.

(Mahamundi, Mahaa-Shraavani Is Equated With S. Africanus Linn.)

Unani: Mundi.

Siddha/Tamil: Kottakarthai.

Folk: Gorakh-Mundi.

Action: Juice—Styptic, Emollient, Resolvent. Also Used In Hepatic And Gastric Disorders. Seeds And Root—Anthelmintic. Decoction Is Used In Cough And Other Catarrhal Affections And Chest Diseases. Root Bark—Given In Bleeding Piles. Flowers—Blood Purifier, Alterative, Depurative.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia Of India Recommends The Dried Leaf In Cervical Lymphadenitis, Chronic Sinusitis, Migraine, Epilepsy, Lipid Disorders, Diseases Of Spleen, Anaemia, Dysuria.

The Drug Is Mostly Administered In The Form Of Its Steam-Distillate. Steam Distillation Of Fresh Flowering Herb Yields An Essential Oil Containing Methyl Chavicol, Alpha-Ionone, D-Cadinene, P-Methoxycinnamaldehyde As Major Constituents. A Bitter Alkaloid, Sphaer- Anthine, Has Been Reported In The Plant.

Capitula Contains Albumin, A Fatty Oil (Up To 5%), Reducing Sugars, Tannins, Mineral Matter, A Volatile Oil (0.07%), And A Glucoside. No Alkaloid Was Detected In The Inflorescence. The Glucoside On Hydrolysis Gave A Aglycone, Phenolic In Nature. The Unsaponifiable Matter Of The Fatty Oil Showed Beta-Sitosterol, Stigmas- Terol, N-Triacontanol, N-Pentacosane And Hentriacontane. The Essential Oil Is Active Against Vibrio Cholera And Mi- Crococcus Pyogenes Var. Aureus. The Flower Heads Gave Beta-D-Glucoside Of Beta-Sitosterol.

Eudesmanolides, Cryptomeridiol And 4-Epicryptomeridiol Have Been Isolated From Flowers.

Flowers Gave A Sesquiterpene Glyco- Side, Sphaeranthanolide, Which Exhibited Immune Stimulating Activity.

Dosage: Leaf— 3-6 G (Api, Vol Iii); Whole Plant—10-20 Ml Juice (Api, Vol. IV).... sphaeranthus indicus

Spiramycin

One of the MACROLIDES isolated from Streptomyces ambofaciens which is used under strict conditions for the treatment of TOXOPLASMOSIS.... spiramycin

Spirit

A strong solution of ALCOHOL in water. Proof spirit is one containing 57 per cent of alcohol by volume or 49 per cent by weight, and is so-named because it can stand the proof of just catching ?re. Recti?ed spirit contains 90 per cent of alcohol by volume or over 85 per cent by weight. Methylated spirit (also known as wood naphtha or wood spirit) is distilled from wood; when taken internally it is a dangerous poison producing NEURITIS, especially neuritis of the optic nerves which may result in blindness. Methylated spirit is used to harden the skin for the prevention of bed sores and foot soreness.... spirit

Spikenard Tea Great Benefits

Spikenard Tea is the best solution if you are suffering from asthma, coughs or headaches. Spikenard is a perennial bush with large, green leaves, red berries and greenish white flowers. It grows mainly on the American continent and it’s been used for medical purposes since the 15th century, when the Native Americans used it to treat childbirth pains or coughs. Spikenard Tea can also be turned into a very consistent balm to treat bone fractures, wounds and cuts. Spikenard Tea Properties Spikenard Tea has anti-inflammatory properties, so it’s an excellent remedy for topical pains, such as localized irritations or earache. It’s versatility towards any type of health condition makes Spikenard one of the most important herbs in the Native American alternative medicine. Spikenard Tea is rich in tannis, volatile oil and diterpene acids, which help your system restore its health and vitality. Spikenard Tea Benefits Spikenard Tea contains depurative and anti-septic substances, often being used to clean and sanitize the blood. However, its action areas are many: headaches, asthma, cough, gas, pains, deafness, gout, syphilis. Also, Spikenard Tea is a great tonic that can really work miracles in case you need to induce sweating. A decoction made of Spikenard can bring relief to menstrual pains, burn injuries and backaches. If you suffer from tuberculosis, a cup of Spikenard Tea every day can really make a difference. It’s also good for detoxifying your body, and a compress of Spikenard Tea, applied on an eczema, will calm down the pain and make the irritation disappear. In North America, Spikenard Tea has also a culinary use: people make jelly out of it, which, if you think about it, it’s not a bad idea at all! Who wouldn’t want a jar of jelly that can bring joy both to your tongue and your general health? How to make Spikenard Tea Infusion Preparing Spikenard Tea is very easy. Take a handful of spikenard roots and add it to the boiling water in the teapot and let it infuse for about 5 minutes. For more energy and better results, wait for another 5 minutes and drink it sugar free. You can drink it hot or keep it in your refrigerator for not more than a week. In time, the tea loses its curative properties and health benefits. It is better to prepare a new bottle of tea every 3 or 4 days. Spikenard Tea Side Effects When taken properly, Spikenard Tea has no side effects. However, make sure you are not allergic to any of its ingredients and don’t drink more than 4 cups a day. Spikenard Tea is a medicinal treatment and it can’t replace coffee, unlike other teas, such as spearmint tea. Spikenard Tea Contraindications Don’t take Spikenard Tea if you are pregnant and it’s best to avoid it if you are breast-feeding. If you are pregnant and still thinking about taking it, talk to your doctor first. Other than that, there’s no reason not to add Spikenard tea to your herbal treatments cabinet. Follow the instructions and enjoy the great benefits of this tea!... spikenard tea great benefits

Spilanthes Calva

DC.

Synonym: S. acmella auct. non (L.) Murr.

S. paniculata auct. non-DC. S. pseudoacmella auct. non (L.) Murr.

Family: Asteraceae.

Habitat: Tropical and sub-tropical parts of India, in waste places and open moist fields.

English: Paracress.

Ayurvedic: Marahattikaa.

Folk: Marethi, Desi Akarkaraa.

Action: Plant—antidysenteric. Decoction, diuretic and lithotriptic, also used in scabies and psoriasis. Seeds—used in xerostomia, throat infections and neurological affection of tongue. Root—purgative.

Whole plant gave alpha-and beta- amyrin ester, myricyl alcohol, stigmas- terol and its glucoside. A tincture made from flower heads is used as a substitute for the tincture of pyrethrum to treat inflammation of jaw-bones and caries.

Ethanolic extracts of the herb were found to affect the blood pressure of dogs and cats, and also the isolated ileum of guinea pigs. Spilanthol, obtained from the ether as well as pen- tane extracts, shows a strong sialogogic action, acts as a local anaesthetic and a powerful insecticide.... spilanthes calva

Spirituality

The quality of being concerned with deeper, sometimes religious, feelings and beliefs.... spirituality

Spirochaetosis Icterohaemorrhagica

Also known as Weil’s disease, this is the term applied to infection with the Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae which is transmitted to humans by rats – these animals excreting the organism in their urine, hence the liability of sewage workers to the disease. The condition is characterised by fever, jaundice, enlarged liver, nephritis, and bleeding from mucous membranes.... spirochaetosis icterohaemorrhagica

Spilanthes Oleracea

Murr.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Introduced from Brazil; often cultivated in Indian gardens.

English: Brazilian Cress, Para Cress.

Ayurvedic: Mahaaraashtri, Marethi, Desi Akarkaraa. Aakaarakarab- ha of Ayurvedic medicine and Aaqarqarha of Unani medicine is equated with Anacyclus pyrethrum DC. (root is used); S. acmella and S. oleracea flowering heads are used as Desi Akarkaraa and should not be confused with the original drug.

Action: Flowers—used against scurvy, gum troubles, toothache and against bladder pains and gout.

The flower heads yield 1.25% of spilanthol from the pentane extract.

The fresh plant yields an essential oil consisting mainly of spilanthol and a hydrocarbon, spilanthene. The plant also contains cerotic acid, crystalline phytosterols, tannic acid, resin, potassium malate and large amounts of choline and potassium nitrate.... spilanthes oleracea

Spina Bifida

This is one of the most common of the congenital (present at birth) malformations. It is one of the three types of neural-tube anomaly, the other two being ANENCEPHALY and cranium bi?dum. It takes two main forms – spina bi?da occulta being much the commoner. There is a de?cit in the posterior part of the SPINAL COLUMN, usually in the LUMBAR region, and it is generally asymptomatic unless the underlying spinal cord is affected. Occasionally it is associated with a hairy patch or birthmark on the back, and a few children develop a mild spastic gait or bladder problems.

Much more serious is spina bi?da cystica, in which the spinal-wall defect is accompanied by a protrusion of the spinal cord. This may take two forms: a meningocele, in which the MENINGES, containing CEREBROSPINAL FLUID, protrude through the defect; and a meningomyelocele, in which the protrusion contains spinal cord and nerves.

Meningocele is less common and has a good prognosis. HYDROCEPHALUS and neurological problems affecting the legs are rare, although the bladder may be affected. Treatment consists of surgery which may be in the ?rst few days of life or much later depending upon the precise situation; long-term follow-up is necessary to pick up any neurological problems that may develop during subsequent growth of the spine.

Meningomyelocele is much more serious and more common, accounting for 90 per cent of all cases. Usually affecting the lumbo-sacral region, the range of severity may vary considerably and, while early surgery with careful attention in a minor case may achieve good mobility, normal bladder function and intellect, a more extensive protrusion may cause complete ANAESTHESIA of the skin, with increased risk of trauma; extensive paralysis of the trunk and limbs, with severe deformities; and paralysis and insensitivity of the bladder and bowel. Involuntary movements may be present, and hydrocephalus occurs in 80 per cent of cases. The decision to operate can only be made after a full examination of the infant to determine the extent of the defect and any co-existent congenital abnormalities. The child’s potential can then be estimated, and appropriate treatment discussed with the parents. Carefully selected patients should receive long-term treatment in a special centre, where full attention can be paid to all their various problems.

There is growing evidence of the value of vitamin supplements before and during pregnancy in reducing the incidence of spina bi?da. Parents of affected infants may obtain help, advice, and encouragement from the Association for Spina Bi?da and Hydrocephalus which has branches throughout the country, or the Scottish Spina Bi?da Association.... spina bifida

Spinacia Oleracea

Linn.

Synonym: S. tetrandra Roxb.

Family: Chenopodiaceae.

Habitat: Native to South-west Asia; cultivated throughout India.

English: Garden Spinach.

Ayurvedic: Paalankikaa, Paalankya, Paalakyaa.

Unani: Paalak.

Siddha/Tamil: Vasaiyila-keerai.

Action: Seeds—cooling and laxative; given during jaundice. Spinach, as a potherb, is rich in nitrogenous substances, hydrocarbons and iron sesqui-oxide.

Aerial parts afforded rutin, hyperoside, astragalin and caffeic, chloro- genic, neochlorogenic and protocate- chuic acids. Seeds contain glycopro- tein-bound hexosamine. Roots contain spirasaponins.... spinacia oleracea

Spiruroid

A two-parted oesophagus - anterior muscular and posterior glandular structure as in most of Spiruroidea and Filarioidea.... spiruroid

Splenalgia

Pain in the spleen... splenalgia

Splenohepatomegaly

Enlargement of spleen and liver... splenohepatomegaly

Splenopathy

Any disease of the spleen... splenopathy

Splinter Haemorrhages

Linear bleeding under the ?ngernails. Although they may result from injury, they are a useful physical sign of infective ENDOCARDITIS.... splinter haemorrhages

Spiritual Pain

Spiritual pain is what may be felt when one of a person’s four key spiritual relationships (with other people, with oneself, with the world around, or with ‘Life’ itself) is traumatised or broken. A bad trauma in one of the ?rst three relationships can lead to damage to the last of them – that of the relationship with Life itself. For example, a wife deserted by her husband for another woman may not only feel devastated by the loss of her partner around the place, but may also feel a pain caused by the shattering of her beliefs about life (about faithfulness, hope, love, security, etc.). It is as if there is a picture at the centre of each person of what life should be about – whether or not held in a frame by a belief in God; this picture can be smashed by a particular trauma, so that nothing makes sense any more. The individual cannot get things together; everything loses its meaning. This shattering of someone’s picture of life is the source of the deepest pain in any spiritual trauma. The connection is often made between spiritual pain and meaninglessness. If the shattering of the picture, on the other hand, is done by the individual – for instance, by breaking his or her own moral or religious code – the pain may take the form of guilt and associated feelings. Hence, the therapist will be intent upon helping a client to recognise and come to terms with this ‘pain beneath the pain’.... spiritual pain

Spine And Spinal Cord, Diseases And Injuries Of

Scoliosis A condition where the spine is curved to one side (the spine is normally straight when seen from behind). The deformity may be mobile and reversible, or ?xed; if ?xed it is accompanied by vertebral rotation and does not disappear with changes in posture. Fixed scoliosis is idiopathic (of unknown cause) in 65–80 per cent of cases. There are three main types: the infantile type occurs in boys under three and in 90 per cent of cases resolves spontaneously; the juvenile type affects 4–9 year olds and tends to be progressive. The most common type is adolescent idiopathic scoliosis; girls are affected in 90 per cent of cases and the incidence is 4 per cent. Treatment may be conservative with a ?xed brace, or surgical fusion may be needed if the curve is greater than 45 degrees. Scoliosis can occur as a congenital condition and in neuromuscular diseases where there is muscle imbalance, such as in FRIEDREICH’S ATAXIA.

Kyphosis is a backward curvature of the spine causing a hump back. It may be postural and reversible in obese people and tall adolescent girls who stoop, but it may also be ?xed. Scheuermann’s disease is the term applied to adolescent kyphosis. It is more common in girls. Senile kyphosis occurs in elderly people who probably have osteoporosis (bone weakening) and vertebral collapse.

Disc degeneration is a normal consequence of AGEING. The disc loses its resiliance and becomes unable to withstand pressure. Rupture (prolapse) of the disc may occur with physical stress. The disc between the fourth and ?fth lumbar vertebrae is most commonly involved. The jelly-like central nucleus pulposus is usually pushed out backwards, forcing the annulus ?brosus to put pressure on the nerves as they leave the spinal canal. (See PROLAPSED INTERVERTEBRAL DISC.)

Ankylosing spondylitis is an arthritic disorder of the spine in young adults, mostly men. It is a familial condition which starts with lumbar pain and sti?ness which progresses to involve the whole spine. The discs and ligaments are replaced by ?brous tissue, making the spine rigid. Treatment is physiotherapy and anti-in?ammatory drugs to try to keep the spine supple for as long as possible.

A National Association for Ankylosing Spondylitis has been formed which is open to those with the disease, their families, friends and doctors.

Spondylosis is a term which covers disc degeneration and joint degeneration in the back. OSTEOARTHRITIS is usually implicated. Pain is commonly felt in the neck and lumbar regions and in these areas the joints may become unstable. This may put pressure on the nerves leaving the spinal canal, and in the lumbar region, pain is generally felt in the distribution of the sciatic nerve – down the back of the leg. In the neck the pain may be felt down the arm. Treatment is physiotherapy; often a neck collar or lumbar support helps. Rarely surgery is needed to remove the pressure from the nerves.

Spondylolisthesis means that the spine is shifted forward. This is nearly always in the lower lumbar region and may be familial, or due to degeneration in the joints. Pressure may be put on the cauda equina. The usual complaint is of pain after exercise. Treatment is bed rest in a bad attack with surgery indicated only if there are worrying signs of cord compression.

Spinal stenosis is due to a narrowing of the spinal canal which means that the nerves become squashed together. This causes numbness with pins and needles (paraesthia) in the legs. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging scans can show the amount of cord compression. If improving posture does not help, surgical decompression may be needed.

Whiplash injuries occur to the neck, usually as the result of a car accident when the head and neck are thrown backwards and then forwards rapidly. This causes pain and sti?ness in the neck; the arm and shoulder may feel numb. Often a support collar relieves the pain but recovery commonly takes between 18 months to three years.

Transection of the cord occurs usually as a result of trauma when the vertebral column protecting the spinal cord is fractured and becomes unstable. The cord may be concussed or it may have become sheared by the trauma and not recover (transected). Spinal concussion usually recovers after 12 hours. If the cord is transected the patient remains paralysed. (See PARALYSIS.)... spine and spinal cord, diseases and injuries of

Sporozoite Rate

The proportion of female mosquitoes that have sporozoites in the salivary gland.... sporozoite rate

Spots Before The Eyes

Also called FLOATERS, these can arise from a variety of causes including in?ammation and bleeding in the eye, or preceding a retina detachment. They may also occur for a variety of totally harmless reasons. (See EYE, DISORDERS OF.)... spots before the eyes

Sprains

Injuries in the neighbourhood of joints, consisting usually in tearing of a ligament with e?usion of blood. (See JOINTS, DISEASES OF.)... sprains

Spread

The way a neoplasm increases in size or invades the body.... spread

Spring

(English) Refers to the season; born in spring Spryng... spring

Spleen, Diseases Of

In certain diseases associated with marked changes in the blood, such as LEUKAEMIA and MALARIA, the SPLEEN becomes chronically enlarged. In some of the acute infectious diseases, it becomes congested and acutely enlarged: for example, in typhoid fever (see ENTERIC FEVER), ANTHRAX and infectious MONONUCLEOSIS. Rupture of the spleen may occur, like rupture of other internal organs, in consequence of extreme violence – but in malarious countries, where many people have the spleen greatly enlarged and softened as the result of malaria, rupture of this organ occasionally occurs following even a light blow to the left side of the abdomen. The spleen, in consequence of its structure, bleeds excessively when torn, so that this accident is generally followed by collapse, signs of internal haemorrhage – and death if not dealt with promptly by operation.... spleen, diseases of

Splints

Supports for an injured or wounded part. They are most commonly employed in cases in which a bone is fractured, and consist then of some rigid substance designed to take the place of the broken bone in maintaining the shape of the limb, as well as to keep the broken ends at rest and in contact and so ensure their union. Splints are most commonly made of wood, either shaped to the limb or consisting merely of strips of wood about the width of the injured limb, and carefully padded with wool or similar soft material. Splints are also made of metal, poroplastic felt, leather, and cotton sti?ened with plaster of Paris, as well as other materials. Splints may be improvised for ?rst-aid out of walking-sticks, ri?es, broom-handles, branches, folded-up newspapers, and in fact anything of suitable length and rigidity. (See also BONE, DISORDERS OF – Bone fractures.)... splints

Spondias Pinnata

(Linn. f.) Kurz.

Synonym: S. mangifera Willd.

Family: Anacardiaceae.

Habitat: A small, aromatic tree occurring wild or grown throughout the country for edible fruits.

English: Hog-Plum, Wild Mango. Great Hog-Plum is equated with S. cytherea Sonn, synonym S. dulcis Soland. ex Forst. f.

Ayurvedic: Aamraataka, Aamraata, Aamadaa, Madhuparni, Kundalini, Kapitana, Markataamra.

Siddha/Tamil: Mambulichi, Kat- tuma.

Folk: Jangali Aam.

Action: Fruits, leaves, bark— astringent, antidysenteric, anti- speptic, antiscorbutic. Bark paste applied externally to articular and muscular rheumatism. Root—used for regulating menstruation.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends stem bark in haem- orrhagic diseases.

The fruit contains beta-amyrin, olea- nolic acid and amino acids—glycine, cystine, serine, alanine and leucine; polysaccharides are also present.

Aerial parts gave lignoceric acid, 24-methylenecycloartanone, stigmast- 4-en-3-one, beta-sitosterol and its glu- coside.

Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g powder for decoction (API, Vol. II); 1-3 g powder (API, Vol. III).... spondias pinnata

Squash

See Calabaza.... squash

Sraddha

(Hindi) One having faith and trust Sraddhah, Sradha, Sradhah... sraddha

Sroda

(African) A respected woman Srodah, Srodda, Sroddah... sroda

Sslama

(Egyptian) One who is peaceful... sslama

St.johns Wort

Health, Power, Protection, Strength, Love, Divination, Happiness... st.johns wort

Stabs

See WOUNDS.... stabs

Stacey

(English) Form of Anastasia, meaning “one who shall rise again” Stacy, Staci, Stacie, Stacee, Stacia, Stasia, Stasy, Stasey, Stasi, Stasie, Stasee, Steise, Stacea, Stasea... stacey

Stakeholders (in Aged Care)

People or groups who have an involvement or interest in the aged care system, including beneficiaries, providers and funders.... stakeholders (in aged care)

Stamens

The male, pollen-producing organs in flowering plants. A staminate flower is only male, with pistillate (female) flowers on the same or different plants. Most flowering plants have both parts on the same flower, although they may mature at different times to avoid self-pollination.

... stamens

Standard

A quality, measure or reference point established as a rule or model by authorities, custom or general consent, against which things can be evaluated or should conform.... standard

Standard Error

In statistics, the standard error is defined as the standard deviation of an estimate. That is, multiple measurements of a given value will generally group around the mean (or average) value in a normal distribution. The shape of this distribution is known as the standard error.... standard error

Stachys Palustris

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir, grows in damp places, at altitudes of 1,500-1,800 m.

English: Marsh, Woundwort (purple-flowered), Allheal. (In Western herbal, Allheal is equated with Prunella vulgaris.)

Action: Haemostatic, sedative, antiseptic, antispasmodic, vulnerary. Used for haemorrhages, gout, cramp, vertigo; applied as poultice to wounds.

The herb contains iridoids, harpa- gide and acetyl harpagide; flavonoids based on isoscutellarein and oroxylin A.... stachys palustris

Stachys Sylvatica

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir.

English: Hedge Woundwort (reddish-purple-flowered).

Action: See S. palustris.

The plant contains the alkaloids betonicine, turicine, stachydrine and trigonelline. Alcoholic and aqueous extracts of the plant cause contraction of isolated uteri of various animals. Betonicine has been shown to be haemostatic.

An allied species, S. officinalis, known as Betony in Europe, is an ageold headache remedy. It contains alkaloids (including stachydrine and betonicine), also saponins and tannins. The plant is mildly sedative and relieves nervous tension.... stachys sylvatica

Stachytarpheta Jamaicensis

Vahl.

Synonym: S. indica C. B. Clarke.

Family: Verbenaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in gardens.

English: Brazilian Tea, Bastard Vervain, Aaron's Rod.

Ayurvedic: Kariyartharani.

Siddha/Tamil: Simainayuruvi, Simainaivirunji, Naioringi.

Folk: Chirchiti, Marang Chirchiti.

Action: Febrifuge, antiinflammatory. In Brazil, the plant is externally used for purulent ulcers and internally for rheumatic inflammations and fever. An infusion of the bark is used against diarrhoea and dysentery.

The leaves contain friedelin, stig- masterol, ursolic acid, hispidulin, scu- tellarein, choline, phenolic acids, chlo- rogenic acid and flavonoids—6-hy- droxyluteolol-7-glucuronide, luteolol- 7-glucuronide and apigenol-7-glucu- ronide. Stems and leaves gave an iri- doid glycoside, tarphetalin (ipolami- ide). The leaves are reported to be used for colds and cough.... stachytarpheta jamaicensis

Standardization

A set of techniques used to remove, as far as possible, the effects of differences in age or other confounding variables when comparing two or more populations. The common method uses weighted averaging of rates specific for age, sex, or some other potential confounding variable(s) according to some specified distribution of those variables. The two main methods are direct and indirect standardization.... standardization

Stanislava

(Slovene) Feminine form of Stanislav; government’s glory Stanislavah, Stanyslava, Stanislavia, Stanislaviya, Stanislavya, Stanyslavia... stanislava

Stannosis

The form of PNEUMOCONIOSIS caused by the inhalation of stannous (tin) oxide, which occurs in tin-ore mining.... stannosis

Stansie

(Italian) One who is constant; steadfast

Stansi, Stansey, Stansy, Stansee, Stansea, Stanzie, Stanzi, Stanzy, Stanzey, Stanzee, Stanzea... stansie

Staph

This is short for Staphylococcus, a genus of micrococci bacteria with many members that can cause disease. They are gram-positive, nonmotile bacteria that are aerobic-(unless they need to be anaerobic). Staph of various types are responsible for boils and carbuncles; they may be involved in impetigo, toxic shock syndrome, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, and urinary tract infections, as well as some food poisoning. They stay around hospitals and veterinary clinics waiting to get you. They are also a normal part of the mouth, throat, and skin flora in a third to a half of all of us, causing no problems, but just waiting. Staph has always been with us. Some even eat our antibiotics for breakfast.... staph

Star

(American) A celestial body Starr, Starre, Starry, Starrie, Starri, Starling, Starla... star

Starbuck

(American) An astronaut... starbuck

Stat

An abbreviation (for statim) meaning straightaway – usually applying to a request by a doctor for a drug to be given without delay.... stat

State Medicine (health Care Systems)

Major government schemes to ensure adequate health services to substantial sectors of the community through direct provision of services.... state medicine (health care systems)

Statistical Significance

See “probability”.... statistical significance

Statistics

The science and art of collecting, summarizing and analysing data that are subject to random variation. The term is also applied to data themselves and to summarizations of data.... statistics

Statocyst

A jellyfish balance organ, usually consisting of a calcium or magnesium carbonate crystal, the movement of which against surrounding cilia enables the medusa to determine its position in the water.... statocyst

Statistical Test

A mathematical formula (or function) that is used to determine if the difference between outcomes of a treatment or intervention and a control group is great enough to conclude that the difference is statistically significant. Statistical tests generate a value that is associated with a particular P value. Among the variety of common statistical tests are: F, t, Z, and chi-square. The choice of a test depends upon the conditions of the study, e.g. what type of outcome variable is used, whether or not the subjects are randomly selected from a larger population, and whether it can be assumed that the outcome values of the population have a normal distribution or other type of distribution.... statistical test

Statutory Sector

Umbrella term for bodies whose responsibilities are set out in law by the state.... statutory sector

Steatorrhea

The presence of undigested fat in the feces. This may be the result of failing to inoculate fatty foods with enough surfactant (biliary “soap”) to digest them, the failure of the lower small intestine to absorb them, or simply too much fat for even normal digestion to handle. Sometimes this can indicate liver, gall bladder or lipid metabolism diseases. Usually the causes are subclinical and treatable with less invasive approaches...like herbs.... steatorrhea

Stella

(English) Star of the sea Stela, Stelle, Stele, Stellah, Stelah... stella

Stellaria Aquatica

(L.) Scop.

Family: Caryophyllaceae.

Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Uttar Pradesh at 1,200-2,400 m.

English: Chickweed, Water Starwort.

Folk: Budeolaa.

Action: Leaves—decoction used in galactorrhoea.

Fresh plant contains an essential oil having 3-hydroxymethylfuran, alpha- pinene, limonene, n-hexanol, geran- iol, camphor, benzyl alcohol, guaia- col, cresol, eugenol and carvacrol as the major constituents.... stellaria aquatica

Stellaria Media

(Linn.) Vill.

Synonym: Alsine media Linn.

Family: Caryophyllaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India at 6001,650 m.

English: Common Chickweed.

Folk: Kokoon (Jammu); Safed Fulki, Buchbuchaa (Delhi).

Action: Antirheumatic, anti- inflammatory, astringent, refrigerant, demulcent, emollient, vulnerary, antipruritic. Dispels excessive body heat, relieves irritation. Used internally for rheumatism, externally in the form of ointment for chronic skin conditions, varicose ulcers and abscesses. Applied as a plaster for broken bones and swellings.

The plant contains saponin glyco- sides, coumarins, flavonoids (including rutin), carboxylic acid. The leaves contain vitamin C and carotene.

The plant also contains mucilage and is rich in potassium and silicon. The aerial parts, in post-flowering period, contain 44 mg/100 g of vitamn E.... stellaria media

Stephanie

(Greek) Feminine form of Stephen; crowned in victory Stephani, Stephany, Stephaney, Stephanee, Stephene, Stephana, Stefanie, Stefani, Stefany, Stefaney, Stefanee, Stefani, Steffanie, Stephania, Stefania, Steffine, Stephenie, Stesha, Stephie, Stephi, Stephy, Stephia, Stefia... stephanie

Stephania Glabra

Miers.

Family: Menispermaceae.

Habitat: Himalayas from Simla to Sikkim, Khasi Hills and Assam.

Ayurvedic: Used as Paathaa (Cissampelos pareira).

Folk: Gidaangu (Garhwal), Paahraa (Dehradun).

Action: Tubers—used in pulmonary diseases, asthma, intestinal, disorders and hyperglycaemia.

Alkaloid palmitine exhibits antibiotic activity; stepharine anti-cholines- terase, cycleanine anti-inflammatory and hyndarine sedative activity. Tetra- hydropalmatine produces sedative and anticonvulsant effects on animals (similar but weaker to that of chloropro- mazine). Alkaloids from rhizomes— hypotensive. Pronuciferine hydrochloride—spasmolytic. Root—hypogly- caemic, spasmolytic, CNS active, antimicrobial.... stephania glabra

Stephania Hernandiifolia

Walp.

Synonym: S. japonica Miers. S. sotunda Hook. f. & Thorns.

Family: Menispermaceae.

Habitat: Forests of the Western and Eastern Ghats.

Ayurvedic: Used as Raaj-Paathaa in the South. (Raaj-Paathaa is also equated with Cyclea arnotii Miers in southern and eastern parts of India).

Action: Root—prescribed in skin diseases, pruritus, inflamed piles, internal abscesses, urinary diseases, vomiting, diarrhoea, colic, respiratory disorders and as a cardiotonic.

The plant is rich in alkaloids. Aerial parts gave epi-stephanine (aknadine), hernandifoline, aknadinine and mag- noflorine. Alkaloid aknadine shows significant antispasmodic activity on uterine spasms. Cytotoxic alkaloids include d-and dl-tetrandrine, d-iso- chondrodendrine and fangchinoline. The alkaloid, epi-stephanine (akna- dine) possesses adrenergic neuron blocking activity.... stephania hernandiifolia

Stereotaxis

The procedure using computer-controlled X-ray images whereby precise localisation in space is achieved. It is applied to that branch of surgery known as stereotactic neurosurgery, in which the surgeon is able to localise precisely those areas of the brain on which he or she wishes to operate.... stereotaxis

Sterculia Foetida

Linn.

Family: Sterculiaceae.

Habitat: South India, also cultivated on roadsides.

Habitat: The West Coast from Konkan southwards.

Siddha/Tamil: Pinari, Kudirai Pidukku.

Folk: Jangali Baadaam (in no way related to Prunus amygdalus).

Action: Bark and leaf—aperient, diuretic. Fruit—astringent. Seed oil—carminative, laxative. Wood— antirheumatic. The wood, boiled with seed oil, is used externally in rheumatism.

Beans, called Java Olives, if taken in large quantities, cause nausea, act as violent purgative.

The leaves gave glucuronyl derivatives of procyanidin, scutellarein and luteolin; also taraxerol, n-otacosanol and beta-sitosterol. Lupenone, lupe- ol and betulin were obtained from the heartwood. Seed and root lipid contained cyclopropene fatty acids. Ster- culic and malvalic acids show carcinogenic and co-carcinogenic activities.

Leucoanthoyanidin - 3 - O - alpha - L - rhamnopyranoside and quercetin rhamnoside have been isolated from the root.... sterculia foetida

Sterculia Urens

Roxb.

Family: Sterculiaceae.

Habitat: Rajasthan, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, southwards to Western Peninsula.

English: Karaya Gum.

Unani: Gond Kateeraa (the authentic source is Cochlospermum religiosum).

Siddha/Tamil: Kavalam.

Folk: Karai, Kandol (Maharashtra, Gujarat).

Action: Gum used as a substitute for tragacanth in throat affections.

The gum and mucilage contain al- dobiuronic and aldotriouronic acids.

The roots contains a coumarin, sco- poletin.

The leaves afforded flavonol glycosides, quercetin and kaempferol derivatives; beta-amyrin, its acetyl derivative, beta-sitosterol and an ester of terephthalic acid. Stercurensin, a C- methylchalcone, has been isolated from the leaves.

The gum of Sterculia villosa Roxb. (Udall Wood) resembles with that of S. urens. Diometin and chrysoeriol and their 7-O-glucosides were isolated from the wood.... sterculia urens

Stereospermum Personatum

(Hassk.) D. Chatterjee.

Synonym: S. Chelonoides (Linn. f.) DC. (now S. Colais). S. tetragonum A. DC.

Family: .

Habitat: Throughout India, especially in the moist regions.

English: Trumpet Flower, Yellow Snake tree.

Ayurvedic: Paatalaa, Paatali, Paata- lai, Krishna-vrantaa, Madhu-duuti,

Kaama-duuti, Ativallabhaa, Taam- rapushpi, Kuberaakshi. Amoghaa, Kumbhipushpi, Ambuvaasini. Copper-red-flowered var., known as Taamrapushpi, is equated with S. suaveolens (Paatalaa) and the white- flowered one with S. chelenoides. (Paatalai).

Siddha/Tamil: Paadiri.

Action: The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the root of Paatalaa in lipid disorders; the stem bark in oedema and retention of urine.

The white-flowered var. purifies blood, increases appetite and is prescribed for vomiting, hiccough, thirst, oedema and inflammatory chest diseases.

The copper-red-flowered var. is prescribed in difficult breathing, vomiting, oedema, flatus and high fever.

Ethanolic extract of the plant showed hypoglycaemic and anticancer activity experimentally.

A decoction of S. personatum root is prescribed for asthma and cough; of the leaves in chronic dyspepsia. A decoction of the root and leaves is credited with antipyretic properties. The bark exhibited antibacterial and antitubercular properties.

A decoction of S. suaveolens roots is prescribed for intermittent and puerperal fevers, inflammatory affections of the chest. Extracts of the plant contain lapachol.

The leaves of S. chelonoides contain a flavone, stereolensin. The bark gave an iridoid glycoside; the root bark gave n-triacontanol and beta- sitosterol; the root heartwood gave la- pachol, dehydro-alpha-lapachone and dehydrotectol. Ceryl alcohol, palmitic, stearic and oleic acids were isolated from the root. Lapachol exhibited cy- totoxic activity.

Dosage: Stem bark (white-flowered var.)—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.) Root (red-flowered var.)—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. III.) more effective. Crude extract is used for filaria.

The Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, has developed an an- tifilarial drug from the crude extract of stem. The stem bark is reported to cure filarial lymphangitis, lym- phoedema, chyluria caused by filaria- sis.

Dosage: Stem bark—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... stereospermum personatum

Stetson

(English) Child of one who is crowned

Stetsun, Stetsan, Stetsin, Stetsyn, Stetsen... stetson

Stevens-johnson Syndrome

See ERYTHEMA – Erythema multiforme.... stevens-johnson syndrome

Stevonna

(Greek) A crowned lady Stevonnah, Stevona, Stevonah, Stevonia, Stevonea, Stevoniya... stevonna

Stewardship

A function of government or other body responsible for the welfare of the population and concerned with the trust and legitimacy with which its activities are viewed by the population.... stewardship

Sthenic

Strong of body or function, even to an excess.... sthenic

Stheno

(Greek) A mighty woman; in mythology, one of the Gorgons... stheno

Stichosome

A long, slender oesophagus embedded in rows of emboidal oesophageal gland cells as in Trichinelloidea.... stichosome

Sterilisation

Sterilisation means either (1) the process of rendering various objects – such as those which come in contact with wounds, and various foods – free from microbes, or (2) the process of rendering a person incapable of producing children.

The manner of sterilising bedding, furniture, and the like, after contact with a case of infectious disease, is given under DISINFECTION; whilst the sterilisation of instruments, dressings, and skin surfaces, necessary before surgical procedures, is mentioned in the same article and also under ANTISEPTICS, ASEPSIS, and WOUNDS. For general purposes, one of the cheapest and most e?ective agents is boiling water or steam.

Bacteriological sterilisation may be e?ected in many ways, and di?erent methods are used in di?erent cases.

Reproductive sterilisation In women, this is performed by ligating (cutting) and then tying the FALLOPIAN TUBES – the tubes that carry the OVUM from the ovary (see OVARIES) to the UTERUS. Alternatively, the tubes may be sealed-o? by means of plastic and silicone clips or rings. The technique is usually performed (by LAPAROSCOPY) through a small incision, or cut, in the lower abdominal wall. It has no e?ect on sexual or menstrual function, and, unlike the comparable operation in men, it is immediately e?ective. The sterilisation is usually permanent (around 0·05 pregnancies occur for every 100 women years of use), but occasionally the two cut ends of the Fallopian tubes reunite, and pregnancy is then again possible. Removal of the uterus and/or the ovaries also sterilises a woman but such procedures are only used when there is some special reason, such as the presence of a tumour.

The operation for sterilising men is known as VASECTOMY.... sterilisation

Steroid Hormone

These are fats similar to, and usually synthesized from, cholesterol, starting with Acetyl-CoA, moving through squalene, past lanosterol, into cholesterol, and, in the gonads and adrenal cortex, back to a number of steroid hormones. Nearly all of the classic hormones are proteins or smaller peptides; they don’t get inside a cell (the membrane keeps them out); instead, they bind to, and initiate, cell changes from the outside. The exceptions are the thyroxines (from the thyroid) and the steroid hormones. They move into the cell, bind with receptors, and initiate changes in the way a cell regenerates itself or synthesizes new compounds. Because the steroid hormones stimulate cell growth, either by changing the internal structure or increasing the rate of proliferation, they are often called anabolic steroids. Estrogen, an ovarian steroid, when secreted into the bloodstream, will be bound within a short time by internal receptors inside those cells that need estrogen for their growth; the unused portion is partially broken down, mostly in the liver, and partially stored in a less active form by adipose tissue. Since luteinizing hormone from the pituitary is surged in pulses an hour apart, the estrogen is also surged from the reacting ovaries, and by the time more estrogen is available, the binding cells need more; their program of synthesis has run out and needs to be started again. Of course, most steroid hormone reactions are less measured than this, but you get the idea.... steroid hormone

Stevia Tea Information

Stevia Tea is made from a green plant native to Paraguay with nutritious leaves up to 30 times sweeter than cane sugar. Stevia Tea contains numerous vitamins and nutrients and it has no calories, but its sweet taste reduces the craving for sweets and aids in the weight loss process. It does not adversely affect the blood sugar level and it can be enjoyed by both diabetics and obese people. Stevia Tea Brewing Stevia Tea can be added to other teas as a replacement for artificial sweetners. Pour one cup of unboiled hot water or other type of beverage over the Stevia Tea bag and let it steep for about three to five minutes. You can serve it hot or iced. If you use Stevia leaves to prepare your Stevia Tea cup, all you need to do is pour hot water over a couple of leaves and it will be ready in only a few minutes. There is no need to add sugar or honey because of its natural sweetness which serves as the perfect substitute. Stevia Tea Health Benefits Stevia, also called “honeyleaf” or “sweet herb”, is considered a miracle plant due to its health restoring benefits. Its leaves contain numerous beneficial minerals which include calcium, zinc, potassium and carbohydrates, as well as A and C vitamins. Stevia Tea can be used as an aid in the treatment of diabetes, high blood pressure and heartburn. Other health benefits of Stevia Tea include the improvement of digestion, oral health and hygene. The water based stevia concentrate has alo been used for treating skin conditions such as acnea. It is beneficial in skin care, having a smoothing and softening effect. Stevia Tea Side Effects The reportedside effects of Stevia Tea include dizziness, nausea and bloating, numbness and mild muscle pain, but none of them were long-lasting. Stevia may interfere with the blood sugar level, potentially lowering it, but caution is advisable among people with diabetes. Patients who already have a low blood pressure should avoid it because another effect of Stevia Tea is lowering the blood pressure. Although there are no long-term side effects, it is recommended that pregnant and nursing women avoid it also until more conclusive research is conducted. Sweetening your tea with stevia will bring your cup a delighful taste, without any unpleasant aftertaste. Enjoy a nice sweet cup of Stevia Tea and benefit from its nutritional value and extraordinarily valuable health effects!... stevia tea information

Stilboestrol Diphosphate

See OESTROGENS.... stilboestrol diphosphate

Still’s Disease

Or juvenile rheumatoid arthritis – see JUVENILE IDIOPATHIC ARTHRITIS (JIA).... still’s disease

Steroids, Plant

The previous subject is obviously an endless one, but as this is the glossary of an herbal nature, let me assure you, virtually no plants have a direct steroid hormone-mimicking effect. There are a few notable exceptions with limited application, like Cimicifuga and Licorice. Plant steroids are usually called phytosterols, and, when they have any hormonal effect at all, it is usually to interfere with human hormone functions. Beta sitosterol, found in lots of food, interferes with the ability to absorb cholesterol from the diet. Corn oil and legumes are two well-endowed sources that can help lower cholesterol absorption. This is of only limited value, however, since cholesterol is readily manufactured in the body, and elevated cholesterol in the blood is often the result of internal hormone and neurologic stimulus, not the diet. Cannabis can act to interfere with androgenic hormones, and Taraxacum phytosterols can both block the synthesis of some new cholesterol by the liver and increase the excretion of cholesterol as bile acids; but other than that, plants offer little direct hormonal implication. The first method discovered for synthesizing pharmaceutical hormones used a saponin, diosgenin, and a five-step chemical degradation, to get to progesterone, and another, using stigmasterol and bacterial culturing, to get to cortisol. These were chemical procedures that have nothing to do with human synthesis of such hormones, and the plants used for the starting materials-Mexican Wild Yam, Agave, and Soy were nothing more than commercially feasible sources of compounds widely distributed in the plant kingdom. A clever biochemist could obtain testosterone from potato sterols, but no one would be likely to make the leap of faith that eating potatoes makes you manly (or less womanly), and there is no reason to presume that Wild Yam (Dioscorea) has any progesterone effects in humans. First, the method of synthesis from diosgenin to progesterone has nothing to do with human synthesis of the corpus luteum hormone; second, oral progesterone has virtually no effect since it is rapidly digested; and third, orally active synthetic progesterones such as norethindrone are test-tube born, and never saw a Wild Yam. The only “precursor” the ovaries, testes and adrenal cortices EVER need (and the ONLY one that they can use if synthesizing from scratch) is something almost NONE of us ever run out of...Low Density Cholesterol. Unless you are grimly fasting, anorectic, alcoholic, seriously ill or training for a triathlon, you only need blood to make steroid hormones from. If hormones are off, it isn’t from any lack of building materials...and any product claiming to supply “precursors” better contain lard or butter (they don’t)...or they are profoundly mistaken, or worse. The recent gaggle of “Wild Yam” creams actually do contain some Wild Yam. (Dioscorea villosa, NOT even the old plant source of diosgenin, D. mexicana...if you are going to make these mistakes, at least get the PLANT right) This is a useful and once widely used antispasmodic herb...I have had great success using it for my three separate bouts with kidney stones...until I learned to drink more water and alkalizing teas and NEVER stay in a hot tub for three hours. What these various Wild Yam creams DO contain, is Natural Progesterone. Although this is inactive orally (oral progesterone is really a synthetic relative of testosterone), it IS active when injected...or, to a lesser degree, when applied topically. This is pharmaceutical progesterone, synthesized from stigmasterol, an inexpensive (soy-bean oil) starting substance, and, although it is identical to ovarian progesterone, it is a completely manufactured pharmaceutical. Taking advantage of an FDA loophole (to them this is only a cosmetic use...they have the misguided belief that it is not bioactive topically), coupled with some rather convincing (if irregular) studies showing the anti-osteoporotic value of topical progesterone for SOME women, a dozen or so manufacturers are marketing synthetic Natural Progesterone for topical use, yet inferring that Wild Yam is what’s doing good. I am not taking issue with the use of topical progesterone. It takes advantage of the natural slow release into the bloodstream of ANY steroid hormones that have been absorbed into subcutaneous adipose tissue. It enters the blood from general circulation the same way normal extra-ovarian estradiol is released, and this is philosophically (and physiologically) preferable to oral steroids, cagily constructed to blast on through the liver before it can break them down. This causes the liver to react FIRST to the hormones, instead of, if the source is general circulation, LAST. My objection is both moral and herbal: the user may believe hormonal effects are “natural”, the Wild Yam somehow supplying “precursors” her body can use if needed, rejected if not. This implies self-empowerment, the honoring of a woman’s metabolic choice...something often lacking in medicine. This is a cheat. The creams supply a steady source of pharmaceutical hormone (no precursor here) , but they are being SOLD as if the benefits alone come from the Wild Yam extract, seemingly formulated with the intent of having Wild Yam the most abundant substance so it can be listed first in the list of constituents. I have even seen the pharmaceutical Natural Progesterone labeled as “Wild Yam Progesterone” or “Wild Yam Estrogen precursor” or, with utter fraud, “Wild Yam Hormone”. To my knowledge, the use of Mexican Yam for its saponins ceased to be important by the early 1960’s, with other processes for synthesizing steroids proving to be cheaper and more reliable. I have been unable to find ANY manufacturer of progesterone that has used the old Marker Degradation Method and/or diosgenin (from whatever Dioscorea) within the last twenty years. Just think of it as a low-tech, non invasive and non-prescription source of progesterone, applied topically and having a slow release of moderate amounts of the hormone. Read some of the reputable monographs on its use, make your choice based solely on the presence of the synthetic hormone, and use it or don’t. It has helped some women indefinitely, for others it helped various symptoms for a month or two and then stopped working, for still other women I have spoken with it caused unpleasant symptoms until they ceased its use. Since marketing a product means selling as much as possible and (understandably) presenting only the product’s positive aspects, it would be better to try and find the parameters of “use” or “don’t use” from articles, monographs, and best of all, other women who have used it. Then ask them again in a month or two and see if their personal evaluation has changed. If you have some bad uterine cramps, however, feel free to try some Wild Yam itself...it often helps. Unless there is organic disease, hormones are off is because the whole body is making the wrong choices in the hormones it does or doesn’t make. It’s a constitutional or metabolic or dietary or life-stress problem, not something akin to a lack of essential amino acids or essential fatty acids that will clear up if only you supply some mythic plant-derived “precursor”. End of tirade.... steroids, plant

Stillengia

Psychic Powers... stillengia

Stina

(Danish) Form of Christina, meaning “follower of Christ”

Stinna, Stinne, Stine, Styna, Stynna, Styne, Stynne, Steena, Steana... stina

Sting

The painful injection of a venom through skin or mucous membranes of a victim. Cf. bite and envenomation.... sting

Stingers

A colloquial term to be avoided. In tropical Australia the term usually refers to the lethal box-jellyfish Chironex fleckeri, whereas in the rest of Australia it may refer to any stinging jellyfish which are non-lethal.... stingers

Stingose

20% aluminium sulphate solution - useful for itching caused by some insect stings, but less effective (or ineffective) for the skin pain of jellyfish envenomations.... stingose

Stingray

A group of fish with flattened fins making it look saucer-shaped. It has a long tail with at least 1 and up to 7 venomous spines. When stimulated the tail may flick across, either embedding the barb in the victim, or causing a severe laceration. Eight deaths (2 in Australia) have occurred world-wide, either from blood loss, venom effects or tetanus.... stingray

Stipules

A leafy appendage formed at the juncture of leaf and main stem.... stipules

Stockard

(English) From the yard of tree stumps

Stockhard, Stockhard, Stokkard... stockard

Stoloniferous

A plant that tends to form lateral roots, sometimes green and potentially stemming, sometimes blanched and tending to root from the nodes...or both.... stoloniferous

Stomach Tube

A soft rubber or plastic tube with rounded end, and usually about 75 cm (30 inches) in length, which is used for washing out the stomach when it contains some poisonous material. (See GASTRIC LAVAGE.) A narrower tube, 90 cm (36 inches) in length, is used to obtain a sample of gastric juice for examination. Such a tube can also be allowed to pass out of the stomach into the duodenum so that the contents of the upper part of the small intestine are similarly obtained for analysis.... stomach tube

Stomach Washout

See GASTRIC LAVAGE.... stomach washout

Stomach, Diseases Of

Gastritis is the description for several unrelated diseases of the gastric mucosa.

Acute gastritis is an in?ammatory reaction of the gastric mucosa to various precipitating factors, ranging from physical and chemical injury to infections. Acute gastritis (especially of the antral mucosas) may well represent a reaction to infection by a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori. The in?ammatory changes usually go after appropriate antibiotic treatment for the H. pylori infection. Acute and chronic in?ammation occurs in response to chemical damage of the gastric mucosa. For example, REFLUX of duodenal contents may predispose to in?ammatory acute and chronic gastritis. Similarly, multiple small erosions or single or multiple ulcers have resulted from consumption of chemicals, especialy aspirin and antirheumatic NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS).

Acute gastritis may cause anorexia, nausea, upper abdominal pain and, if erosive, haemorrhage. Treatment involves removal of the o?ending cause.

Chronic gastritis Accumulation of cells called round cells in the gastric mucosal characterises chronic gastritis. Most patients with chronic gastritis have no symptoms, and treatment of H. pylori infection usually cures the condition.

Atrophic gastritis A few patients with chronic gastritis may develop atrophic gastritis. With or without in?ammatory change, this disorder is common in western countries. The incidence increases with age, and more than 50 per cent of people over 50 may have it. A more complete and uniform type of ATROPHY, called ‘gastric atrophy’, characterises a familial disease called PERNICIOUS ANAEMIA. The cause of the latter disease is not known but it may be an autoimmune disorder.

Since atrophy of the corpus mucosa results in loss of acid- and pepsin-secreting cells, gastric secretion is reduced or absent. Patients with pernicious anaemia or severe atrophic gastritis of the corpus mucosa may secrete too little intrinsic factor for absorption of vitamin B12 and so can develop severe neurological disease (subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord).

Patients with atrophic gastritis often have bacterial colonisation of the upper alimentary tract, with increased concentration of nitrite and carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds. These, coupled with excess growth of mucosal cells, may be linked to cancer. In chronic corpus gastritis, the risk of gastric cancer is about 3–4 times that of the general population.

Postgastrectomy mucosa The mucosa of the gastric remnant after surgical removal of the distal part of the stomach is usually in?amed and atrophic, and is also premalignant, with the risk of gastric cancer being very much greater than for patients with duodenal ulcer who have not had surgery.

Stress gastritis Acute stress gastritis develops, sometimes within hours, in individuals who have undergone severe physical trauma, BURNS (Curling ulcers), severe SEPSIS or major diseases such as heart attacks, strokes, intracranial trauma or operations (Cushing’s ulcers). The disorder presents with multiple super?cial erosions or ulcers of the gastric mucosa, with HAEMATEMESIS and MELAENA and sometimes with perforation when the acute ulcers erode through the stomach wall. Treatment involves inhibition of gastric secretion with intravenous infusion of an H2-receptorantagonist drug such as RANITIDINE or FAMOTIDINE, so that the gastric contents remain at a near neutral pH. Despite treatment, a few patients continue to bleed and may then require radical gastric surgery.

Gastric ulcer Gastric ulcers were common in young women during the 19th century, markedly fell in frequency in many western countries during the ?rst half of the 20th century, but remained common in coastal northern Norway, Japan, in young Australian women, and in some Andean populations. During the latter half of this century, gastric ulcers have again become more frequent in the West, with a peak incidence between 55 and 65 years.

The cause is not known. The two factors most strongly associated with the development of duodenal ulcers – gastric-acid production and gastric infection with H. pylori bacteria – are not nearly as strongly associated with gastric ulcers. The latter occur with increased frequency in individuals who take aspirin or NSAIDs. In healthy individuals who take NSAIDs, as many as 6 per cent develop a gastric ulcer during the ?rst week of treatment, while in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who are being treated long term with drugs, gastric ulcers occur in 20–40 per cent. The cause is inhibition of the enzyme cyclo-oxygenase, which in turn inhibits the production of repair-promoting PROSTAGLANDINS.

Gastric ulcers occur especially on the lesser curve of the stomach. The ulcers may erode through the whole thickness of the gastric wall, perforating into the peritoneal cavity or penetrating into liver, pancreas or colon.

Gastric ulcers usually present with a history of epigastric pain of less than one year. The pain tends to be associated with anorexia and may be aggravated by food, although patients with ‘prepyloric’ ulcers may obtain relief from eating or taking antacid preparations. Patients with gastric ulcers also complain of nausea and vomiting, and lose weight.

The principal complications of gastric ulcer are haemorrhage from arterial erosion, or perforation into the peritoneal cavity resulting in PERITONITIS, abscess or ?stula.

Aproximately one in two gastric ulcers heal ‘spontaneously’ in 2–3 months; however, up to 80 per cent of the patients relapse within 12 months. Repeated recurrence and rehealing results in scar tissue around the ulcer; this may cause a circumferential narrowing – a condition called ‘hour-glass stomach’.

The diagnosis of gastric ulcer is con?rmed by ENDOSCOPY. All patients with gastric ulcers should have multiple biopsies (see BIOPSY) to exclude the presence of malignant cells. Even after healing, gastric ulcers should be endoscopically monitored for a year.

Treatment of gastric ulcers is relatively simple: a course of one of the H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS heals gastric ulcers in 3 months. In patients who relapse, long-term inde?nite treatment with an H2 receptor antagonist such as ranitidine may be necessary since the ulcers tend to recur. Recently it has been claimed that gastric ulcers can be healed with a combination of a bismuth salt or a gastric secretory inhibitor

for example, one of the PROTON PUMP INHIBITORS such as omeprazole or lansoprazole

together with two antibiotics such as AMOXYCILLIN and METRONIDAZOLE. The long-term outcome of such treatment is not known. Partial gastrectomy, which used to be a regular treatment for gastric ulcers, is now much more rarely done unless the ulcer(s) contain precancerous cells.

Cancer of the stomach Cancer of the stomach is common and dangerous and, worldwide, accounts for approximately one in six of all deaths from cancer. There are marked geographical di?erences in frequency, with a very high incidence in Japan and low incidence in the USA. In the United Kingdom around 33 cases per 100,000 population are diagnosed annually. Studies have shown that environmental factors, rather than hereditary ones, are mainly responsible for the development of gastric cancer. Diet, including highly salted, pickled and smoked foods, and high concentrations of nitrate in food and drinking water, may well be responsible for the environmental effects.

Most gastric ulcers arise in abnormal gastric mucosa. The three mucosal disorders which especially predispose to gastric cancer include pernicious anaemia, postgastrectomy mucosa, and atrophic gastritis (see above). Around 90 per cent of gastric cancers have the microscopic appearance of abnormal mucosal cells (and are called ‘adenocarcinomas’). Most of the remainder look like endocrine cells of lymphoid tissue, although tumours with mixed microscopic appearance are common.

Early gastric cancer may be symptomless and, in countries like Japan with a high frequency of the disease, is often diagnosed during routine screening of the population. In more advanced cancers, upper abdominal pain, loss of appetite and loss of weight occur. Many present with obstructive symptoms, such as vomiting (when the pylorus is obstructed) or di?culty with swallowing. METASTASIS is obvious in up to two-thirds of patients and its presence contraindicates surgical cure. The diagnosis is made by endoscopic examination of the stomach and biopsy of abnormal-looking areas of mucosa. Treatment is surgical, often with additional chemotherapy and radiotherapy.... stomach, diseases of

Stomachalgia

Pain in the stomach... stomachalgia

Stomatalgia

Pain in the mouth... stomatalgia

Stomatopathy

Any disorder of the mouth... stomatopathy

Stomatorrhagia

Hemorrhage from the mouth... stomatorrhagia

Stomolophus

Usually an innocuous genus of jellyfish represented by Stomolophus meleagris world-wide. However, in areas of East China around Behoe, on the East China Sea, there have now been 8 reported deaths from a rare species called S. numerai.... stomolophus

Stone Root Tea Benefits And Side Effects

Stone Root Tea comes from a strong herb mainly used to treat kidney issues, but it is also renowned for its improvement in the heart function. Drink a pleasant Stone Root Tea cup to strengthen your heart and feel your body lighter and healthier. Description of Stone Root Tea Stone root is a perennially growing herb, which belongs to mint family; it bears a potent lemon aroma and it is native to North America. Benefits of Stone Root Tea Stone Root Tea is used as a diuretic in removing excess fluids from the body. It can treat urinary tract problems including bladder pain and swelling stones in the kidney. Therefore it is great in increasing urine flow that results in relieving water retention. It is also known that people use Stone Root Tea to treat stomach ache and intestinal problems like indigestion. Sometimes, Stone Root Tea is effective in the treatment of headaches, hemorrhoids, laryngitis, pharyngitis or even dysentery. Moreover, Stone Root Tea has a tonic action making it effective in atonic conditions of the heart muscles, on the walls of the veins and capillaries. Its fresh leaves can be used to heal cuts, bruises and sores. Side effects of Stone Root Tea Although Stone Root Tea is a perfect remedy for gastrointestinal and circulatory problems, it can bring some unpleasant side effects with it. Drank in large quantities can cause diarrhea, nausea, dizziness, painful urination, or stomach pain. Pregnant or nursing women should avoid taking this tea without the consult of their doctor. You should also use with caution if you have high blood pressure. Stone Root Tea is effective all the way, making your heart stronger and bringing relief in the whole body. No more pains and discomfort in your life, but more and more vitality. Stone Root Tea is making a change for you. ... stone root tea benefits and side effects

Stonefish

Synanceja sp. - a fish which can camouflage itself, changing its colour to match the background. It remains motionless on the bottom where the unwary victim can tread on it. There are 13 venomous dorsal spines on its back which can penetrate even thin-soled shoes, injecting a venom that causes severe localised pain. The pain is best relieved by the application of heat. No deaths have occurred in Australia; 2 poorly-documented deaths have occurred in other countries.... stonefish

Stools

See FAECES.... stools

Storm

(American) Of the tempest; stormy weather; having an impetuous nature Storme, Stormy, Stormi, Stormie, Stormey, Stormee, Stormia, Stormea... storm

Stratification

The process or result of separating a sample into sub-samples according to specified criteria, such as age or occupational group.... stratification

Straw

Luck, Image Magic ... straw

Strawberry Tea Benefits And Brewing

Strawberry tea is a refreshing summertime fruity beverage. The fruit is nutritious, tasty and low in calories, having an uplifting effect. Some of the most important strawberry ingredients include antioxidants, vitamins C, K, B5 and B6, magnesium and potassium, all of which bring numerousbenefits for the organism and strengthen our metabolism. Strawberry Tea Brewing Use fresh water heated at a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius and steep it for at least too or three minutes in order to extract the beneficial compounds and to attain the full flavour of delicious juicy strawberries. Strawberry tea is a tasty drink that can be consumed plain, but you may also add sugar or honey according to personal preferences. Strawberry Tea Health Benefits Strawberry tea consumption can bring many health benefits for the human body. Strawberries have an important nutritional value, containing vitamin C and folic acid, which enhances the production of healthy red blood cells. Another strawberry tea compound is calcium, which enhances the production of milk; therefore the drink is highly beneficial for nursing or pregnant women. Strawberry tea is effective in relieving the symptoms of certain skin conditions such as eczema. The tea made from strawberry leaves has been traditionally used in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhea. There is evidence that shows some strawberry tea compounds might aid in the lowering of cardiovascular disease and cancer risk. Strawberry Tea Side Effects Strawberry tea is not known to have any seriousadverse effects, but it may cause allergic reactions in people who are sensitive to the fruit. It is also advisable to consult a specialist if you are taking any blood-thinning medications, as their effectiveness may be increased by some strawberry compounds which can lead to more unpleasant side effects such as bleeding. You can enjoy a delightful cup of strawberry tea at any point throughout your day, but this enticing, fresh and aromatic drink goes well on your breakfast tray or along a delicious dessert.... strawberry tea benefits and brewing

Streblus Asper

Lour.

Synonym: Epicarpurus orientalis Bl.

Family: Moraceae.

Habitat: Drier parts of Peninsular India.

English: Siamee Rough Brush.

Ayurvedic: Shaakhotaka, Shaakho- ta, Pitaphalaka. Bhuutavaasa, Kharachhada.

Siddha/Tamil: Piraayan, Pirai.

Folk: Sihor.

Action: Stem bark—febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal. Root—applied on inflamed swellings and syphilitic eruptions. Latex—applied on glandular swellings and elephantiasis.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the use of the stem bark in cervical lymphadenitis, also in lipid disorders.

The root bark contained cardenolide glycosides, including asperoside and strebloside; also yielded 6-deoxyallose. Stem bark yielded alpha-amyrin acetate, lupeol acetate, lupeol and beta- sitosterol.

Asperoside and strebloside exhibited antifilarial activity, former being... streblus asper

Strep

A genus of gram-staining chain-forming cocci bacteria. Some are responsible for common and potentially serious human infections, ranging from scarlet fever and strep throat to bacterial endocarditis and pus pockets. Most of the disease-potential streps are also a normal part of the skin, mouth and upper respiratory flora.... strep

Strephon

(Greek) One who turns Strephone, Strephonn, Strephonne, Strep... strephon

Striae

Stretch-marks seen in the skin, common in adolescent boys and girls owing to stretching of the skin by rapid growth (striae distensae). In boys, striae occur around the shoulders and thighs; in girls the breasts and hips are affected. In both sexes horizontal striae on the back may be mistaken for signs of trauma. Striae are common in women in late pregnancy, especially on the lower abdomen (striae gravidarum). Injudicious prolonged use of potent topical CORTICOSTEROIDS can induce striae, particularly about the groins, inner thighs or armpits. Prolonged high-dose oral STEROID therapy may cause widespread striae.... striae

Stress Fractures

Stress fractures are comparatively common in sportspeople. They tend to occur when an undue amount of exercise is taken – that is, an amount of exercise which an individual is not capable of coping with in his or her state of training. The main initial feature is pain over the affected bone that has been subjected to abnormal physical stress. This is usually insidious in onset, and worse at night and during and after exercise. It is accompanied by tenderness, and a lump may be felt over the affected site. X-ray evidence only appears after several weeks. Treatment consists of rest, some form of external support, and in the initial stage ANALGESICS to deaden or kill the pain. (See also BONE, DISORDERS OF – Bone fractures.)... stress fractures

Striga Gesneroides

Vatke.

Synonym: S. orobanchioides Benth.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: Western Peninsular India.

Folk: Laal-giyaa.

Action: Used in diabetes (in folk medicine). Hypoglycaemic activity, not confirmed.... striga gesneroides

Strobilanthes Callosus

Nees.

Synonym: Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremek.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Folk: Maruaa-daanaa, Kaarvi (Maharashtra).

Action: Bark—used in external applications for parotitis. Flowers— vulnerary. Leaves are poisonous.

Roots contain lupeol; the seeds are reported to contain brucine.... strobilanthes callosus

Striga Asiatica

(Linn.) Kuntze.

Synonym: S. lutea Lour.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the country and in the rainfed rice fields of Kerala.

Ayurvedic: Agnivrksha, Kuranti.

Siddha/Tamil: Pallipundu.

Folk: Agiyaa.

Action: Improves appetite and taste. Prescribed in strangury and diseases due to vitiated blood.... striga asiatica

Strobilanthes

Strobilanthes ciliatus

Acanthaceae

San: Sahacarah, Sairyakah;

Hin: Karvi, Kara;

Mal: Karimkurunji, Kurunji;

Tam: Kurunji, Sinnakurunji

Importance: Strobilanthes is an important shrub used in the treatment of rheumatism. The roots are useful in rheumatalgia, lumbago, siatica, limping, chest congestion, strangury, fever, leucoderma, skin diseases, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, odontalgia and general debility. The leaves and bark are useful in whooping cough, fever, bronchitis, dropsy, leucoderma, leprosy, pouritus, inflammations, scrofula and fever (Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution: It is distributed in tropical countries, such as India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and in a few subtropical countries. It is observed in India, throughout the evergreen forests of Western Ghats upto 1200m. It is also cultivated.

Botany: The genus Strobilanthes belonging to the family Acanthaceae consists of 3 species namely,

S. ciliatus Nees.,syn. Nilgirianthus ciliatus (Nees) Bremek

S. auriculatus Nees. and

S. callisus Nees.

S. ciliatus is a slender shrub with subquandrangular white dotted dark green or purple stems and branches. Leaves are dark green, elliptic, accuminate at both ends, serrate, glabrous with 6-7 pairs of main nerves. Flowers are white to lilac, arranged in axillary slender glabrous spikes. Fruits are very rarely formed. Adventitious roots arise from a few basal nodes also. The main roots as well as the nodal roots are used as raw drugs (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology: Strobilanthes prefers silty loam soil, mixed with sand, for good growth. It grows abundantly in river banks, lowlands and plains. The best season of planting is May-June. The field is to be ploughed to a fine tilth and mixed with 5-7t/ha of FYM/compost/dried cowdung. Seed beds of size 3m length, 0.5m width and 15cm height are to be made in which 10cm long stem cuttings are to be planted at a spacing of 30cm between plants. Rooting occurs within 20 days. Two weedings should be carried out at 2 months and 4 months after planting, followed by organic manure application. Irrigation is not a must but during summer months it is beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Harvesting can be done at the end of the second year. For this the plants are to be cut, roots dug out and collected. Roots are to be washed well, dried in sun and marketed. Roots, leaves and bark constitute the economic parts (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: The leaves and stem yield essential oil which is of good medicinal value. The roots are bitter, sweet, thermogenic, emollient, diuretic, febrifuge, diaphoretic, depurative, antiinflammatory and tonic. Leaves and bark are diaphoretic, expectorant, depurative and febrifuge.... strobilanthes

Strobilanthes Flaccidifolius

Nees.

Synonym: S. cusia (Nees) Imlay.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal and Manipur.

English: Assam Indigo.

Folk: Ruum, Raampat (Assam); Khumaa (Manipur).

Action: Leaves—astringent, diuretic and lithotriptic.

The indican content of the leaves has been reported to be 0.4-1.3%. Lupe- ol, betulin, lupenone, indigo, indiru- bin, a quinazolinone and a quinazo- linedione have been isolated.... strobilanthes flaccidifolius

Strobilisation

The process of producing or growing new segments (proglottids). This happens near the neck region. A form of asexual reproduction in some cubozoan jellyfish by which miniature medusa-like structures are formed, often one on top of the other, resembling stacked dinner plates.... strobilisation

Strongyliform

A short buccal muscular structure with waist found in nematodes, such as Ancylostomatidae.... strongyliform

Struana

(Scottish) From the stream Struanna, Struanah, Struanne, Struan, Struann, Struane... struana

Stupefacient

Inducing stupor... stupefacient

Styptics

Applications which check bleeding, either by making the blood vessels contract more ?rmly or by causing rapid clotting in the blood (see COAGULATION). Some possess both modes of action.... styptics

Styx

(Greek) In mythology, the river of the underworld Stixx, Styxx, Stix... styx

Suadela

(Latin) In mythology, goddess of persuasion

Suadelah, Suadell, Suadelle, Suadele, Suada... suadela

Suave

(American) A smooth and courteous woman Swave... suave

Strophanthus Kombe

Oliver.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Habitat: Native to tropical East Africa; runs wild at some places in West Bengal.

English: Strophanthus.

Action: Dry ripe seeds—cardiac glycosides (the mixture is known as Strophanthin-K) act like digitalis but are poorly absorbed from the digestive tract, are given by injection.

Strophanthus wightianus Wall. ex Wight, known as Nerivalli (Tamil) and Kambetti (Malyalam), is found along with western coast of Kerala.

The plant yields 2.1% of glycosides. The glycosides are known as caulo- side and divaricoside, the corresponding genins are caudogenin and sarmen- togenin; the latter a precursor of cortisone. Studies have indicated that the tinctures prepared from the seeds compare favourably with those from the seeds of S. kombe.... strophanthus kombe

Structure Each Kidney Is About 10 Cm Long,

6.5 cm wide, 5 cm thick, and weighs around 140 grams.

Adult kidneys have a smooth exterior, enveloped by a tough ?brous coat that is bound to the kidney only by loose ?brous tissue and by a few blood vessels that pass between it and the kidney. The outer margin of the kidney is convex; the inner is concave with a deep depression, known as the hilum, where the vessels enter. The URETER, which conveys URINE to the URINARY BLADDER, is also joined at this point. The ureter is spread out into an expanded, funnel-like end, known as the pelvis, which further divides up into little funnels known as the calyces. A vertical section through a kidney (see diagram) shows two distinct layers: an outer one, about 4 mm thick, known as the cortex; and an inner one, the medulla, lying closer to the hilum. The medulla consists of around a dozen pyramids arranged side by side, with their base on the cortex and their apex projecting into the calyces of the ureter. The apex of each pyramid is studded with tiny holes, which are the openings of the microscopic uriniferous tubes.

In e?ect, each pyramid, taken together with the portion of cortex lying along its base, is an independent mini-kidney. About 20 small tubes are on the surface of each pyramid; these, if traced up into its substance, repeatedly subdivide so as to form bundles of convoluted tubules, known as medullary rays, passing up towards the cortex. One of these may be traced further back, ending, after a tortuous course, in a small rounded body: the Malpighian corpuscle or glomerulus (see diagram). Each glomerulus and its convoluted tubule is known as a nephron, which constitutes the functional unit of the kidney. Each kidney contains around a million nephrons.

After entering the kidney, the renal artery divides into branches, forming arches where the cortex and medulla join. Small vessels come o? these arches and run up through the cortex, giving o? small branches in each direction. These end in a tuft of capillaries, enclosed in Bowman’s capsule, which forms the end of the uriniferous tubules just described; capillaries with capsule constitute a glomerulus.

After circulating in the glomerulus, the blood leaves by a small vein, which again divides into capillaries on the walls of the uriniferous tubules. From these it is ?nally collected into the renal veins and then leaves the kidney. This double circulation (?rst through the glomerulus and then around the tubule) allows a large volume of ?uid to be removed from the blood in the glomerulus, the concentrated blood passing on to the uriniferous tubule for removal of parts of its solid contents. Other arteries come straight from the arches and supply the medulla direct; the blood from these passes through another set of capillaries and ?nally into the renal veins. This circulation is con?ned purely to the kidney, although small connections by both arteries and veins exist which pass through the capsule and, joining the lumbar vessels, communicate directly with the aorta.

Function The kidneys work to separate ?uid and certain solids from the blood. The glomeruli ?lter from the blood the non-protein portion of the plasma – around 150–200 litres in 24 hours, 99 per cent of which is reabsorbed on passing through the convoluted tubules.

Three main groups of substances are classi?ed according to their extent of uptake by the tubules:

(1) SUBSTANCES ACTIVELY REABSORBED These include amino acids, glucose, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and chlorine (for more information, see under separate entries).

(2) SUBSTANCES DIFFUSING THROUGH THE TUBULAR EPITHELIUM when their concentration in the ?ltrate exceeds that in the PLASMA, such as UREA, URIC ACID and phosphates.

(3) SUBSTANCES NOT RETURNED TO THE BLOOD from the tubular ?uid, such as CREATINE, accumulate in kidney failure, resulting in general ‘poisoning’ known as URAEMIA.... structure each kidney is about 10 cm long,

Subclavian

The name applied to a large artery and vein which pass to the upper arm between the collarbone and the ?rst rib.... subclavian

Subclinical Infection

Without clinical manifestations: said of the early stages of, or slight degree of, an infection.... subclinical infection

Subdermal

Below the surface of the skin, and probably below the previous term, which should really be suprasubdermal...higher up than the muscles.... subdermal

Strychnos Colubrina

Linn.

Family: Lognaniaceae; Strychnaceae.

Habitat: Deccan Peninsula from Konkan to Cochin.

Ayurvedic: Kupilu-lataa, Kuchilaa- lataa.

Folk: Kaajar-vel (Maharashtra).

Action: Leaves and roots are boiled in oil and applied to rheumatic swellings. Wood—used for malarial fever and cutaneous eruptions. Root—purgative, febrifugal, anthelmintic.

The roots, wood, bark and seeds contain alkaloids (bark 5.54%, wood 0.96%), consisting of brucine and strychnine. Beta-sitosterol has been reported in the plant.... strychnos colubrina

Strychnos Ignatii

Bergius.

Family: Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.

Habitat: Native to the Philippines. Seeds are imported into India.

English: Ignatus Beans.

Unani: Papitaa Vilaayati. (Papitaa Desi is equated with Carica papaya Linn.)

Siddha/Tamil: Kayappankottai.

Action: Properties similar to those of Nux vomica. Used as a stimulant and nervine tonic, also for asthma and rheumatism.

The seeds contain indole alkaloids; brucine and its N-oxide, alpha-and beta-colubrine, diaboline, icajine, no- vacine, strychnine and its N-oxide, and 12-hydroxyderivatives, vomicine, and others. Share of strychnine is 45-60%, in indole alkaloids (2.5-5.6%).... strychnos ignatii

Strychnos Nux-vomica

Linn.

Family: Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.

Habitat: Tropical India up to an altitude of 360 m.

English: Nux vomica.

Ayurvedic: Kapilu, Kaakatin- duka, Kaakendu, Kaakapiluka, Vishamushtikaa, Vishamushti, Vishatinduka, Kuchilaa, Ksuchalaa.

Unani: Azaraaqi, Kuchlaa.

Siddha: Yettikkottai.

Action: Nervine tonic and a potent CNS stimulant.

Seeds—used in emotional disorders, insomnia, hysteria, epilepsy, paralytic and neurological affections, retention or nocturnal incontinence of urine, spermatorrhoea, sexual debility and impotence, general exhaustion; as antidote to alcoholism; GIT disorders. Bark—juice given in acute dysentery, diarrhoea and colic. Root—given in intermittent fevers. In Chinese medicine a paste made of Nux vomica seeds is applied topically for treating facial paralysis.

Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends detoxified seeds in paralysis, facial paralysis, sciatica and impotency.

The seeds contain indole alkaloids, the major one is strychnine (approx. 50% of the alkaloids); others include strychnine N-oxide, brucine and its N-oxide, alpha-and beta-colubrine, condylocarpine, diaboline, geissoschi- zine, icajine, isostrychnine, normacu- sine, novacine, pseudobrucine, pseu- do-alpha-colubrine, pseudo-beta-col- ubrine, pseudostrychnine and vom- icine (3-hydro-beta-colubrine). Loga- nin is also present. Pseudostrychnine is non-toxic. The alkaloidal content of the seeds ranges from 1.8 to 5.3%.

The leaves contain strychnine and brucine (together 1.6%), strychnine 0.025%; vomicine is the major constituent of leaves. The bark contains 9.9% total alkaloids (brucine 8%, strychnine 1.58%); pseudostrychnine, pseudobrucine and beta-colubrine in small amounts. The roots contain 0.99% alkaloids (brucine 0.28%, strychnine 0.71%).

Strychnine, when tested for an- tiulcer activity in shay rat model at a dose of 0.25 mg/kg body weight, complete absence of ulceration was observed which was comparable to cime- tidine. Exhausted Nux-vomica powder at a dose of 20 mg/kg body weight, and brucine at a dose of 0.25 mg/kg body weight gave protection similar to strychnine.

Orally, 30-50 mg Nux-vomica (5 mg strychnine) is toxic.

Dosage: Detoxified seed—60- 125 mg. (API, Vol. IV.)... strychnos nux-vomica

Subha

(Indian) One who is beautiful; attractive... subha

Subhadra

(Hindi) In Hinduism, the sister of Krishna... subhadra

Subhaga

(Indian) A fortunate person... subhaga

Subhuja

(Hindi) An auspicious Apsara (heavenly nymph)... subhuja

Subira

(African) One who is patient Subirah, Subirra, Subyra, Subyrra, Subeera, Subeara, Subeira, Subiera... subira

Subjective

A term applied to symptoms, and sensations, perceived only by the affected individual. For example, numbness is a purely subjective sensation, whilst the jerk given by the leg on tapping the tendon of the knee is an objective sign.... subjective

Strychnine Tree

Strychnos nux-vomica

Loganiaceae

San: Karaskara;

Hin: Kajra, Kuchila;

Mal: Kanjiram; ;

Tam: Itti, Kagodi, Kanjirai Mar:Jharkhatchura;

Kan: Hemmushti, Ittangi;

Tel: Mushti, Mushidi; Ori: Kora, Kachila

Importance: It is a large deciduous tree, with simple leaves and white fragrant flowers.

Strychnos is highly toxic to man and animals producing stiffness of muscles and convulsions, ultimately leading to death. However, in small doses it can also serve as efficacious cure forms of paralysis and other nervous disorders. The seeds are used as a remedy in intermittent fever, dyspepsia, chronic dysentery, paralytic and neuralgic affections, worms, epilepsy, chronic rheumatism, insomnia and colic. It is also useful in impotence, neuralgia of face, heart disease, spermatorrhoea, skin diseases, toxins, wounds, emaciation, cough and cholera. Leaves are applied as poultice in the treatment of chronic wounds and ulcers and the leaf decoction is useful in paralytic complaints. Root and root bark used in fever and dysentery (Nadkarni, 1982; Kurup et al, 1979).

Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout India in deciduous forests up to 1200m. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Siam, Indochina and Malaysia.

Botany: Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. is a large tree belonging to the family Loganiaceae. Leaves are simple, opposite, orbicular to ovate, 6-11.5x6-9.5cm, coriaceous, glabrous, 5 nerved, apex obtuse, acute or apiculate, transverse nerves irregular and inconspicuous. Inflorescence is many flowered terminal cymes, 2.5-5cm across. Bracts (5mm) and bracteoles (1.5mm) small. Flowers are white or greenish white and fragrant. Calyx 5 lobed, pubescent and small (2mm). Corolla salver shaped, tube cylindrical slightly hairy near the base within and greenish white, tube much elongate than the lobes. Tube 7mm and lobes 2.5mm long. Lobes 5 and valvate. Stamens 5, filaments short, 0.1mm long. Anthers 1.5mm subexerted, linear oblong. Ovary 1.5 mm, pubescent, 2 celled, ovules one to many. Style 9mm, stigma capitate. Fruit is a berry, 5-6cm diameter, globose, indehiscent, thick shelled, orange red when ripe with fleshy pulp enclosing the seeds. Seeds 1-many, discoid, compressed, coin like, concave on one side and convex on the other, covered with fine grey silky hairs.

The leaf fall is during December (do not shed all the leaves at a time) and new foliage appears in February. Flowering is during March - April and fruiting during May - December. Fruits take about 8-9 months to mature.

Properties and activity: Strychnine and brucine are the most important and toxic alkaloids present in the plant. They occur not only in the seeds but also in roots, wood, bark, fruit pulp and hard fruit shells. The minor alkaloids present in the plant are vomicine, -colubrine, -colubrine, pseudostrychnine and N-methyl-sec-pseudobrucine (novacine). Loganin a glycoside is also present (Warnat, 1932; Martin et al, 1953; Guggisberg et al, 1966; Bisset and Chaudhary, 1974). Chatterji and Basa (1967) reported vomicine as the major constituent alkaloid along with unidentified alkaloid in leaves and identified another alkaloid kajine (N-methyl pseudostrychnine) from the leaves of very young plants.

Root bark of S. nux-vomica yeilded 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy strychnine, 4 hydroxy strychine, nor-macusine, a new alkaloid 12 , 13 dihydro-12 -hydroxy isostrychnine named protostrychnine (Baser et al, 1979) methoxy strychnine, and mavacurine (Guggisberg et al, 1966). Leaves and root bark also yeilded 11 new alkaloids. 10-hydroxy strychnine, 3-12-dihydroxystrychnine, 12-hydroxy–11- methoxy strychnine, 3-12-dihydroxy- 11-methoxy strychnine,12-hydroxy strychnine-N- oxide 12-hydroxy-11-methoxy strychnine- N-oxide-19,20–dihydro isostrychnine, 16 , 17 dihydro-17 -hydroxy isostrychnine, O- methyl-macusine B, 16-epi-o-methyl–macusine B and normelinone B (Baser and Bisset, 1982).

De and Datta (1988) isolated 5 tertiary indole alkaloids viz. strychnine, brucine, vomicine, icajine and novacine from S.nux-vomica flowers. Bisset et al (1989) isolated and identified two phenolic glycosides salidroside and cuchiloside – a compound consisting of salidroside and an attached xylose unit, from the fruit of S.nux-vomica.

Rodriguez et al (1979) isolated an indole alkaloid from the seeds of S. nux- vomica and identified as a 3-methoxy icajine. A new alkaloid 15-hydroxy strychnine has been isolated from the seeds and the structure of the alkaloid established by spectroscopic data (Galeffi et al, 1979). Cai et al (1990a) isolated 4 new alkaloids isobrucine, isobrucine N-oxide, isostrychnine N-oxide and 2 hydroxy–3-methoxy strychnine from the heat treated seeds of S. nuxvomica and the structure of the alkaloids were determined by 13 CNMR (Cai et al, 1994). Cai et al (1990 b) studied the changes in the alkaloid composition of the seeds during drug processing. Saily et al (1994) determined the mineral elements in Strychnos nux-vomica. Corsaro et al (1995) reported polysaccharides from the seeds of Strychnos species.

Seeger and Neumann (1986) reviewed the physico-chemical characteristics, occurrence, identification, utilisation, poisoning, toxicity, kinetics, differential diagnosis and therapeutic uses of strychnine and brucine. Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Pencillium citrinum showed regular association with Strychnos seeds and effectively deteriorated the alkaloid content of the seeds (Dutta, 1988; Dutta and Roy, 1992). Nicholson (1993) described the history, structure and synthesis of strychnine which occur in the seeds of S. nux-vomica. Rawal and Michoud (1991) developed a general solution for the synthesis of 2- azabicyclo (3.3.1) nonane substructure of Strychnos alkaloids.

Villar et al (1984) and Hayakawa et al (1984) developed HPLC method for the analysis of strychnine and brucine. Graf and Wittliner (1985), Kostennikova (1986) and Gaitonde and Joshi (1986) suggested different methods for the assay of strychnine and brucine. Biala et al, (1996) developed new method for the assay of alkaloids in S. nux- vomica.

The seeds are bitter, acrid, alexeteric, aphrodisiac, appetiser, antiperiodic, anthelmintic, digestive, febrifuge, emmenagogue, purgative, spinal, respiratory and cardiac stimulant and stomachic. The bark is bitter, and tonic and febrifuge (Nadkarni, 1954; Kurup et al, 1979; Warrier et al, 1996).

The quarternery alkaloid from the root bark of the Sri Lankan plant exhibited muscle-relaxant activity (Baser and Bisset, 1982). Antimicrobial activity of indole alkaloid isolated from the Strychnos nux-vomica was studied by Verpoorte et al, 1983. Shukla et al (1985) evaluated the efficacy of Rasnadigugglu compound consisting of S. nux-vomica, on rheumatoid arthritis and found to be effective in reducing inflammatory oedoma and rheumatoid arthritis. It also exhibited analgesic activity. A compound Unani formulation containing S. nux-vomica significantly attenuated withdrawal intensity in morphine dependent rats (Zatar et al, 1991). Shahana et al (1994) studied the effect of Unani drug combination (UDC) having Strychnos nux-vomica on the abstinence syndrome in moderately and severely morphine dependent rats. The UDC strikingly suppressed the abstinence syndrome was seen to possess central depressant and analgesic action.

Melone et al (1992) reported brucine-lethality in mice. Panda and Panda (1993) and Satyanarayanan et al (1994) reported antigastric ulcer activity of nux vomica in Shay rats. Banerjee and Pal (1994) reported the medicinal plants used by the tribals of plain land in India for hair and scalp preparation and S. nux-vomica being used to cure alopecia (baldness) by the tribals. Tripathi and Chaurasia (1996) studied the effect of S. nux-vomica alcohol extract on lipid peroxidation in rat liver.... strychnine tree

Strychnos Potatorum

Linn.f.

Family: Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.

Habitat: Forests of West Bengal, Central and South India, up to 1,200 m.

English: Clearing Nut tree.

Ayurvedic: Kataka, Katakaphala, Payah-prasaadi, Chakshushya, Nirmali.

Unani: Nirmali.

Siddha/Tamil: Thettran, Thetrankot- tai.

Action: Seed—antidiabetic, antidysenteric, emetic.

Mannogalactan from seeds reduces cholesterol and triglycerides (one-tenth and one-fifth when compared to clofi- brate). Seeds are also applied to abscesses, and venereal sores (internally in gonorrhoea). Fruits—antidiabet- ic; antidysenteric, expectorant. (Pulp is used as a substitute for ipecacuanha.)

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the seed in dysuria, polyuria, urolithiasis, also in epilepsy.

The seeds, leaves and trunk bark gave diabolin (major alkaloid) and acetyldiabolin. Seeds also gavebrucine, strychnine, novacine, icajine, oleanolic acid and its glycoside. Leaves and bark gave isomotiol, stigmasterol, campes- terol and sitosterol. Diabolin exhibits hypotensive activity.

A decoction of seeds is given to treat stammering.

The seeds resemble those of Nux- vomica but are non-poisonous. The ripe seeds are used for clearing muddy water.

Dosage: Seed—3-6 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... strychnos potatorum

Strychnos Rheedei

C.B.Clarke.

Synonym: S. cinnamomifolia Thw. S. wallichiana Steud.

Family: Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats, from South Kanara to Trivandrum, up to 900 m and in Andhra Pradesh.

Siddha/Tamil: Valli Kanjiram.

Action: Roots—antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, febrifuge. Used for neurological affections, elephantiasis and muscular pains.

Indole type alkaloids have been reported from the plant.... strychnos rheedei

Styrax Benzoin

Dry.

Family: Styraceae.

Habitat: Native to South-East Asia and East Indies.

English: True Gum Benzoin, Sumatra Benzoin or Gum Benjamin.

Unani: Lobaan.

Siddha/Tamil: Saambiraani.

Action: Gum—antiseptic, astringent, anti-inflammatory, expectorant (used for cough and respiratory tract catarrh). Used as genitourinary antiseptic, as a mouthwash in stomatitis, topically on wound and ulcers, as an inhalation in colds, coughs and bronchitis. Lipophilic fraction stimulates phagocytosis.

The gum contains mainly cinnamic, benzoic and sumaresinolic acid esters, benzaldehyde and vanillin.... styrax benzoin

Styrax Officinale

Linn.

Family: Styracaceae.

Habitat: A native to Asia minor and Syria.

English: The True Storax tree.

Ayurvedic: Silhaka, Silaarasa, Turushka, Kapitaila, Yavandeshaja.

Folk: Silaajit, Usturak.

Action: Balsam is used for cough and respiratory tract catarrh. Turushka was obtained from Styrax officinale. Due to scarcity, it was replaced by the exudation of Liquidamber orientalis Mill. Balsam obtained from Altingia excelsa Noronha is used as a substitute for Silhaka and is known as Silaarasa (occurs in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh).

Dosage: Balsam—500 mg to 1.0 g. (CCRAS.)... styrax officinale

Subscriber

See “enrollee”.... subscriber

Subumbrella

The area of a jellyfish under the bell.... subumbrella

Suchin

(Thai) A beautiful thought... suchin

Suchitra

(Indian) A beautiful picture Suchitrah, Suchytra, Suchitran, Suchitrane... suchitra

Suckling

See INFANT FEEDING.... suckling

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (sids)

Sudden infant death syndrome, or cot death, refers to the unexpected death – usually during sleep – of an apparently healthy baby. Well over 1,500 such cases are thought to have occurred in the United Kingdom each year until 1992, when government advice was issued about laying babies on their backs. The ?gure was 192 in 2002 and continues to fall. Boys are affected more than girls, and over half of these deaths occur at the age of 2–6 months. More common in lower social classes, the incidence is highest in the winter; most of the infants have been bottle-fed (see also INFANT FEEDING).

Causes These are unknown, with possible multiple aetiology. Prematurity and low birth-weight may play a role. The sleeping position of a baby and an over-warm environment may be major factors, since deaths have fallen sharply since mothers were o?cially advised to place babies on their backs and not to overheat them. Some deaths are probably the result of respiratory infections, usually viral, which may stop breathing in at-risk infants, while others may result from the infant becoming smothered in a soft pillow. Faults in the baby’s central breathing control system (central APNOEA) may be a factor. Other possible factors include poor socioeconomic environment; vitamin E de?ciency; or smoking, drug addiction or anaemia in the mother. Help and advice may be obtained from the Foundation for the Study of Infant Deaths and the Cot Death Society.... sudden infant death syndrome (sids)

Sudek’s Atrophy

Osteoporosis (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF) in the hand or foot which develops quickly as a result of injury, infection or malignant growth.... sudek’s atrophy

Sudorifics

Drugs and other agents which produce copious PERSPIRATION.... sudorifics

Sugar Cane

Love, Lust... sugar cane

Sugarcane

Saccharum officinarum

Description: This plant grows up to 4.5 meters tall. It is a grass and has grasslike leaves. Its green or reddish stems are swollen where the leaves grow. Cultivated sugarcane seldom flowers.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for sugarcane in fields. It grows only in the tropics (throughout the world). Because it is a crop, it is often found in large numbers.

Edible Parts: The stem is an excellent source of sugar and is very nutritious. Peel the outer portion off with your teeth and eat the sugarcane raw. You can also squeeze juice out of the sugarcane.... sugarcane

Sughra

(Arabic) A pure young woman Sughraa, Sughrah... sughra

Suha

(Arabic) The name of a star... suha

Suhaila

(Arabic) Feminine form of Suhail; a gentle woman; bright star Suhayla, Suhaela, Suhala, Suhailah, Suhaylah, Suhaelah, Suhalah... suhaila

Sugar Palm

Arenga pinnata

Description: This tree grows about 15 meters high and has huge leaves up to 6 meters long. Needlelike structures stick out of the bases of the leaves. Flowers grow below the leaves and form large conspicuous dusters from which the fruits grow.

Habitat and Distribution: This palm is native to the East Indies but has been planted in many parts off the tropics. It can be found at the margins of forests.

Edible Parts: The chief use of this palm is for sugar. However, its seeds and the tip of its stems are a survival food. Bruise a young flower stalk with a stone or similar object and collect the juice as it comes out. It is an excellent source of sugar. Boil the seeds. Use the tip of the stems as a vegetable.

CAUTION

The flesh covering the seeds may cause dermatitis.

Other Uses: The shaggy material at the base of the leaves makes an excellent rope as it is strong and resists decay.... sugar palm

Suhaymah

(Arabic) The little arrow Suhayma, Suhaimah, Suhaima, Suhaemah, Suhaema... suhaymah

Sujata

(Indian) From a good social class Sujatah, Sujatta, Sujatia, Sujatea, Sujatiya, Sujatya... sujata

Sukanya

(Indian) A well-behaved young woman

Sukanyah, Sukania, Sukaniah, Sukaniya... sukanya

Suki

(Japanese) One who is dearly loved Sukki, Sooki, Sookie, Suky, Sooky, Sukie, Sukey, Sukee, Sukea, Sookey, Sookee, Sookea... suki

Suksma

(Indian) A fine young lady Suksmah... suksma

Sulfinpyrazone

A derivative of phenylbutazone which is of value in the prophylaxis and treatment of GOUT.... sulfinpyrazone

Sully

(Gaelic / English) A dark-eyed woman / from the south meadow Sulley, Sulli, Sullie, Sullee, Sullye, Sulleigh, Sullea... sully

Sulphonylureas

Sulphonylureas are sulphonamide derivatives which lower the blood sugar when they are given by mouth by enhancing the production of INSULIN. They are e?ective in treating DIABETES MELLITUS only when some residual pancreatic beta-cell function is present. All may lead to HYPOGLYCAEMIA if given in overdose and this is particularly common when long-acting sulphonylureas are given to elderly patients. There is no evidence for any di?erence in the e?ectiveness of the various sulphonylureas. TOLBUTAMIDE was the ?rst of the sulphonlyurea drugs; it has a short duration of action and is usually given twice daily. CHLORPROPAMIDE has a more prolonged action and only needs to be given once daily, but its prolonged action causes more side-effects – including sensitivity reactions. Other oral hypoglycaemic agents of this family include glibenclamide, which has a duration of action intermediate between tolbutamide and chlorpropamide and also produces side-effects (in about 30 per cent of outpatients, according to a recent study). Other sulphonlyureas include acetohexamide, glibornuride, gliclazide, glipizide, gliquidone and tolazamide. Glymidine is a related compound with a similar action to the sulphonylureas. It is particularly useful in patients who are hypersensitive to sulphonylureas.

Sulphonylureas are best avoided in patients who are overweight, as they tend to stimulate the appetite and aggravate obesity. They should be used with caution in patients with hepatic or renal disease. Side-effects are infrequent and usually not severe, the most common being epigastric discomfort with occasional nausea, vomiting and anorexia. In about 10 per cent of patients, chlorpropamide and tolbutamide may cause facial ?ushing after drinking alcohol. Some patients are hypersensitive to oral hypoglycaemic agents and develop rashes which may progress to ERYTHEMA multi-forme and exfoliative DERMATITIS. These reactions usually appear in the ?rst 6–8 weeks of treatment.... sulphonylureas

Sultana

(Arabic) An empress; queen; ruler Sultanah, Sultaana, Sultanna... sultana

Sulwyn

(Welsh) One who shines as bright as the sun

Sulwynne, Sulwynn, Sulwinne, Sulwin, Sulwen, Sulwenn, Sulwenne... sulwyn

Suma

(English / Egyptian) Born during the summer / to ask Sumah, Summa, Summah... suma

Sumana

(Indian) A good-natured woman Sumanah, Sumanna, Sumane, Sumanne, Sumann... sumana

Sumayah

(Arabic) One with pride Sumaya, Sumayyah, Sumayya, Sumaiya, Sumaiyah, Sumaiyya, Sumaeya, Sumaeyah... sumayah

Sumbul

Love, Luck, Health, Psychic Powers ... sumbul

Sumehra

(Arabic) Having a beautiful face Sumehrah, Sumehraa, Sumehrae, Sumehrai... sumehra

Sumey

(Asian) Resembling a delicate flower Sumy, Sumee, Sumea... sumey

Sumi

(Japanese) One who is elegant and refined Sumie... sumi

Sumiko

(Japanese) Child of goodness... sumiko

Sumitra

(Indian) A beloved friend Sumitrah, Sumita, Sumytra, Sumyta, Sumeetra, Sumeitra, Sumietra, Sumeatra... sumitra

Summer

(American) Refers to the season; born in summer Sommer, Sumer, Somer, Somers... summer

Summer Diarrhoea

See DIARRHOEA; INFANT FEEDING.... summer diarrhoea

Suna

(Turkish) A swanlike woman... suna

Sunanda

(Indian) Having a sweet character Sunandah, Sunandia, Sunandiya, Sunandea, Sunandya... sunanda

Suma Tea Benefits

Suma Tea increases the body resistance to stress, boost your body’s functions, renews your reproductive system, therefore your own life gains more strength and energy. Discover all these beautiful changes by drinking Suma Tea. Description of Suma Tea Summa Tea comes from a plant, botanically known as pfaffia paniculata .The plants is a shrubby vine found in the Amazon rainforest and other tropical regions of Latin America. South American natives would use Suma as a food that provided physical stamina and endurance. They would also use the plant to heal wounds, skin rashes, to increase physical energy and to enhance sexual appetite. Suma Tea Benefits Suma Tea is the perfect adaptogen, helping your body cope more easily with emotional and physical stress. It can strengthen your body’s immune system, support hormonal imbalance and even increase your libido. For hundreds of years, Suma was cultivated for treating diabetes, skin problems and a variety of tumors. Suma Tea contains a significant amount of Germanium, a trace mineral which stimulates the immune system and helps promote oxygen flow to cells. People say that drinking Suma Tea they felt a total body improvement by giving them more and more energy and helping them get over different usual discomforts. It can also be an option for menopausal and post-menopausal women. Suma Tea Side Effects Little research has been taken on Suma Tea, so the advice is to drink its tea by consulting your doctor, although no serious side effects have been reported so far. Suma Tea is a health tonic, greatly appreciated in traditional medicine by being used for all type of diseases.  Suma Tea might just be the today’s answer for decreasing stress and fatigue in everybody’s life.... suma tea benefits

Sunbul

(Arabic) Resembling an ear of grain Sunbool, Sunbulle, Sunbull, Sunbule, Sunboole, Sunboul, Sunboule... sunbul

Sunday

(American) Born on a Sunday Sundae, Sundai, Sundaye... sunday

Sundew

Drosera rotundifolia. N.O. Droseraceae.

Synonym: Dewplant, Flytrap, Round-leaved Sundew.

Habitat: Bogs and marshy ground.

Features ? Stem is the slender, wiry, leafless flower-stalk, about four inches high. Leaves radical, reddish, spherical, with glands exuding a sticky juice which is not dried by the sun's heat—hence the plant's common name. Flowers small, white, on one side of the flower-stalk.

Part used ? Herb.

Action: Expectorant, pectoral, demulcent, antispasmodic.

Particularly in dry, tickling coughs, on which the herb seems to have almost a specific action. Of definite value in whooping-cough. The 1/2 ounce to 1 pint boiling water infusion is given in tablespoonful doses as required.... sundew

Sundown

(American) Born at dusk... sundown

Sunee

(Thai) A good thing... sunee

Sunflower

Fertility, Wishes, Health, Wisdom ... sunflower

Sunhilda

(Teutonic) A sun battlemaiden Sunhild, Sunhilde, Sonnehilde, Sonnehilda, Sonnehild... sunhilda

Sunila

(Indian) Feminine form of Sunil; very blue

Sunilah, Sunilla, Sunilya, Suniliya... sunila

Sunita

(Indian) One who is well-behaved; having good morals

Sunitah, Sunitra, Sunitrah, Sunitha, Suniti, Suneeta, Suneata... sunita

Sunki

(Native American) To catch up with Sunkie, Sunky, Sunkey, Sunkye, Sunkee, Sunkea... sunki

Sunniva

(English) Gift of the sun Synnove, Synne, Synnove, Sunn... sunniva

Sunny

(American) Of the sun; one who is brilliant and cheerful Sunni, Sunney, Sunnie, Sunnea, Sunnye, Sonnenschein... sunny

Suparna

(Indian) Resembling a beautiful leaf

Suparnah, Suparniya, Suparnia, Suparnya, Suparnea... suparna

Superficial

Positioned near the surface: for example, super?cial blood vessels or capillaries lie just beneath the skin, and by contracting and expanding help to regulate body TEMPERATURE.... superficial

Support Group

A group of people who share a common bond (e.g. caregivers, patients, families of patients) who come together on a regular basis to share problems and experiences or keep in contact in other ways (e.g. the Internet).... support group

Supported Accommodation

Accommodation providing varying levels of support for people with impaired functioning, ranging from residential care facilities to occasional assistance for people living independently.... supported accommodation

Supported Housing

Accommodation where there is a degree of daily living support for its residents to enable them to live independently.... supported housing

Supported Residential Service

See “assisted living facility”.... supported residential service

Supportive Environment For Health

An environment that reduces risks to people’s health and promotes healthy living.... supportive environment for health

Suppurative

Pus forming... suppurative

Suprabha

(Indian) A radiant woman; brilliant... suprabha

Suprapubic

An operation in which the abdomen is opened in its lower part, immediately above the pubic bones. It was a common approach for removal of the PROSTATE GLAND but is now used less often, as transurethral PROSTATECTOMY has become the standard procedure. (See also LITHOTOMY.)... suprapubic

Supriti

(Indian) One’s true love Supritie, Supritye, Supryty, Supryti, Supritee, Suprytee, Supritea, Suprytea... supriti

Supriya

(Indian) One who is dearly loved; beloved

Supriyya, Supriyaa, Supriyah... supriya

Surabhi

(Indian) Having a lovely fragrance Surbhii, Surabhie, Surabhy, Surabhey, Surabhee, Surabhea... surabhi

Suramin

A drug used to treat trypanosomiasis or SLEEPING SICKNESS. Side-effects vary in frequency and intensity and are sometimes serious. They include nausea, vomiting, SHOCK and occasionally loss of consciousness.... suramin

Suravinda

(Indian) A beautiful attendant Suravindah, Suravynda, Suravindia, Suravindiya... suravinda

Suri

(Armenian / Sanskrit / Hebrew) Wealthy / mother of the sun / go away... suri

Surotama

(Indian) An auspicious Apsara (heavenly nymph) Surotamma, Surotamah... surotama

Surrogate

A term applied in medicine to a substance used as a substitute for another. The term is also applied to a woman who agrees to become pregnant and give birth to a child on the understanding that she will give up the child to the parents who have contracted with her for the surrogacy arrangement. When in vitro fertilisation (IVF – see under ASSISTED CONCEPTION) proved successful, it became possible to transfer a fertilised egg to a ‘uterus of choice’. Arti?cial insemination of the potential surrogate mother using sperm from the putative ‘father’ is also practised. Surrogacy has thrown up a host of ethical and legal problems which have yet to be satisfactorily resolved.... surrogate

Surrogate Measure

The substitution of one measure for one that cannot be measured in the course of a study.... surrogate measure

Suruchi

(Indian) Having good taste Suruchie, Suruchy, Suruchey, Suruchee, Suruchea... suruchi

Surupa

(Indian) One who is beautiful... surupa

Surveillance

The monitoring of changes in the numbers of mosquitoes or disease cases over a period of time.... surveillance

Survey / Survey Instrument

An investigation in which information is systematically collected but in which the experimental method is not used. A population survey may be conducted by face-to-face inquiry, by self-completed questionnaires, by telephone, by postal service, or in some other way. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The ability to generalize from the results depends upon the extent to which those surveyed are representative of the entire population.... survey / survey instrument

Surveillance Of Disease

As distinct from surveillance of persons, surveillance of disease is the continuing scrutiny of all aspects of occurrences and spread of a disease that are pertinent to effective control. Included are the systematic collection and evaluation of: 1. morbidity and mortality reports; 2. special reports of field investigations, of epidemics and of individual cases; 3. isolation and identification of infectious agents by laboratories; 4. data concerning the availability and use of vaccines and toxoids, immunoglobulin, insecticides, and other substances used in control; 5. information regarding immunity levels in segments of the population; and 6. other relevant epidemiological data.... surveillance of disease

Susannah

(Hebrew) Resembling a graceful white lily

Susanna, Susanne, Susana, Susane, Susan, Suzanna, Suzannah, Suzanne, Suzane, Suzan, Susette, Suzette, Sueanne, Suelita, Suellen, Sukey, Susie, Suzie, Sue, Susy, Susey, Susi, Suzy, Suzi, Suzey, Susa, Suza, Suzetta, Shoshana, Shoshanah, Shoshanna, Shoushan, Shousnan, Shushana, Shushanna, Sonel, Sosanna, Sousan, Siusan, Souzan, Soki... susannah

Susceptible

Prone to infection by parasites and pathogens. A person or anima l presumably not possessing sufficient resistance against a particular pathogenic agent and for that reason liable to contact a disease if or when exposed to the disease agent.... susceptible

Sushanti

(Indian) A peaceful woman; tranquil

Sushantie, Sushanty, Sushantey, Sushantee, Sushantea... sushanti

Sushila

(Indian) One who is well-behaved; good conduct

Sushilah, Sushilla, Sushyla, Sushiela, Susheila, Susheela, Susheala... sushila

Sushma

(Indian) A beautiful woman Sushmah... sushma

Sushmita

(Indian) Having a beautiful smile Sushmitah, Sushmeeta, Sushmeata, Sushmyta... sushmita

Sustainable Development

A process of development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.... sustainable development

Sutherlandia Frutescens

R.Br.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Native to South Africa; cultivated in Indian gardens.

English: Bladdersenna, Cancerwort, Cape Baloon Pea.

Action: Leaves—infusion or decoction given in stomach and intestinal disorders and hepatic affections. Much milder in action than true Senna.... sutherlandia frutescens

Suvarna

(Indian) The golden one; having good color

Suvarnah, Suvarniya, Suvarnya... suvarna

Suzu

(Japanese) One who is long-lived Suzue, Suzuko... suzu

Suzuki

(Japanese) Of the bell tree Suzukie, Suzukey, Suzuky, Suzukee, Suzukye, Suzukea... suzuki

Svaha

(Hindi) In Hinduism, a minor goddess... svaha

Svea

(Swedish) From the motherland... svea

Sveta

(Slavic) A brilliant star’s light Svetta, Svetlana, Svetlanna, Svetlania, Svetlaniya... sveta

Swagata

(Indian) One who is welcome Swagatah, Swagatta... swagata

Swanhilda

(Norse) A woman warrior; in mythology, the daughter of Sigurd Swanhild, Swanhilde, Svanhilde, Svanhild, Svenhilde, Svenhilda... swanhilda

Swann

(Scandinavian) A swanlike woman Swan, Swawn, Swaantje, Swantje, Swana, Swanna... swann

Swapnali

(Indian) A dreamlike child Swapnalie, Swapnalee, Swapna, Swapnaly, Swapnaley, Swapnalea... swapnali

Swarna

(Indian) The golden one... swarna

Swarupa

(Indian) One who is devoted to the truth... swarupa

Swati

(Indian) The name of a star Swatie, Swaty, Swatey, Swatee, Swatea... swati

Sweet Woodruff Tea Benefits

Sweet  Woodruff Tea it’s a perfect treatment for digestive and liver problems. It strengthens your heart and gives you an overall feeling of calmness and relief. Description of Woodruff Tea Sweet Woodruff Tea comes from a perennial plant known in botanical terms as Galium odorata asperula. The plant grows in shady areas and is spread all over Europe and Middle East. It is related to coffee and henna, bears small white funnel shaped flowers and has a vanilla-like aroma. If crushed or wilted, it releases a very sweet scent similar to fresh hay. The plant contains coumarins, flavonoids, vitamins A, C and K, acids and asperulin. Sweet Woodruff Tea Benefits Sweet Woodruff Tea provides lots of benefits since Middle Ages. Then it was used as a calmative, diuretic and antispasmodic treatment and people believed it can fight jaundice and regulate heart activity. When Benedictine monks created their own wine they used woodruff to flavor it. Its fresh leaves were applied on wounds and tea was a common use to ease stomach cramps. It is also used today to sooth any intestinal discomfort. Moreover, Sweet Woodruff Tea is drank to combat headaches or migraines. It is recognized as a good treatment in liver diseases and kidney stone. It can be mixed with wine or other alcoholic beverage to relax the body and prepare it for a goodnight sleep. Because of  ( Aici as schimba cu “Thanks to”, pentru vorbesti de ceva pozitiv) its wonderful scent, the plant can be used to refresh your room, perfume your clothes or linen. Sweet Woodruff Tea Side Effects Although Sweet Woodruff Tea usually does lots of good, it can also bring some side effects if drank in large quantities. It can produce dizziness, vomiting, and symptoms of poisoning. Pregnant women should not drink this tea or be used in conventional medicine for circulatory issues. Preparation of Sweet Woodruff Tea Pour 1 cup of boiling water over 1 bag of Woodruff Tea. Steep for 5 minutes and strain. Preferably, drink 2 to 3 cups a day and it’s no need to sweeten it, because of (thanks to) its great aroma. Sweet Woodruff Tea valued for centuries for its tonic, diuretic and anti-inflammatory effects can bring a positive change in your life. Drink this extraordinary tea and put a smile of your face.... sweet woodruff tea benefits

Sweetbread

A traditional term applied to several glands used for food, including the THYMUS GLAND of young animals (neck sweetbread), the PANCREAS (stomach sweetbread), and the testis (see TESTICLE).... sweetbread

Sweetgrass

Calling Spirits... sweetgrass

Sweetpea

Friendship, Chastity, Courage, Strength... sweetpea

Sweetsop

Annona squamosa

Description: This tree is small, seldom more than 6 meters tall, and multi-branched. It has alternate, simple, elongate, dark green leaves. Its fruit is green when ripe, round in shape, and covered with protruding bumps on its surface. The fruit’s flesh is white and creamy.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for sweetsop at margins of fields, near villages, and around homesites in tropical regions.

Edible Parts: The fruit flesh is edible raw.

Other Uses: You can use the finely ground seeds as an insecticide.

CAUTION

The ground seeds are extremely dangerous to the eyes.... sweetsop

Sweet Flag

Acorus calamus

Araceae

San: Vaca, Ugragandha, Bhadra;

Hin: Bacc, Gorbacc;

Ben: Bach; Mal:Vayampu;

Tam: Vasampu;

Kan: Bajai;

Tel: Vasa Vadaja

Importance: The sweet flag is an important medhya drug, capable of improving memory power and intellect. It is used in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, stomatopathy, hoarseness, colic, flatulence, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, amenorrhoea, dismenorrhoea, nephropathy, calculi, strangury, cough, bronchitis, odontalgia, pectoralgia, hepatodynia, otalgia, inflammations, gout, epilepsy, delirium, amentia, convulsions, depression and other mental disorders, tumours, dysentery, hyperdipsia, haemorrhoids, intermittent fevers, skin diseases, numbness and general debility. It is reportedly useful in improving digestion, clearing speech and curing diarrhoea, dysentery, abdominal obstruction and colic. It is also useful in infantile fever, cough bronchitis and asthma. The drug is reported to cure hysteria, insanity and chronic rheumatic complaints. The rhizome is an ingredient of preparations like Vacaditaila, Ayaskrti, Kompancadi gulika, Valiya rasnadi kashaya, etc.

Distribution: The plant is a native of Europe. It is distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, especially in India and Sri Lanka. It is found in marshes, wild or cultivated, ascending the Himalayas upto 1800m in Sikkim. It is plentiful in marshy tracts of Kashmir and Sirmoor, in Manipur and Naga Hills.

Botany: Acorus calamus Linn. belonging to the family Araceae is a semi -aquatic rhizomatous perennial herb. Rhizome is creeping, much branched, cylindrical or slightly compressed, light brown or pinkish brown externally, white and spongy within. Leaves are bright green, distichous, ensiform, base equitant, thickened in the middle and with wavy margins. Flowers are light brown and densely packed in sessile cylindric spadix. Fruits are oblong, turbinate berries with a pyramidal top. Seeds are few and pendant from the apex of the cells (Warrier et al, 1993).

Another species belonging to the genus Acorus is A. gramineus Soland, the roots of which are used in tonic, antiseptics and insecticidal preparations (Chopra et al, 1956).

Agrotechnology: Acorus is a hardy plant found growing from tropical to subtropical climates. It needs a good and well distributed rainfall throughout the year. It needs ample sunlight during the growth period as well as after harvest for drying the rhizomes. It may be cultivated in any good but fairly moist soil. It is usually grown in areas where paddy can be grown. It comes up well in clayey soils and light alluvial soils of river bank. The field is laid out and prepared exactly as for rice, irrigated sufficiently and after ploughing twice, watered heavily and again ploughed in the puddle. Sprouted rhizome pieces are used for planting and pressed into the mud at a depth of about 5cm at a spacing of 30x30cm. The rhizomes are planted in such a way that the plants in the second row comes in between the plants of the first row and not opposite to them. FYM is to be applied at 25t/ha. Fertilisers are applied at 25:50:60 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha/yr. Whole of FYM and 1/3 of N, P2O5 and K2O are to be added in the field during March - April as a basal dose. The remaining 2/3 of nutrients is to be given in two equal split doses at 4 months and 8 months after planting. The field is to be regularly irrigated. About 5 cm of standing water is to be maintained in the field in the beginning. Later, it is to be increased to 10 cm as the plant grows. The field is to be regularly weeded. About 8 weedings are to be carried out in all. At each weeding the plants are pressed into the soil. The plant is attacked by mealy bugs. Both shoot and root mealy bugs can be controlled by spraying the shoot and drenching the roots of grown up plants with 10 ml Methyl parathion or 15ml Oxydemeton methyl or 20ml Quinalphos in 10 litres of water. The crop is ready for harvest at the end of first year. The field is to be dried partially so that sufficient moisture is left in the soil to facilitate deep digging. The leaves start turning yellow and dry, indicating maturity. The rhizome will be at a depth of 60cm and having about 30-60cm spread. Therefore, harvesting is to be done carefully. The rhizomes are to be cut into 5-7.5cm long pieces and all the fibrous roots are to be removed. Yield of rhizome is about 10t/ha (Farooqi et al, 1991).

Properties and Activity:Rhizomes, roots and leaves yield essential oil. The important constituents of the Indian oil are asarone and its -isomer. Other constituents are and -pinene, myrcene, camphene, p-cymene, camphor and linalool, sesquiterpenic ketones like asarone, calamone, calacone, acolamone, iso-acolamone, acoragermacrone, epishyobunone, shyobunone and iso- shyobunone. Alcohol present is preisocalamendiol. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons like elemene, elemane and calarene are also present. Tricyclic sesquiterpenes present are caryophyllene, humulene, guaiene, S-guaizulene, arcurcumene, -cadinene, cadinane, calamenene, calacorene, dihydrocalacorene(calamenene), cadalene and selinene. Roots yield acoric acid as a main constituent in addition to choline. Plant also yields a flavone diglycoside- luteolin 6,8-C-diglucoside.

-asarone is the ma jor constituent of essential oil from rhizome (Dandiya et al, 1958,1959; Raquibuddoula, 1967).

Rhizome is insecticidal, pisicidal, spasmolytic, hypothermic, CNS active and analgesic. Essential oil is anticonvulsant. Rhizome is acrid, bitter, thermogenic, aromatic, intellect promoting, emetic, laxative, carminative, stomachic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, diuretic, alexeteric, expectorant, anodyne, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, antiinflammatory, sudorific, antipyretic, sialagogue, insecticidal, tranquillizer, sedative, analgesic, antithermic, antiasthmatic, hypotensive, respiratory depressant, aperitive and tonic.... sweet flag

Sweet Potato

See Batata.... sweet potato

Swertia Affinis

C. B. Clarke.

Synonym: S. angustifolia Buch.- Ham ex. D. Don var. pulchella Burkill.

Family: Gentianaceae.

Habitat: Sub-tropical Himalaya from Himachal Pradesh to Bhutan, the Khasi and Lushai Hills, Manipur at 300-1,800 m. Bihar and Peninsular India up to 1,800 m.

Ayurvedic: Kiraatatikta (related species).

Action: Febrifuge and bitter tonic.... swertia affinis

Swertia Ciliata

(D. Don) Burtt.

Synonym: S. purpurascens Wall. ex C. B. Clarke.

Family: Gentianaceae.

Habitat: From Konkan to Kerala at 1,500-2,000 m.

Ayurvedic: Shailaja, Kiraatatikta (related species).

Action: A substitute for S. chirayita. The whole plant contains a number of tetraoxygenated and pentaoxygenated xanthones.... swertia ciliata

Swertia Angustifolia

Buch.-Ham ex D. Don.

Family: Gentianaceae.

Habitat: Sub-tropical Himalaya from Kashmir to Bhutan.

Ayurvedic: Kiraata (sweet var.).

Folk: Pahaari Kiretta, Mithaa (sweet) Kiryaat.

Action: Used as a substitute for S. chirayita. (Inferior in bitter tonic properties.)

Aerial parts gave ursolic acid, xan- thones and beta-sitosterol. Several tetra-and pentaoxygenated xanthones have been isolated from the plant.... swertia angustifolia

Swertia Chirayita

(Roxb. ex Flem.) Karst.

Synonym: S. chirata (Wall.) C. B. Clarke.

S. tongluensis Burkill. Gentiana chirayita Roxb. ex Flem. G. chirata Wall. Ophelia chirata Griseb.

Family: Gentianaceae.

Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan and in Khasi Hills.

English: Chiretta.

Ayurvedic: Kiraata, Kairaata, Kiraataka, Kandatikta, Kiraatatikta, Kiraatatiktaka, Katutikta, Trin- nimba, Bhuunimba, Aranyatikta, Raamasenaka. Bhuunimba (also equated with Andrographis paniculata).

Unani: Chiraitaa.

Siddha: Nilavembu.

Action: Blood purifier and bitter tonic (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India); used in skin diseases. Other properties: antiinflammatory (experimentally, the benzene extract was comparable with phenylbutazone and betamethasone in induced arthritis); hypoglycaemic (xanthone, swerchirin, lowers blood sugar), astringent, stomachic (in dyspepsia and diarrhoea); antimalarial (before the discovery of Peruvian bark), anthelmintic; antiasthmatic, bechic; and as a liver tonic (several active principles are hepatoprotective).

The herb contains oxygenated xan- thone derivatives, including decus- satin, mangiferin, swerchirin, swer- tianin, isobellidifolin; iridoids including chiratin, alkaloids including gen- tianine, gentiocrucine, enicoflavine and glycosyl flavones.

Antitubercular activity has been claimed in xanthones. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Green chiretta is equated with Andrographis paniculata Nees, Acantha- ceae.

Dosage: Whole plant—1-3 g powder; 20-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)... swertia chirayita

Swertia Densifolia

(Griseb.) Kashyapa.

Synonym: S. decussata Nimmo ex Grah.... swertia densifolia

Swertia Lawii

Burkill.

Synonym: S. corymbosa var. lawii C. B. Clarke.

Family: Gentianaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats from Maharashtra to South Kanara at 1,200 m.

Ayurvedic: Kiraatatikta (related species).

Action: Used as a substitute for Swertia chirayita.

Whole plant gave a number of xan- thones. Erythrocentaurin has also been reported from the plant.... swertia lawii

Swertia Paniculata

Wall.

Synonym: Ophelia paniculata (Wall.) D. Don O. wallichii G. Don

Family: Gentianaceae.

Habitat: The Himalaya from Kashmir to Bhutan and in Lushai Hills in Mizoram at 1,500-2,400 m.

Action: Used as a substitute for Swertia chirayita.

The root gave xanthones (including swerchirin and bellidifolin); flavone- C-glycosides—swertisin and homoori- entin. The plant gave polyoxygenated xanthones and xanthone-O-glucosi- des; also a pentacyclic triterpenehed- eragenin. Aerial parts, in addition to xanthones, contain ursolic acid.... swertia paniculata

Sweta

(Indian) A light-skinned woman; fair... sweta

Swollen Belly Syndrome

A condition seen in very young children in Papua New Guinea infected with a Strongyloides fu?lleborni-like species of intestinal nematode.... swollen belly syndrome

Sydelle

(Hebrew) A princess; born to royalty Sydell, Sydele, Sydel, Sidelle, Sidell, Sidele, Sidel... sydelle

Sydenham’s Chorea

Also called St Vitus’s dance, this type of CHOREA is a disease of the central nervous system that occurs after RHEUMATIC FEVER – up to six months later – and is probably an in?ammatory complication of a ?-haemolytic streptococcal infection (see STREPTOCOCCUS). The patient presents with jerky, purposeless, involuntary movements of a limb and tongue, similar to the symptoms of CEREBRAL PALSY. Chorea is best treated as a transitory reversible form of cerebral palsy. The disorder usually lasts 6–8 months and residual symptoms are rare.... sydenham’s chorea

Sydney

(English) Of the wide meadow Sydny, Sydni, Sydnie, Sydnea, Sydnee, Sidney, Sidne, Sidnee, Sidnei, Sidneya, Sidni, Sidnie, Sidny, Sidnye... sydney

Symbiotic

A close relationship between two species which usually works to the advantage of both.... symbiotic

Swietenia Mahagoni

Jacq.

Family: Symphoremataceae.

Habitat: Native to Central America; cultivated in South India.

English: West Indian Mahogany.

Siddha/Tamil: Ciminukku.

Folk: Mahaagani.

Action: Bark—astringent and antipyretic. Used as a substitute for cinchona bark is the West Indies. The bark contains 15% tannin, the wood 6%.

The seeds have been reported to contain a bitter substance; mahoganin, 7- deactyl-7-oxogedunin, cyclomahoge- nol and 6-hydroxymethyl angolensate are also present.

Tetranortriterpenoids have been isolated from cotyledons and seeds. The ether extract of the leaves inhibits platelet activity factor (PAF)-induced platelet aggregation.... swietenia mahagoni

Sympathomimetic Drugs

These drugs stimulate the activity of the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. There are three groups: inotropic and vasoconstrictor sympathomimetics, and those used for cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The properties of these drugs vary according to whether they act on alpha or beta adrenergic receptors.

Inotropics act on beta receptors in heart muscle (see HEART), increasing its contractility and sometimes the heart rate. DOBUTAMINE and DOPAMINE are cardiac stimulants, while dopexamine acts on heart muscle and, via peripheral dopamine receptors, increases the excretion of URINE. ISOPRENALINE is used only as emergency treatment of heart block (interruption of the heart’s conduction) or severe slowing of the heart rate (bradycardia).... sympathomimetic drugs

Symphorema Involucratum

Roxb.

Family: Symphoremataceae.

Habitat: Indo-Malayasian region. Found in Deccan Peninsula, ascending to 1,200 m, and in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Nagaland.

Folk: Surudu, Konatekkali, Gubbadaara (Telugu).

Action: Quercetin, isolated from fresh water flowers, exhibited anti-inflammatory activity experimentally, comparable to that of phenylbutazone.... symphorema involucratum

Syna

(Greek) Two together Synah... syna

Synanceja Sp.

See stonefish.... synanceja sp.

Synechiae

Adhesions between the iris (see EYE) and adjacent structures (e.g. cornea, lens). They usually arise as a result of in?ammation of the iris.... synechiae

Symphytum Officinale

Linn.

Family: Boraginaceae.

Habitat: Europe and from the Mediterranean to Caucasian region. Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfrey has been introduced in Simla; Prickly Camfrey is cultivated in Western India.

English: Comfrey, Knitbone.

Folk: Sankuutan (Maharashtra).

Action: Vulnerary (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia), astringent, demulcent, haemostatic, tissue- restorative (repairs broken bones and lacerated flesh, promotes formation of a callus).

Key application: Externally for fractures and sprains, to promote bone growth and formation of callus. (German Commission E.)

Allantoin, a cell proliferant, helps repair damaged tissues. Antiinflammatory action is due to rosmarinic acid and other phenolic acids. Used for stomach ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, colitis, hiatus hernia; pleurisy, bronchitis (contraindicated in oede- matous conditions of the lung); and for the treatment of fractures, sickets, varicose ulcers. Experiments, during the 1960s, reveal that pyrrolizidine alkaloids are toxic to liver (dispute still unresolved); it is still not clear if these are hepatotoxic in the context of the whole plant. The aerial parts are considered safe.

Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfrey has been equated with Symphytum peregrinum Ledeb. (introduced into India in Simla).

The Plant is a good source of al- lantoin, a drug used in the treatment of gastric ulcers, disorders of liver and cancer. Tincture of the fresh herb is reported to be used for asthma, bronchitis and congestive conditions of the lungs.... symphytum officinale

Symplocos Paniculata

(Thunb.) Miq.

Synonym: S. crataegoides Buch. Ham. ex Don. S. chinensis (Lour.) Druce. Prunus paniculatus Thunb.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh and Assam; Khasi Hills at 1,0002,500 m.

English: Sapphire Berry.

Ayurvedic: Lodhra-Pattikaa.

Unani: Lodh Pathaani.

Action: Leaf—spasmolytic, antiviral, antiprotozoal, anthelmintic. Bark— used as a tonic for preventing abortion. Other uses same as of S. racemosa.

The water-soluble fraction from the bark has been reported to exhibit anti- oxytocic activity. Ethanolic extract of the leaves showed activity against Entamoeba histolytica strain STA, Ascaridia galli and Ranikhet-disease virus. It also affected blood pressure in dogs and cats, and showed activity on the ileum of guinea-pigs. The extract of stem also affected the blood pressure.

The leaf and stem are CVS active.... symplocos paniculata

Symplocos Racemosa

Roxb.

Synonym: S. beddomei C. B. Clarke S. candolleana Brand.

Family: Symplocaceae.

Habitat: Throughout North and eastern India, extending southwards to Peninsular India.

English: Lodh tree, Sapphire Berry

Ayurvedic: Lodhra, Rodhra, Shaavara., Sthulavalkal, Trita, Pattikaa Lodhra, Shaabara Lodhra.

Unani: Lodh Pathaani.

Siddha/Tamil: Vellilethi, Velli- lothram.

Action: Bark—used as specific remedy for uterine complaints, vaginal diseases and menstrual disorders; menorrhagia, leucorrhoea (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India); also used in diarrhoea, dysentery, vaginal ulcers, inflammatory affections and liver disorders.

The bark gave colloturine, harman (loturine) and loturidine. Stem bark gave proanthocyanidin-3-monogluco- furanosides of 7-O-methyl-and 4'-O- methyl-leucopelargonidin. Betulinic, oleanolic, acetyl oleanolic and ellagic acids are reported from the plant.

Glycosides, isolated from the ethanolic extract of the stem bark, are highly astringent and are reported to be responsible for the medicinal properties of the bark.

The bark extracts have been reported to reduce the frequency and intensity of the contractions in vitro of both pregnant and non-pregnant uteri of animals. A fraction from the bark, besides showing action on uteri, was spasmogenic on various parts of the gastrointestinal tract and could be antagonized by atropine.

The bark extracts were found to inhibit the growth of E. coli, Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus, and enteric and dysenteric groups of organisms.

Dosage: Stem bark—3-5 g powder; 20-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)

S. laurina Wall., synonym S. spica- ta Roxb. (North and East Idia, Western and Eastern Ghats); S. ramosis- sima Wall. (the temperate Himalayas from Garhwal to Bhutan); S. sumuntia Buch.-Ham. (Nepal to Bhutan) are also equated with Lodhra.

The powdered bark is used in folk medicine for biliousness, haemorrhages, diarrhoea, dysentery and genitourinary diseases.

Symplocos theaefolia Buch-Ham. ex D. Don (the Eastern Himalayas from Nepal to Bhutan and in the Khasi Hills at altitudes between 1,200 and 2,500 m) is known as Kharanl in Nepal and Dieng-pei or Dieng-twe-pe in khasi.

The ethanolic extract of leaves showed hypoglycaemic activity in rats and anticancer activity against Friend- virus-leukaemia (solid) in mice. The extract of the leaves and of stems showed activity against human epider- moid carcinoma of the nasopharynx in tissue-culture.

The Wealth of India equated S. laurina with Lodh Bholica (Bengal) and S. sumuntia with Pathaani Lodh.

The wood of Symplocos phyllocalyx C. B. Clarke is known as Chandan and Laal-chandan. It should not be confused with Santalum album or Ptero- carpus santalinus.... symplocos racemosa

Synthetic

A term applied to substances produced by chemical processes in the laboratory or by arti?cial building-up.... synthetic

Synthetic Study

A study that does not generate primary data but that involves the qualitative or quantitative consolidation of findings from multiple primary studies. Examples are literature review, meta-analysis, decision analysis and consensus development.... synthetic study

Syringa Vulgaris

Linn.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in gardens in the hills.

English: Common Lilac.

Action: Bark, leaves and capsules— used as antipyretic, especially in chronic malaria, and as vermifuge. Leaf extract—antipyretic.

The leaves, flowers and bark contain the glucoside, syringin and syringopi- crin. Syringin is also present in the roots and fruits; mannitol has been reported in leaves, bark and fruits. The leaves contain 131.6 mg/100 g ofvitamin C. Ursolic acid has also been reported in the plant.... syringa vulgaris

Syringe Drivers

Battery or mains electrically driven portable devices into which a SYRINGE can be loaded to give a continuous INFUSION to patients who need regular treatment to control severe pain, or to newborns where the volume to be given is critical and di?cult to control with other devices.... syringe drivers

Syrinx

(Greek) In mythology, a nymph transformed into reeds Syrinks... syrinx

Syrup

A water and sugar solution to which are added flavouring, medicinal, or some other desired ingredients... syrup

Systematic Review

A review of studies in which evidence has been systematically searched for, studied, assessed and summarized according to predetermined criteria.... systematic review

Systems Approach

A school of thought evolving from earlier systems analysis theory and propounding that virtually all outcomes are the result of systems rather than individuals. In practice, the systems approach is characterized by attempts to improve the quality and/or efficiency of a process through improvements to the system.... systems approach

Systems Error

An error that is not the result of an individual’s actions, but the predictable outcome of a series of actions and factors that comprise a diagnostic or treatment process.... systems error

Systolic

The measurement of arterial blood pressure at the point of heart contraction (greatest pressure); the higher of the two BP numbers, with diastolic (q.v.) being the lower.... systolic

Syzygium Aromaticum

(Linn.) Merr. & Perry.

Synonym: Eugenia aromatica Kuntze.

Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. Caryophyllus aromaticus Linn.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

English: Clove.

Ayurvedic: Lavanga, Devakusum, Devapushpa, Shrisangya, Shripra- suunaka.

Unani: Qaranful, Laung.

Siddha/Tamil: Kiraambu, Lavangam.

Action: Carminative, antiinflammatory, antibacterial. Flower buds—antiemetic, stimulant, carminative. Used in dyspepsia, gastric irritation. Oil—employed as a local analgesic for hypersensitive dent- lines and carious cavaties; internally as a carminative and antispasmodic.

Key application: In inflammatory changes of oral and pharyngeal mucosa; in dentistry; for topical anesthesia. (German Commission E.)

Eugenin, triterpene acids, crategolic acid and steroid glucosides afford anti- inflammatory and antiseptic proper ties to the buds. Eugenol, a major component of the oil, is antibacterial. Acetone extract of clove, eugenol and acetyleugenol possess cholagogue activity. The eugenol and acetyleugenol components of the clove oil inhibit arachidonate-, adrenalin- and collagen- induced platelet aggregation.

Clove terpenes show significant activity as inducers of detoxifying enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase (GST) in mouse liver and intestine and bring about carcinogen detoxification.

Whole cloves might have chemopro- tective activity against liver and bone marrow toxicity. (The Review of Natural Products by Facts and Comparisons, 1999.)

Dosage: Dried flower-bud—0.5-2.0 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... syzygium aromaticum

Syzygium Hemisphericum

(Wt.) Alston

Synonym: Eugenia hemispherica Wt. Jambosa hemispherica (Wt.) Walp.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: South India, particularly in the Nilgiri, Palni and Annamalai hills and Western Ghats.

Siddha/Tamil: Vellai Naval.

Action: Bark—antibilious; also used for syphilitic affections.... syzygium hemisphericum

T-suppressor Cells

A type of T-lymphocyte that stops antibody production when the invading antigen has been inactivated.... t-suppressor cells

Tareva-chine(shanay)

(Native American) One with beautiful eyes... tareva-chine(shanay)

Taxonomic Study

Identification of species and their genetic relationship to one another.... taxonomic study

Tetrastigma Serrulatum

Planch.

Synonym: Vitis capreolata D. Don.

Family: Vitaceae.

Habitat: From Garhwal to Bhutan, up to an altitude of 2,600 m.

Folk: Charchari (Nepal).

Action: Alcoholic extract of aerial parats, when injected intramuscularly in rats, showed anticancer activity.

The plant was found toxic to adult albino mice.... tetrastigma serrulatum

Syzygium Cerasoideum

(Roxb.) Chatterjee & Kanjilal f.

Synonym: S. nervosum DC. S. operculatum Niedenz. Eugenia operculata Roxb.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and Assam up to 600 m and in the Western Ghats up to 900 m.

Ayurvedic: Bhumi Jambu.

Folk: Rai Jaamun, Dugdugiaa; Topaakudaa (Bihar), Peeta-jaam (Orissa).

Action: Fruit—antirheumatic. Aerial parat—hypoglycaemic.

Root—rubefacient. Bark—bitter, astringent; given in dysentery, biliousness and bronchitis. A concentrate of the root infusion is applied and rubbed over painful joints. Aerial parts exhibit hypoglycaemic activity.... syzygium cerasoideum

Syzygium Cuminii

(Linn.) Skeels.

Synonym: S. jambolanum (Lam.) DC. Eugenia jambolana Lam.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India up to 1,800 m.

English: Java Plum, Jambolan, Black Plum.

Ayurvedic: Jambu, Mahaaphalaa, Phalendraa, Surabhipatra. (Fruit— black.)

Unani: Jaamun

Siddha/Tamil: Naaval.

Action: Fruit—stomachic, carminative, diuretic. Bark and seed— antidiarrhoeal. Seed—hypo- glycaemic. Leaf—antibacterial, antidysenteric.

Key application: Bark—in nonspecific acute diarrhoea and in topical therapy for mild inflammation of the oral-pharyngeal mucosa; externally in mild, superficial inflammation of the skin. (German Commission E.) The seed has been included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E, as the blood sugar-lowering effect could not be established by several researchers. Claimed applications mentioned in German Commission E monograph: in diabetes, also in combination preparations for atonic and spastic constipation, diseases of the pancreas, gastric and pancreatic complaints.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the bark in acute diarrhoea and haemorrhagic diseases; the seed in hyperglycaemia and polyuria.

The aqueous alcoholic extract of the bark contains bergenin, gallic acid and ethyl gallate.

The fruit contains anthocyanins and yielded citric, malic and gallic acids. Gallic acid and tannins account for as- tringency of the fruit. Malic acid is the major acid (0.59%) of the weight of fruit; a small quantity of oxalic acid is reported to be present. Glucose and fructose are principal sugars in the ripe fruit; surcose was not detected.

The seeds contain tannin (about 19%), ellagic acid, gallic acid (1-2%), beta-sitosterol, 0.05% essential oil; myricyl alcohol is present in the un- saponifiable matter.

The stem bark yielded friedelan-3- alpha-ol, kaempferol, quercetin, beta- sitosterol and its glycoside, kaempferol- 3-O-glucoside, gallic acid, friedelin and betulinic acid. It contained eugenin and epi-friedelanol. 10-12% tannins were reported.

The leaves contain aliphatic alcohols, sitosterols, betulinic acid and crategolic (maslinic) acid.

The flowers contain triterpenic acids—oleanolic acid and crategolic acid. The oleanolic acid is a strong protector against adriamycin-induced lipid peroxidation in liver and heart microsomes.

Phenols, including methylxantho- xylin and 2, 6-dihydroxy-4-methoxy- acetophene have been isolated from the plant (also from the seed).

Seeds in a dose of 10 mg/kg p.o. on normal and alloxanized rabbits exhibited hypoglycaemic activity up to 23 and 20% respectively. The chloroform fraction of seed extract exhibited potent anti-inflammatory action against both exudative and prolifer- ative and chronic phases of inflammation, besides exhibiting significant anti-arthritic, antipyretic and analgesic activities. Water extract exhibited antibacterial property against S. boydi and S. dysentrae in cases of dysentery and diarrhoea.

The bark extract is reported to have an effect on glycogenolysis and glyco- gen storage in animals.

Dosage: Stem bark—10-20 g for decoction; dried seed—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... syzygium cuminii

Thermometer Scales

See TEMPERATURE.... thermometer scales

Thiopentone Sodium

An intravenous barbiturate whose main use is for inducing ANAESTHESIA, which it does rapidly and painlessly.... thiopentone sodium

Thyrotrophin-stimulating Hormone (tsh)

A hormone (see HORMONES) manufactured and released by the anterior part of the PITUITARY GLAND which stimulates the THYROID GLAND to manufacture and release thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRI-IODOTHYRONINE).... thyrotrophin-stimulating hormone (tsh)

Tooth, Supernumerary

Malformed extra TEETH are frequently found, particularly in the upper incisor region. They often do not erupt, but prevent the eruption of the permanent teeth.... tooth, supernumerary

Tourette’s Syndrome

See GILLES DE LA TOURETTE’S SYNDROME.... tourette’s syndrome

Trans-sexualism

The psycho-sexual condition characterised by feelings of belonging to the gender opposite to that of the genitalia and the secondary sex characteristics. Subjects may be helped by counselling, drug therapy and in some circumstances an operation to change their physical sexual characteristics. Trans-sexuals or their families wanting help and guidance should contact the Gender Identity Consultancy.... trans-sexualism

Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (tens)

A method of electrical stimulation that is being used for the relief of PAIN, including that of MIGRAINE, NEURALGIA and phantom limbs (see AMPUTATION). Known as TENS, its mode of action appears to have some resemblance to that of ACUPUNCTURE. Several controlled trials suggest that it provides at least a modicum of relief of pain after operations, thereby reducing the amount of ANALGESICS that may be called for.... transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (tens)

Syzygium Jambos

(Linn.) Alston.

Synonym: Eugenia jambos Linn. Jambosa vulgaris DC.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in many parts of India.

English: Rose Apple.

Ayurvedic: Raaj-Jambu. (Fruits— pale yellow or pinkish white).

Siddha/Tamil: Peru Navel.

Folk: Gulaabjaamun.

Action: Fruit—used in liver complaints. Bark—astringent, antidiarrhoeal, antidysenteric. Leaves—astringent, anti-inflammatory.

The juice of fresh fruit contains alanine, aspartic acid, cystine or cysteine, glutamine, threonine and tyrosine. The essential oil, obtained from leaves, is a good source of dl-alpha-pinene (2684%) and l-limonene (23-84%).

Ethyl acetate and methanolic extract of the leaves are very effective in curing pedal oedema and in acute and chronic swelling; also gave encouraging results in arthritis. Though all extracts (methanolic, hexane, dichloromethane and ethyl acetate) of the leaves exhibit anti-inflammatory activity, a 10% aqueous extract of the leaves is found significantly effective when compared to 80 mg/kg of phenylbutazone.

In Brazil, a decoction of dry leaves is given in diabetes.

Aerial parts exhibit diuretic activity.... syzygium jambos

Syzygium Malaccense

(Linn.) Merrill & Perry.

Synonym: Eugenia malccensis Linn.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Bengal and South India, chiefly in gardens.

English: Malay Apple, Mountain Apple.

Action: Leaves—dried and powdered, used against stomatitis. Bark—astringent; used for making a mouthwash for thrush.

The extracts of seeds, fruits, leaves, stem and bark show varying degree of antibiotic activity against Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus. An extract of fruits (without seeds) is moderately effective against E. coli and those of bark and leaves against Shigella paradys.

The extracts of the plant, excluding root, affect the rate and amplitude of respiration and also blood pressure.... syzygium malaccense

Syzygium Zeylanicum

(Linn.) DC.

Synonym: Eugenia zeylanica (L.) Wight.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Maharshtra, Mysore, Kerala, Orissa and Andaman Islands.

Siddha/Tamil: Marungi.

Folk: Bhedas (Maharashtra).

Action: Leaves and roots— vermifuge. Plant—stimulant, antirheumatic. (Berries—white, the size of a pea; edible.)

Among other members of the genus, S. arnottianum (Wight) Walp. and S. caryophyllatum (Linn.) Alston are distributed in South India, particularly in Western Ghats. The fruits are edible. Stem bark of all the species contain tannin, that of S. arnottianum up to 16%.... syzygium zeylanicum

Tea For An Upset Stomach

Upset stomach symptoms include heartburn, a taste of bile in the mouth, pains in the stomach which can worsen if you take coffee, citrus, fatty foods, onions, alcohol and chocolate. Other symptoms have been noticed: irregular bowel movements, constipation and pain when going to the toilet. How tea for Upset stomach works A tea for upset stomach has the ability to mitigate the abovementioned symptoms by releasing the cramps and easing the digestion. Efficient Tea for Upset Stomach When choosinga tea for upset stomach, youshould look for one of the following: Peppermint tea is a remedy for all types of digestive ailments, such as irritable bowel syndrome. It relaxes the muscles in the digestive tract, relieves gas and other side effects of the upset stomach and soothes the feelings of nausea. To prepare Peppermint tea, add 1 tablespoon or 2 tablespoons of dried peppermint leaves to 1 cup of hot water. Allow it to steep for 5 minutes. Drink it slowly. Ginger tea may also help your stomach. It is a natural remedy able to ease the feelings of nausea, prevent vomiting and stop diarrhea. To make this tea, place 1 tablespoon of ginger root in 1 cup of hot water. Steep it for 5 to 10 minutes. Fennel tea could also calm an upset stomach. It relieves bloating and gas. It is also an appetite stimulator. It helps the soothing of muscle movement from the intestines, thus expelling excess gas. To make fennel tea, crush 1.5 tablespoon to 4 tablespoons of the fruit or seeds. Add it to a cup of hot water. Tea for Upset Stomach: side effects In case of constipation, stop drinking teas for upset stomach and ask a doctor’s advice. When in doubt, always ask your doctor for advice. In this way, you get the right tea for your ailment.... tea for an upset stomach

Transplant Support Services Authority

In the UK, this NHS authority (UKTSSA) provides a 24-hour service for matching, allocating and distributing organs. It is also responsible for keeping the records of all patients awaiting transplants. Established in 1991, the authority allocates donor organs without favour, following protocols set by advisory groups. It also administers the Human Organ Transplant Act on behalf of the Department of Health. (See TRANSPLANTATION.)... transplant support services authority

Transportation Service

A system operated to transfer a patient or client to or from a health care facility and place of residence.... transportation service

Tropical Sprue

A chronic malabsorptive, diarrhoeal, steatorrhoeic condition of unknown aetiology but often associated with secondary bacterial involvement.... tropical sprue

Tea For Good Skin

Good skin is something we all want. Even if you’re a man or a woman, black heads or acne are really bothering you. If that is the case, you have definitely tried a lot of pharmaceutical and cosmetic products and nothing seemed to be working. Alternative medicine recommends a number of teas and decoctions that will make your skin smoother than ever. All you have to do is commit to this treatment and maintain an adequate skin hygiene. How Tea for Good Skin Works It’s important to know that not only acne can deteriorate your natural glow. There are also a number of affections that can stain your skin, such as liver or kidney failure, eczema or skin rash due to allergies. Smoke will age you before time, wrinkling your mouth area and your forehead. Also, you may want to change your pillow case more often, in order to keep allergens and microbes away from your face. A Tea for Good Skin’s main purpose is to clear your skin through its antiseptic ingredients and nourish the damaged areas. Efficient Tea for Good Skin When choosing a Tea for Good Skin, you need to pick the ones with the highest antifungal and antiseptic properties. You can either drink the tea or use it as a face cleanser. In case you don’t know which teas are adequate, here’s a list we made for you: - Chamomile Tea – thanks to its antibacterial and antiseptic properties, Chamomile Tea is a great help when it comes to skin treatments. Both the pharmaceutical and the cosmetic companies have included Chamomile on their must have list of ingredients. A cup of tea per day will restore your skin’s natural glow while also improving your general health. - Oolong Tea - contains half the amount of caffeine that other teas contain. You can drink it daily or use it as a compress to apply it on your affected areas. This is probably the most effective Tea for Good Skin and also the safest. If you haven’t tried it yet, now would be a good time! - Black Tea – this wonderful Tea for skin improves your vascular activity and enhances your epithelial cells production. Pay attention, though: don’t take it if you’re on your period or experiencing some menopausal pains in order to avoid complication! - White Tea – also a good nutrient, White Tea can improve your general health, not just your skin. It’s best not to combine it with other tea, though. White Tea can have a negative reaction when mixed with green tea or black tea. You can also use a decoction or White Tea tinctures in order to treat your localized injuries. Tea for Good Skin Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are perfectly safe. Just make sure you don’t exceed the number of cups recommended per day in order to avoid complications such as diarrhea or constipation. Other than that, there’s no reason not to try a face cleanser based on a Tea for Good skin! However, if you’re not sure about it yet, talk to a dermatologist or to an herbalist. Don’t take a Tea for Good Skin if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners, anticoagulants or preparing for a major surgery. If there’s nothing that could interfere with your herbal treatment, choose a Tea for Good Skin that fits you best and enjoy its wonderful benefits!... tea for good skin

Tea For Sunburn

A sunburn represents a form of radiation burn. Its cause is the overexposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun rays. The acknowledged symptoms are the following: red or reddish skin which is hot when touching, general fatigue and dizziness. Sometimes, sunburns can be life-threatening. Studies revealed that excessive UV radiation is a major cause of non-malignant skin tumors. How Tea for Sunburn works In general, teas for sunburn mitigate the feeling of skin irritation, calming the itching epidermis. Efficient Tea for Sunburn Cleavers tea and Irish Moss tea are proven to be effective teas for sunburn. Cleavers is a pasture plant originating from North America, Britain and Eurasia. It is well known for its clinging leaves that usually grow to a height of up to 2 meters and its sticky seeds, which attach themselves to anyone who passes by. Cleavers has bitter taste. For medicinally purposes, the whole plant is used. Cleavers can be taken in the form of tea, extracts, capsule, or fresh. To prepare Cleavers tea, infuse 2 to 3 teaspoons of the dried parts of the cleavers plant in a 250 mg cup of hot water. Allow the mixture to steep for about 10 to 15 minutes.  Cleavers tea can be drunk up to three times per day. Irish moss is a type of seaweed found on 6 inches high rocks, in the Northern Atlantic region. It is used to make a thickening agent for jellies, puddings, and soups. It is also found in drugs, foods, and toothpaste. It is also an ornamental plant, requiring very little maintenance. The Irish Moss seaweed can be eaten. To prepare Irish Moss tea, add 2 tablespoons of dried plant to a cup of hot water. Let the mixture steep for about 9-10 minutes. Strain it. The resulting beverage can be both drunk and applied topically. Tea for Sunburn: Side effects Teas for sunburn are not recommended to pregnant and nursing women. When in doubt what tea for sunburn fits best to your symptoms, ask the advice of your doctor.... tea for sunburn

Urethral Syndrome

A group of symptoms of unknown cause. It mainly affects women, and occasionally men, with pain and discomfort in the lower abdomen, a frequent urge to urinate and, in women, pain in the area of the VULVA. Investigation rarely results in any abnormal ?ndings. Postmenopausal women (see MENOPAUSE), who are the most common sufferers, may have in?ammation of the vulva due to thinning of the tissues in that area. Treatment is supportive, with the patient being advised to drink a lot of ?uid and maintain a high standard of personal hygiene.... urethral syndrome

Uterine Sedative

An agent that relaxes the muscles of the uterus... uterine sedative

Vangueria Spinosa

Hook. f.

Synonym: Meyna laxiflora Robyns.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Ayurvedic: Pinditaka, Snigdh- pinditaka.

Siddha/Tamil: Manakkarai.

Folk: Muyana. Chiracholi, Alu (Maharashtra).... vangueria spinosa

Tea For Immune System

Your immune system consists of a series of antibodies and other microorganisms whose main purpose is to defend your system against external attacks. When we have a cold or flu, the main thing that keeps us alive is this line of defense that keeps all bacteria, infections and microbes away from us. Unfortunately, our immune system is not strong enough to fight all causes, so we need to enhance its power by taking a treatment. How a Tea for Immune System Works A Tea for Immune System must contain enough active constituents to fight a wide range of diseases. First of all, it must contain minerals, manganese, magnesium, iron, volatile oils, acids, tannins, nutrients and enzymes. These teas can be taken as cures for a short amount of time (1 or 2 weeks) to enhance your body strength, so you mustn’t exaggerate when taking it. Efficient Tea for Immune System A Tea for Immune System must contain a lot of active constituents and it must be very effective. If you don’t know which teas to choose from, here’s a list to guide you on: - Garlic Tea – can be found almost anywhere on the globe and it has a wide range of uses, from cuisine to pharmaceutical purposes. Also a great cure for diarrhea, this Tea for Immune System has a rather unpleasant taste and smell. Feel free to add honey, lemon, ginger or mint in order to make it more adequate. - Green Tea – probably the most important tea in the world, Green Tea contains all the ingredients necessary to promote a healthy life, full of great benefits. However, don’t take it in case you suffer from menstrual and menopausal pains in order to avoid stomach and uterus irritations. - Yerba Mate Tea – the South American tea has a series of health advantages and it’s been named by the scientific society “the new green tea”. Drink it from a traditional bombilla or straight from a normal glass, but make sure you know which the risks are and that you’re taking this treatment under supervision. - Ginseng Tea – this wonderful Chinese Tea is used as a main ingredient in the Asian cuisine, but also as a great adjuvant in cases of nausea, vomiting and auto-immune deficiencies. However, make sure that you’re using the right amount of herbs when preparing this decoction in order to avoid developing a acid foods and drinks intolerance! Tea for Immune System Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, drinking more tea than it’s recommended may lead to constipation, upset stomach or even death. Talk to your doctor before starting any kind of herbal treatment and find out which are the risks. Don’t take a treatment based on a Tea for Immune System if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on anti coagulants, blood thinners or preparing for a surgery. Also, children must be kept away from these teas since there’s no study to prove how safe it is for them. When in doubt, always ask your doctor. If he says there’s nothing that could interfere with your treatment, choose a tea that fits you best and enjoy its health benefits!... tea for immune system

Tecoma Stans

(Linn.) H. B. & K.

Synonym: Stenolobium stans (L.) D. Don.

Bignonia stans Linn.

Family: Bignoniaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in gardens.

English: Yellow Elder, Yellow Bells.

Siddha/Tamil: Sonapaati, Thanga Arali, Naga Sambagam.

Action: Leaves—hypoglycaemic (tecomine and tecostanine are hypoglycaemic alkaloids).

Root—diuretic, vermifuge. The flowers contain beta-carotene and zeaxanthin. The plant gave phenolic acids, beta-sitosterol and triterpe- noids—ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and alpha-amarine. An indole-metaboli- zing enzyme, indole-oxygenase, has been isolated from the leaves. Antidiabetic activity of the plant was tested on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.... tecoma stans

Teucrium Scordium

Linn.

Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe; found in Kashmir.

English: Water-Germander.

Action: Stimulant, antiseptic, sudorific. Given for phthisis and cough. An infusion is used as laxative in piles, as a gargle in sore throat and stomatitis. An extract of the herb is given in lupus and actinomycosis. Flower tops and leaves—astringent, diaphoretic, vermifuge.

The herb contains iridoids, including harpagide and acetyl harpagide; fu- ranoid diterpenes; also choline, rutin, quercetin, iso-quercetin, stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin, chloro- genic and ursolic acids.... teucrium scordium

Vasoconstrictor Sympathomimetics

These drugs temporarily raise the BLOOD PRESSURE by constricting peripheral blood vessels. Sometimes they are used as a speedy way of raising blood pressure when other treatment has failed. EPHEDRINE and methoxamine hydrochloride are examples of this type of sympathomimetic.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation ADRENALINE (epinephrine) is given intravenously in cardiac arrest, and other drugs used include ATROPINE and CALCIUM.... vasoconstrictor sympathomimetics

Venous Stasis

Having congested venous blood and lymph. Usually a larger condition effecting tissue or organ function, as opposed to the more vascular implications of venosities and varicosities.... venous stasis

Very Sheltered Housing

See “extra care sheltered housing”.... very sheltered housing

Visiting Service / Visitor Programme

Through volunteers or community workers, a service providing companionship and support for older people who may be lonely and isolated.... visiting service / visitor programme

Tea For Lucid Dreams

Having a lucid dream means dreaming while being aware of the fact that you are dreaming. However, many people become lucid in the middle of the dream or, on the contrary, fall lose reality contact after being lucid at first. Although traditional medicine can’t be very helpful in these cases, alternative medicine has a few tricks up its sleeve. How a Tea for Lucid Dreams Works A Tea for Lucid Dreams’ main purpose is to make you recall what you have dreamed by calming your nervous system and improving your memory function. These teas are good for a number of other diseases, such as memory loss, headaches or migraines. However, talk to an herbalist or to your doctor before starting any kind of herbal treatment in order to make sure everything will be alright. Efficient Tea for Lucid Dreams In order to work properly, a Tea for Lucid Dreams needs to be both very efficient and one hundred percent safe (since lucid dreams are not exactly a medical problem, you may want to avoid developing one). A tea that is rich in antioxidants, nutrients, tannins, volatile oils and minerals (sodium, magnesium, iron, manganese) would be very adequate. You may want to avoid teas with a large amount of acid agents (they could cause stomach pain). If you don’t know which teas could be useful for lucid dreams, here’s a list for guidance: - Green Tea – contains all the ingredients necessary to sustain life, so it’s useful for a wide range of ailments, not just lucid dreams. If you’re suffering from infertility, anemia, asthenia, loss of appetite, digestive tract complaints or nervous system failure, this decoction could also be useful. However, you must avoid it at all costs if you’re experiencing some menstrual or menopausal symptoms. The same advice if you’re pregnant (it may cause uterine contractions and therefore miscarriage). - Valerian Tea – was been used as a sleep aid since ancient times, when the Romans and the Greeks took it before going to bed. This Tea for Lucid Dreams, thanks to its active compounds, is a mild sedative and could also work miracles on your nervous system. However, you need to make sure that you don’t exceed the number of cups recommended per day in order to avoid hallucinations, tiredness or even death. - Chamomile Tea – of course, the world’s greatest panacea shouldn’t be left aside. If you’re having trouble remembering your dreams, try a cup of Chamomile Tea before you go to bed! This Tea has a great fragrance and a pleasant smell. Plus, it’s one hundred percent safe so you can drink as much as you want. Tea for Lucid Dreams Side Effects When taken according to specifications, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day may lead to a number of health problems, such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, upset stomach or even death! If you’ve been taking one of these decoctions for a while and you’re experience a negative response from your body, ask for medical assistance right away! Don’t take a Tea for Lucid Dreams if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners or anticoagulants. The same advice in case you’re preparing for a surgery. If your doctor says it’s ok to start an herbal treatment, choose a tea that fits best your requirements and enjoy its wonderful benefits!  ... tea for lucid dreams

Thymus Serpyllum

Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Native to North America; also found in temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal; grown in gardens in western India.

English: Mother-of-thyme, Wild Thyme. Thymus vulgaris (Garden Thyme) is found in the Nilgiris at higher elevations.

Ayurvedic: Ajagandhaa, Vana- Yavaani. (Not to be confused with Yavaani, Ajmodaa, Shataahvaa, Raajikaa and Tilaparni.)

Unani: Haashaa, Jangali Pudinaa. Thysanolaena agrostis Nees.

Action: Antiseptic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antispasmodic, mild sedative, expectorant. T. serpyllum and T. vulgaris L. are used for coughs and common cold.

Key application: German Commission E approved T. vulgaris for symptoms of bronchitis, whooping cough and catarrhs of the upper respiratory tracts. Also to treat stomatitis. (ESCOP.)

The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes expectorant activity of T. serpyllum.

T. serpyllum contains more linalool and p-cymol than Garden Thyme (T. vulgaris). Major constituent of the volatile oil of both the species (highly variable) is thymol; with carvacrol (lesser amount in T. serpyllum, higher in T. vulgaris), 1,8-cineole, borneol, geraniol, linalool. bornyl and lina- lyl acetate, thymol methyl ether and alpha-pinene.

Flavonoids include apigenin, lute- olin, thymonin, naringenin; other constituents include labiatic acid, caffeic acid, tannins.

The flavonoid fraction has shown to have a potent effect on smooth muscle on guinea-pig trachea and ileum.

Thymol is expectorant and antiseptic. Thymol and carvacrol are spasmolytic. Thymol is also urinary tract antiseptic and anthelmintic.

Dosage: Whole plant—3–5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... thymus serpyllum

Washing Out Of The Stomach

See GASTRIC LAVAGE.... washing out of the stomach

Welfare Service

A type of social care service supported through public funding. Eligibility criteria vary from universal coverage to specialized requirements. See “social care service”.... welfare service

Tea For Morning Sickness

Morning Sickness is not particularly a disease, but a symptom of pregnancy. If you feel that the room is spinning around and that all scents are too strong, it is possible that you’re pregnant. However, morning sickness usually consists of vomiting, nausea, headaches, back pains and, at times, fever. This affection looks a lot like food intoxication. But just to be sure, schedule an appointment with your gynecologist. How Tea for Morning Sickness Works A Tea for Morning Sickness’ main goal is to ameliorate your weakness and restore your general health. Thanks to the active ingredients in these teas, your abdominal muscles will stop their negative response, while nourishing the nervous system. Also, morning sickness has a lot to do with your hormones, so you may want to try a tea with an elevated estrogen level or at least one that could stop your hormone level from growing. Efficient Tea for Morning Sickness In order to be efficient, a Tea for Morning Sickness needs to have the right amount of nutrients, enzymes, volatile oils and minerals (a tea rich in manganese, iron, magnesium is the best choice for your condition). You may want to avoid the ones with a high acids level, since they cause stomach acidity and, at times, even uterine contractions which might lead to miscarriage. If you don’t know which teas are best for your problem, here’s a list to help you out: - Peppermint Tea – this Tea for Morning Sickness is well known as a stomach soothing decoction, with various uses which spread on many areas of interest, from cosmetic industry to pharmaceutical remedies. This tea could lower your hormone level and induce a state of calmness to your abdominal area. You can also use it to treat diarrhea, sore throats, nausea and even headaches. Peppermint Tea is one hundred percent safe and you can take as much as you want. - Ginger Tea – although Ginger Tea is a great nausea reliever, practitioners around the world are concerned when it comes to administrating it to pregnant women. Even if this Tea for Morning Sickness is very efficient for nausea, using too much herb will cause uterine contractions due to its acid compounds. The best thing you can do is ask your doctor’s advice before taking this tea. - Raspberry Leaf Tea – also a great remedy for infertility, anemia, asthenia and other problems, this tea has a sweet taste and a pleasant smell. Practitioners around the world have discovered that this Tea for Morning Sickness could take your pain away in no time thanks to its active constituents, which include tannins, manganese and iron. And let’s not forget the vitamin C, which will energize your entire body. Tea for Morning Sickness Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day may lead to other affection such as constipation, migraines or stomach irritations. Talk to an herbalist or to your doctor before starting any kind of herbal treatment and make sure that everything will be ok. However, if you’ve been taking one of these teas and you’re noticing some unusual responses from your body, ask for medical assistance immediately! If you have the medical approval and there’s nothing that could interfere with your treatment, choose a Tea for Morning Sickness that fits best your needs and give it a try!... tea for morning sickness

Werner’s Syndrome

A rare inherited condition in which the affected person suffers from premature ageing from adolescence onwards. His or her growth may be retarded, the skin become thin, and arterial disease, DIABETES MELLITUS and leg ulcers (see ULCER) develop. Treatment is symptomatic.... werner’s syndrome

Winterbottom’s Sign

A posterior cervical lymphadenopathy indicative of early West African (Gambian) Sleeping Sickness due to Trypanosoma brucei gambiense.... winterbottom’s sign

Wool-sorters’ Disease

Another name for ANTHRAX.... wool-sorters’ disease

Tea For Nervous System

The nervous system is responsible for almost any reaction that comes from your body. From eyes to muscles and even hair, your body is a very complex electric system directed by your brain. Most of the problems that a person has in a lifetime are related to a nervous system failure. In order to treat this kind of problems or prevent them from happening, you may want to try a tea instead of all those traditional pills. How a Tea for Nervous System Works A Tea for Nervous System is indeed helpful if it contains an important amount of nutrients, enzymes, tannins, volatile oils and minerals (sodium, iron, magnesium and manganese). You may want to avoid a tea that has an elevated acids level since it may cause you even more damages. A Tea for Nervous System will make your body send all the active constituents to the affected areas and heal the damaged tissue. Efficient Tea for Nervous System In order to work properly, a Tea for Nervous System must show results in a short time period and be one hundred percent safe (you don’t want any more complications than you already have). However, before starting any kind of herbal treatment, remember to take the indicated dose and never surpass it in order to avoid other health problems. If you don’t know which teas could be helpful for you, here’s a list for guidance: - Oolong Tea – contains half the amount of caffeine that other teas have so it’s best for your health to give it a try every once in a while. This Tea for Nervous System will also strengthen your entire organism and rejuvenate the aspect of your skin. However, don’t drink more than 2 cups per day. - Green Tea – as the scientists have proved, this decoction contains all the ingredients necessary to sustain life, so it’s good for a number of other health complaints, such as infertility, headaches, nausea, loss of appetite, anemia and asthenia. Just make sure you avoid it at all costs in case you’re experiencing some menstrual or menopausal symptoms (it may cause uterine contractions and internal bleedings). - Black Tea – some say that it does more damages than good for your nervous system and some others think that this tea is worth a try. Having an elevated level of caffeine, this tea is highly addictive. In right amount, it can treat infertility, erectile dysfunctions, sore throats and colds. However, ask an herbalist before starting a treatment based on this Tea for Nervous System in order to find out which are the risks. Tea for Nervous System Side Effects When taken according to specifications, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day may lead to other health complaints, such as nausea, diarrhea, uterine contractions, internal bleedings and headaches. If you’ve tried one of these teas and something doesn’t feel quite right, talk to your doctor as soon as possible! Don’t take a Tea for Nervous System if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners or anticoagulants. The same advice if you’re preparing for a surgery (some of the active compounds in these teas may interfere with your anesthetic and cause death). But if you have the green light from your doctor, choose a tea that fits best your requirements and enjoy its wonderful health benefits!... tea for nervous system

Turner’s Syndrome

This occurs in one in 2,500 live female births. It is caused by either the absence of or an abnormality in one of the two X CHROMOSOMES. Classical Turner’s syndrome is a complete deletion of one X so that the karyotype is 45XO. Half of the people with Turner’s syndrome have MOSAICISM with a mixture of Turner cells and normal cells, or other abnormalities of the X chromosome such as partial deletions or a ring X. They are females, both in appearance and sexually; clinical features are variable and include short stature, with ?nal height between 1·295 m and 1·575 m, and ovarian failure. Other clinical features may include a short neck, webbing of the neck, increased carrying angle at the elbow (cubitus valgus), widely spaced nipples, cardiovascular abnormalities (of which the commonest is coarctation of the aorta [about 10 per cent]), morphological abnormalities of the kidneys (including horseshoe kidney and abnormalities of the pelviureteric tracts), recurrent otitis media (see under EAR, DISEASES OF), squints, increased incidence of pigmented naevi (see NAEVUS), hypothyroidism (see under THYROID, DISEASES OF) and DIABETES MELLITUS. Intelligence is across the normal range, although there are speci?c learning defects which are related to hand-eye coordination and spatial awareness.

Patients with Turner’s syndrome may require therapeutic help throughout their life. In early childhood this may revolve around surgical correction of cardiovascular disease and treatment to improve growth. Usually, PUBERTY will need to be induced with oestrogen therapy (see OESTROGENS). In adult life, problems of oestrogen therapy, prevention of osteoporosis (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF), assessment and treatment of HYPERTENSION and assisted fertility predominate. For the address of the UK Turner Syndrome Society, see Appendix 2.... turner’s syndrome

Wright’s Stain

One of the Romanowski stains used to stain blood films and blood parasites such as those causing relapsing fever, malaria trypanosomiasis and filariasis.... wright’s stain

Tea For Quitting Smoking

The decision to quit smoking if rarely strong enough to actually put a stop to this addiction. However, if you are determined and feel that this would be a good day to stop smoking, you may want to try an herbal remedy before rushing off to the pharmacy. Many people are concerned about the fact that quitting smoking will make them gain weight. That’s only partially true. Since smoking is more a social habit, some people feel the need to replace cigarettes with something else and they usually choose food. That’s why you might gain a few pounds. However, there are a number of teas capable of inhibiting this reaction, so do not despair! How a Tea for Quitting Smoking Works A Tea for Quitting Smoking’s main goal is to make the need for nicotine gone once and for all. Usually, these teas contain an important amount of active constituents which resemble a lot to nicotine, but don’t cause you any harm. They will trick your body into thinking that you’re still taking nicotine, while actually cleansing your body. Alternative medicine practitioners explain how, in time, you’ll no longer feel the need to smoke. Some say that these teas have no effect whatsoever and that if they work it’s only thanks to your power of suggestion. If it’s true or not, you be the judge of that! Efficient Tea for Quitting Smoking When choosing a Tea for Quitting Smoking, you must keep in mind the fact that it must be both one hundred percent safe and very efficient. In order to be effective, a tea needs to contain the right amount of tannins, volatile oils, acids, minerals (iron, manganese, magnesium and sodium) and nutrients. Also, a tea with an elevated level of antioxidants will help you cleanse your respiratory ways and restore your initial health. If you don’t know which teas to choose from, here’s a list to guide you on: - Mimosa Tea – can induce a calming and relaxing state thanks to its great active ingredients which can also bring relief to stress, anxiety and depression (a smoker struggles with these symptoms during the quitting process). Don’t take more than 2 cups per day in order to avoid nervous system problems, such as sleeplessness or hallucinations. - Skullcap Tea – is well known for its ability to reduce stress and nervous tension. This Tea for Quitting Smoking could also be effective if you’re suffering from anxiety, asthenia or anemia. - Chamomile Tea – the world’s greatest panacea has a few benefits in store for you in case you’re trying to quit smoking. It has a pleasant taste and a lovely smell and it’s one hundred percent safe, so you can drink as much as you want. - Jasmine Tea – probably the most aromatic tea in the world, Jasmine Tea is well known for its curative actions which include general health improvement. Add a hint of ginger, mint, honey or lemon and you’ll have a delicious drink on the table. However, make sure you don’t take more than 2 cups per day in order to avoid any nervous system complications. Tea for Quitting Smoking Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day might lead to diarrhea, nausea, upset stomach, skin rash and hallucinations. Don’t take a Tea for Quitting Smoking if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners or anticoagulants. The same advice if you’re preparing for a surgery (some of the active constituents may interfere with your anesthetic). But if you have your doctor’s approval and there’s nothing that could go wrong, choose a Tea for Quitting Smoking that fits best your problems and enjoy its great benefits!... tea for quitting smoking

Vallaris Solanacea

Kuntze

Synonym: V. heynei Spreng. V. dichotoma (Roxb.) Wall. ex G. Don.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India; cultivated in gardens.

Ayurvedic: Aasphotaa, Asphuka, Bhadravalli, Saarivaa-utpala (white var.).

Folk: Haapharamaali var. Dudhi-bel (Garhwal).

Action: Latex—applied to old wounds and sores (mildly irritant). Bark—astringent. Seeds—cardiac tonic.

Seeds are rich in cardiac glyco- sides; contain acoschimperoside P, mono-O-acetylvallaroside, mono-O- acetylsolanoside, mono-O-acetylaco- schimperoside P, vallaroside, valla- rosolanoside, solanoside and 16-deace- tyl-16-anhydroacoschimperoside P. O- acetylsolanoside is a potent cardioton- ic.

The seed oil contains palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids. The leaves gave beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin and urso- lic acid.

Vallaris glabra Kuntze (West Bengal) is also equated with Aasphotaa.... vallaris solanacea

Z Score

Score expressed as a deviation from the mean value, in standard deviation units. ... z score

Anaemia: Sports

A side-effect of hard training in endurance sports with low haemoglobin and haematocrit levels due to rapid depletion of iron on excessive exertion. See: IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA. ... anaemia: sports

Tea For Sinus Congestion

Sinus congestion causes a stuffy sensation in your nose as well as in your throat. This affection consists of mucus accumulations in your respiratory ways and it can be triggered by many problems, from colds, flu, to pulmonary edema and some types of cancer. However, in order to find out more about what’s bothering your health, schedule an appointment with your doctor and don’t try to medicate yourself. How a Tea for Sinus Congestion Works A Tea for Sinus Congestion’s main purpose is to dissolve all mucus accumulations and bring relief to your pain. The active constituents in these teas have an important acids and mineral level that could calm the affected areas and induce a state of calmness to your entire body. Efficient Tea for Sinus Congestion In order to work properly, a Tea for Sinus Congestion needs to be both efficient and one hundred percent safe. A tea that is rich in tannins, nutrients, antioxidant, natural enzymes and minerals (magnesium, iron, manganese) could be a perfect choice, especially because it can treat other diseases as well. But if you don’t know which teas have the ability to treat your problems, here’s a list to choose from: - Eucalyptus Tea – is well known thanks to its capacity to dissolve mucus accumulations and restore the initial health. Eucalyptus is also used as an ingredient for the international cuisine as well as in the cosmetic industry to produce face cleansers and anti-aging creams. However, don’t drink more than 3 cups per day in order to avoid developing teeth soreness. - Peppermint Tea – is a well known panacea with a lovely fragrance and a pleasant taste which can dissolve inflammations and prevent them from forming again. You can also use it to treat colds, flu, sore throats, diarrhea, gastritis, fever and menstrual pains. Plus, it’s one hundred percent safe, so you can drink as much as you want. - Echinacea Tea –this Tea for Sinus Congestion stimulates the production of blood cells and antibodies to flush all infection triggers out of your system. A recent study showed recently that people who took a treatment based on Echinacea healed their problems better than other people who only took traditional pills! So next time you’re looking for sinus congestion remedies, check out the teashops instead of pharmacies! Tea for Sinus Congestion Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day may lead to a number of affections, such as upset stomach, vomiting or skin rash. Talk to your doctor or to an herbalist before starting any type of herbal remedies and be well informed of the risks! If you’ve been taking one of these teas for a while and you’re experiencing some unusual reactions, ask for medical assistance as soon as possible! If you have the green light from your doctor and there’s nothing that could go wrong, choose a Tea for Sinus Congestion that fits best your medical problems and enjoy its benefits!... tea for sinus congestion

Vallisneria Spiralis

Linn.

Family: Hydrocharitaceae.

Habitat: Hydrophyte; throughout India.

English: Eel-Grass, Tape Grass, Wild Celery.

Ayurvedic: Shaivala, Shaivaala. (Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. is also equated with Shaivala.)

Folk: Sevaar.

Action: Plant—stomachic, refrigerant, demulcent. Also used in leucorrhoea and spermatorrhoea.

Extracts of the plant yielded polysaccharides containing D-galactose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, uronic acid, acidic xylan and an arabi- no galactan.... vallisneria spiralis

Vanda Spathulata

Spreng.

Family: Orchidaceae.

Habitat: Kerala.

Ayurvedic: Svarna-pushpa Bandaa, Baandaa.

Folk: Ponnampomaraiva (Kerala).

Action: Flowers—dried flowers are powdered and given for asthma, consumption, also for mood-swings and psychosomatic bursts.

Action: Fruits—refrigerant and cholagogue; used in biliary complaints and hepatic congestion. Dry fruits—narcotic; used in dysentery.

The seeds contain linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids.... vanda spathulata

Anti-scorbutics

Agents that relieve or cure scurvy. Bogbean, Burdock, Chickweed, Clivers, Cubebs, Blue Flag root, Lemon juice, Sorrel, Nettles, Sarsaparilla, Yellow Parilla, Yellow Dock, Watercress. ... anti-scorbutics

Anti-scrofulous

An agent that tends to reduce glandular inflammation and swelling, and inhibits onset of tuberculosis of the lymphatics. See: LYMPHATICS. ... anti-scrofulous

Black Stools

May be due to melaena or to colours left from bismuth, iron, charcoal, liquorice and certain fruits. Chocolate sandwich may sometimes induce a pseudo-melaena. Treat: as for MELAENA. ... black stools

Boswellia Serrata, Roxb

Oleo-gum resin.

Action. Aromatic diuretic, laxative, demulcent, diaphoretic, astringent, expectorant, stimulant, digestive. Mild pain killer.

Uses: Urinary disorders, rheumatism.

Preparations: Topical. Ointments for ulcers. ... boswellia serrata, roxb

Building Sickness Syndrome

Work-related lethargy coming on in the afternoon may be the result of this syndrome. Air-conditioned buildings promote symptoms not encountered in naturally ventilated offices, shops, etc.

Symptoms: dry throat, eye irritation, headache, fatigue, wheezy chest and flu-like colds may be a product of modern ventilating systems. The headache may come on in the afternoon and improve on leaving work. Humidifier fever. Passive inhalation of cigarette smoke a factor.

Alternatives. Treatment. Ginseng, Iceland Moss, Irish Moss, German Chamomile tea. ... building sickness syndrome

Tea For Sleep

Whether you are dealing with sleepless nights or you feel too tired during the day, you can try to solve this problem with tea. As it is a natural beverage, it brings along various other health benefits. Find out more about teas for sleep! Sleep problems tea can solve Sleep can become a problem when we either can’t sleep during the night or we feel like we don’t  get enough sleep. Sleepless nights can have various causes. We can get them because we feel stressed, anxious or depressed. They can also be caused by the medication we might be taking. Various diseases can lead to sleep problems, as well. These include asthma, various allergies, Parkinson’s disease, hyperthyroidism, acid reflux, kidney disease, cancer or chronic pain, or even sleep-related diseases such as sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome. Lastly, beverages that contain caffeine can lead to sleepless nights. As for feeling tired despite having slept during the night, this happens mostly because stress and anxiousness, or because of various diseases (celiac disease, anemia, underactive thyroid, diabetes). Tea can help reduce both sleeping problems and fatigue. Though not as strong as medication, it counts as an important, natural element of the treatment. Varieties of tea for sleep There are a few types of tea that can help you when you’re dealing with sleepless nights. Valerian tea is often recommended when you’ve got trouble sleeping. This tea allows endomorphins in your body to be released easier and therefore reduces sleep problems. Chamomile tea is another tea for sleep; it reduces stress and anxiety levels and can therefore help you relax and get a good night’s sleep. Lavender is also known for helping people relax, so drinking a cup of lavender tea before bed can help a lot, too. Other herbal teas with similar properties include basil tea, catnip tea, fennel tea, honeybush tea, kava tea, lemon balm tea, motherwort tea, passion flower tea, peppermint tea, reishi tea, schizandra tea, and skullcap tea. Side effects of tea for sleep While these types of tea help when it comes to sleeping problems, consumption of each tea can lead to a few side effects. This is why it is recommended that you talk with your doctor first, before deciding to drink tea daily, as part of your treatment. Make sure you won’t get allergic reactions caused by the tea’s main ingredient. Also, avoid teas for sleep (and most types of tea) during pregnancy and nursing periods. Chamomile tea should not be drunk by people with bleeding disorders. Valerian tea should not be consumed in large quantities, as it might lead to headaches and stomach problems. Tea to get rid of fatigue The types of tea that can help you get rid of fatigue are the ones you should not drink when you’ve got sleeping problems. A cup in the morning can be safe, though you definitely shouldn’t drink it at night, before bed. Tea that contains caffeine helps fight off feelings of tiredness. These include the types of tea made from the Camellia Sinensis plant: green tea, black tea, white tea, and oolong tea. Drinking a cup of one of these teas, in the morning, can increase your mental alertness and scare off fatigue. However, make sure you can drink types of tea that contain caffeine. If caffeine is not good for you, it might lead to unpleasant side effects: headaches, nervousness, sleep problems, vomiting, diarrhea, irritability, irregular heartbeats, tremors, dizziness, or ringing in the ears. No matter the problem, whether you have trouble sleeping or you feel tired during the day, choose a type of tea that can help you. This hot beverage can count as a natural treatment which will also bring other health benefits. Enjoy your cup of tea for sleep!... tea for sleep

Voice And Speech

Terms applied to the sounds produced in the upper AIR PASSAGES which form one of the means of communication between human beings. Air passes through the LARYNX to produce the fundamental notes and tones known as voice. This is then modi?ed during its passage through the mouth so as to form speech or song.

Voice This has three varying characteristics: loudness, pitch, and quality or timbre. Loudness depends on the volume of air available and therefore on the size of the chest and the strength of its muscles. Pitch is determined by larynx size, the degree of tenseness at which the vocal cords are maintained, and whether the cords vibrate as a whole or merely at their edges.

In any given voice, the range of pitch seldom exceeds two and a half octaves. Typically, the small larynx of childhood produces a shrill or treble voice; the rapid growth of the larynx around PUBERTY causes the voice to ‘break’ in boys. Changes in the voice also occur at other ages as a result of the secondary action of the SEX HORMONES. Generally speaking, the adult voice is bass and tenor in men, contralto or soprano in women. Timbre is due to di?erences in the larynx, as well as to voluntary changes in the shape of the mouth.

Speech Rapid modi?cations of the voice, produced by movements of the PALATE, tongue and lips. Infants hear the sounds made by others and mimic them; hence the speech centres in the BRAIN are closely connected with those of hearing.

Defects of speech See below, and also SPEECH DISORDERS. MUTISM, or absence of the power to speak, may be due to various causes. LEARNING DISABILITY that prevents the child from mimicking the actions of others is most common; in other cases the child has normal intelligence but some neurological disorder, or disorder of the speech organs, is responsible. Alternatively, complete DEAFNESS or early childhood ear disease may be the cause. STAMMERING is a highly individual condition, but is basically a lack of coordination between the di?erent parts of the speech mechanism. (See also main entry on STAMMERING.) DYSPHASIA is the inability to speak or understand speech, most commonly following brain disease, such as STROKE. APHONIA or loss of voice may be caused by LARYNGITIS or, rarely, a symptom of conversion and dissociative mental disorders – traditionally referred to as HYSTERIA. It is generally of short duration.... voice and speech

Burnet Saxifrage

Lesser Burnet. Pimpinella saxifraga L. Dried root and herb. Constituents: Coumarins, volatile oil, saponin.

Action. Carminative, aromatic, stimulant, expectorant.

Uses: Flatulence, Stomach upsets.

Preparation. Tea. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes; 1 cup 2-3 times daily. ... burnet saxifrage

Cardamom Seeds

Elettaria cardamomum Maton. Dried ripe seeds. Volatile oil.

Action. Carminative, warm and soothing to digestive system. Stomachic, Orexigenic. Anti-gripe. Oil is antiseptic.

Uses: Flatulence, colic, loss of appetite.

Preparations: Tea. Crush seeds in a pestle and mortar. 1 teaspoon to cup of water; bring to boil; remove vessel when boiling point is reached. Infuse 10-15 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup.

Powder. Dose, 1-2 grams.

Liquid Extract. 0.3 to 2ml.

Tincture Cardamoms Co BP (1973): dose 2-4ml. Oil – 3 drops in honey after meals promotes digestion, removes odour of garlic, onions, etc. ... cardamom seeds

Tea For Sore Throat

Thanks to their anti-inflammatory action, medicinal teas can be taken by almost anyone. All you have to do is make sure you follow the specifications. Sore throat means a severe pain, localized in the neck area, which has internal trigger. Sometimes, this pain can be caused by colds or flu and some other times it’s a reaction to all kinds of external parasites. A very powerful smell, an environment abundant in toxins can also be a cause for sore throat. However, you can treat it by using a Tea for Sore Throat, even if we’re talking about a pain caused by an infection or by overexposing the laryngeal cords. When using a Tea for Sore Throat, not only that you help your system detoxify, but also lower the amount of infection triggers, such as bacteria or microbes. How Tea for Sore Throat Works Generally, their action involves a medium amount of time. In other words, you need to be patient when you decide to go with a Tea for Sore Throat instead of a traditional treatment. The improvement is only noticeable after a while. The main characteristic of a Tea for Sore Throat is that its action, although safe and focused on the affected areas, is based on a number of chemical substances that lower or increase your antibodies level. Usually, when choosing a Tea for a Sore Throat, make sure you’re buying the one that contains a high amount of vitamins, such as vitamin C or D, in order to fight parasites. Also, choose the safest teas and don’t go for a rare and dangerous decoction in order to avoid other health complications. Efficient Tea for Sore Throat In order to function properly, a Tea for a Sore Throat needs to be safe and have a pleasant taste, mostly, since the importance of these teas consists in their ability to warm up your throat. If the tea you picked is also rich in vitamins, you’ve got yourself a winner! Here are some teas you might find useful in case you’re suffering from a sore throat: - Chamomile Tea – also used to treat headaches and migraines, Chamomile Tea is a very popular Tea for Sore Throat as well. If you suffer from colds of flu and you’re experiencing a wide range of symptoms, such as sore throat, fever and respiratory distress, Chamomile may come in hand. - Honey and Lemon – although this is not particularly a tea, but more a decoction, it’s the ultimate organic treatment when it comes to sore throats. Aside from its elevated vitamin C level, this tea has also a huge impact on your immune system, thanks to the special ingredients contained by honey. Not only that honey contributes to a better health system, but it also provides strength and an energy boost. - Black Tea – a very important Tea for Sore Throat, Black Tea not only that energizes your coronary system and improves your blood circulation, but it also has antiseptic and detoxifying properties. But, be careful if you’re thinking about starting a treatment based on Black Tea: it is not recommended for abdominal pain, such as menstrual or menopause pain. If you have a sore throat and you’re also on your period, it’s best to go for a safer tea, such as Chamomile Tea. - Mint Tea – thanks to its volatile oils and its active substances, Mint Tea can treat sore throats in no time, as well as a series of respiratory problems. It’s also one hundred percent safe and it can successfully replace your morning coffee. Teas you should avoid Sore throat is a mild affection of your system, caused by minor infections and it’s best to keep that in mind when choosing a Tea for a Sore Throat. Go for the most popular and the safest teas that could not trigger other problems. Tansy Tea is also a good remedy for a sore throat, but since it’s very dangerous, it’s best to avoid it. Tea for Sore Throat Side Effects When taken according to specifications, these teas are perfectly safe. However, high dosages may lead to a series of affections of the digestive tract, such as diarrhea and upset stomach. In order to avoid that, don’t drink more than 6 cups of Tea for Sore Throat per day.When in doubt, ask a specialist for guidance. If you suffer from a sore throat and you’re feeling too sick to go to the pharmacy or you just want to give natural remedies a chance, try one of these teas and enjoy their health benefits!... tea for sore throat

Wagatea Spicata

Dalz.

Family: Caesalpiniaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats.

Ayurvedic: Guchh-karanja.

Siddha: Okkadi-kodi, Pulinakk- agondai.

Folk: Vaakeri (Maharashtra). Caesalpinia digyna Rottl. is also known as Vaakeri.

Action: Roots—used in pneumonia. Bark—used externally in skin diseases.

The root contains vakerin. Vakerin did not inhibit the stimulating effect of histamine and acetylcholine.

Pods contain considerable quantity of tannic acid.... wagatea spicata

Cherry Stalks

Prunus cerasus. Part used: fruit stalks. French: Cerisier. German: Kinsche. Italian: Ciliego agerotto.

Constituents: polyphenols, potassium salts, organic acids.

Action: diuretic. Inflammation of urinary tract.

Uses: oedema, cystitis.

Preparations: Tea. 1-2 teaspoons dried stalks to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Dose: 1 cup thrice daily.

Powder. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily. ... cherry stalks

Committee On Safety Of Medicines

The Committee for safety of medicines was set up in 1963 after the thalidomide disaster. It is an advisory committee which examines drugs before clinical trials, before a product licence is granted, and when passed for marketing. A product cannot be tested in the human body without the company holding a clinical trial certificate. A product licence is renewable after five years. ... committee on safety of medicines

Commuter’s Syndrome

A range of complaints blamed on the effects of commuting to and from work.

Symptoms: headaches, palpitations, skin complaints, sleeplessness, digestive disorders, chest pains and excessive perspiration. These may be due to exposure to unsatisfactory levels of bacterial and chemical pollution. Where symptoms are not due to any underlying condition, Ginseng, Gota Kola and Chaparral may usually be relied on.

Preparations: teas, tablets, liquid extracts. Professional woman’s fatigue may be dispelled by German Chamomile tea. ... commuter’s syndrome

Tea For Stress

Stress is known as a general state of fatigue and exhaustion due to sleeplessness or other causes such as sitting in one position for too long or having a lot to deal with. Stress is both a physical and a mental disorder, triggered by the body exhaustion due to hard working. The best way to deal with stress is to take some time off from school or work, but if you cannot afford that luxury, try a natural remedy. Some say that stress implies having too little time to solve too many problems while already being exhausted. At times, stress accumulations may lead to faints, blackouts or severe mental problems, such as paranoia or schizophrenia. How Tea for Stress Works A Tea for Stress’ main purpose is to make your body release enough endorphins to create a state of relaxation. These teas contain nutrients, enzymes and volatile oils capable to induce joy and happiness. Many of these teas can contain tannins, which is a substance whose main purpose is to calm the affected areas and nourish the nervous system. If you’re feeling down and stress is the main cause, try a Tea for Stress and enjoy its organic benefits! Efficient Tea for Stress When choosing a Tea for Stress, you need to make sure the one you’re picking is both safe and very effective, in order to avoid other unnecessary complications. If you’re thinking about taking a tea and you don’t know which one fits your needs best, here are some guidelines: - Chamomile Tea – also used as an adjuvant in the pharmaceutical and the cosmetic industry, Chamomile Tea can treat a number of affections, such as sore throat, flu, colds, pleurisy and pulmonary edema. Also, Chamomile is one of the safest and the most popular stress treatments and it can be found in almost any teashop or grocery store! - Mint Tea – contains an active ingredient called menthol which is responsible for this tea’s curative properties. This is a very important Tea for Stress, since its action doesn’t imply only the stress triggers, but also a large variety of affections, such as respiratory problems and ailments of the digestive tract (diarrhea, upset stomach, gastritis). This tea is also one hundred percent safe; just don’t take more than 6 cups per day! - Ginseng Tea – probably the most effective Tea for Stress, Ginseng Tea is also the most dangerous one. Make sure you don’t drink more than a cup per day for a short amount of time and that in case you’re experiencing some unusual reactions, you’ll talk to a specialist right away! - Lavender Tea – used for its fragrance and curative properties, lavender was used by the ancient Romans as a sleeping aid and a good relaxer. Modern medicine, however, found out that a cup of Lavender Tea per day will destroy both the stress and the tension in your body. Besides, you can find it almost anywhere! Tea for Stress Side Effects When taken properly, a Tea for Stress is generally safe. However, high dosages may lead to a number of health complications, such as diarrhea, constipation, upset stomach, vomiting and ulcers. Just make sure you follow the instructions. To gather more information, talk to a specialist before making any move. If you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners or anticoagulants or if you’re preparing for a major surgery, it’s best to talk to your doctor before taking one of these teas. Other than that, give any Tea for Stress a try and enjoy its wonderful benefits responsibly!... tea for stress

White Sage Tea Benefits

White Sage Tea has been known for centuries as a great remedy for fever or to induce perspiration. White Sage is originally from Northern America. Native Americans used this plant for religious ceremonies thanks to its purifying properties. Since the place where all divine rituals needed to be done had to be a clean one, White Sage was a good choice. This herb has a strong fragrance, silver and green leaves and white or purple flowers. White Sage Tea Properties The most important property of White Sage Tea is that this decoction can sanitize your entire body with just a small amount of liquid. The active substances of this tea are: diterpines and triterpenes, including carnosic acid, oleaolic acid and ursolic acid which you can only find in the leaves. Thanks to these two acids, you can use white sage leaves to sanitize localized infections, such as open wounds or cuts. White Sage Tea Benefits Aside from its cultural and ritual uses, White Sage Tea is also an important piece when it comes to alternative medicine. Some say that White Sage Tea can bring relief if you are suffering from one of the following conditions: - Sinus infections, by clearing all respiratory tracks and sanitizing the lungs. - General organism malfunctions, by inducing sweat and eliminating the toxins. - Nervous system problems, by nourishing your nerves and enhancing your neuronal connections. - Arthritis and other problems of the coronary system, by preventing clotting. - Stomach pains and parasites, such as hemorrhoids. - Premenstrual syndrome pains, by purifying the uterus and increasing the blood flow. How to make White Sage Tea Infusion Making White Sage Tea infusion doesn’t take a lot of time and the steps you need to follow are very few. First, you need White Sage flowers. It doesn’t matter if you’re using them dried or freshly picked. Just use a teaspoon of herbs for every cup of tea you want to make. Put the flowers in a teapot and add boiling water. Wait for about 10 or 15 minutes and drink it hot or cold. Never take more than a cup of White Sage Tea per day! White Sage Tea Side Effects When taken properly, White Sage Tea is safe. However, high dosages may cause convulsions and irritated stomach. If you’ve been taking White Sage Tea for a while and you’re experiencing some unusual health episodes, talk to a doctor as soon as possible! White Sage Tea Contraindications Do not take White Sage Tea if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding. However, if you are in one of these conditions and still determined to go through with a treatment based on White Sage Tea, ask a specialist before making any move. Once you have your doctor’s approval, add White Sage Tea to your shopping list and enjoy the wonderful benefits of this great purifier!... white sage tea benefits

Cough Syrup

Onion juice and honey. Slices of raw onion steeped overnight in 11b honey jar, quarter full, with screw cap. Taken by teaspoonful for obstructive airways disease, wheezing, etc. ... cough syrup

Dermatitis, Seborrhoeic

 See: SEBORRHOEA.

DERMATOGRAPHIA. A form of nettle rash (hives). Rubbing a sensitive surface produces raised rough patches. ‘Skin writing.’ Treat as for NETTLE RASH. ... dermatitis, seborrhoeic

Teas For Stress

Unlike migraines, stress is an accumulation of disorganized pain that takes your body by surprise, inducing a state of general fatigue and irritation. Although migraines teas could also be used as a remedy for stress, it is possible that their effect on your general health to pass unnoticed. Since stress has a more profound characteristic, it’s best if you choose one of the following teas: - Green Tea (thanks to its calming amino acid which can be found in the leaves) - Kava Tea (induces a state of calmness without having the side effects of a traditional drug). How Teas for Stress Work First of all, if you’ve decided to go with Teas for Stress instead of traditional drugs, you need to know that, although the amount of side effects is very low, you still have to pay attention to the amount of tea you’re taking. Thanks to their main ingredients, which include tannin, caffeine, proteins, carbohydrates and vitamin C, their main responsibility is restoring your general well-being by enhancing the number of anti bodies and by fighting all pain triggers. Actually, these Teas for Stress focus on any type of fatigue accumulation that shouldn’t appear in your system. The enzymes contained have anti-inflammatory properties which can lower your nervous deviations and increase your blood flow in order to wash away the unwanted microbes. Efficient Teas for Stress When you’re looking for Teas for Stress, you have plenty oh choices. Aside from Green Tea and Kava Tea, you can also add the following teas to your medical cabinet: - Chamomile Tea – thanks to its curative properties, this remedy can bring you calmness without having to worry about any side effects. Its main plus consists in the fact that it is one hundred percent safe. - Valerian Tea – also used as a diuretic and a pain reliever, Valerian Tea is probably the most notorious name in this Teas for Stress list. Ancient Romans used it as a sedative and sleep aid. All these curative properties are generated by a substance called valepotriates, which can be found in both Valerian leaves and flowers. - Mint Tea – one of the world’s greatest panacea and a good replacer for your morning coffee, Mint Tea is the most popular medical treatment when it comes to stress too. When looking for Teas for Stress, you don’t have to go too far. If you have Mint in your kitchen, just reach for it and enjoy its wonderful benefits! - Ginseng Tea – you might find Ginseng a bit strong for your taste, but its action is strong and quickly. It is said that Ginseng clears out the exhaust and stress immediately, thanks to a series of natural enzymes. If the taste seems a bit unpleasant to you, just add a small amount of honey and lemon. Teas for Stress Side Effects It is important to remember that all medical treatments should be taken according to their specifications and that exceeding the number of teacups per day might cause you severe damages. However, when it comes to these Teas for Stress, the only thing you need to be careful about is the time period in which you take them. If you know you suffer from chronic stress symptoms, drink Mint Tea or Chamomile Tea, since they have no side effects. Aside from being a good help in cases of stress, Ginger Tea may cause diarrhea, nausea and other problems, so you need to pay attention to your treatment. Also, only take the tea are long as you feel sick and don’t make a habit out of it! Other than that, there’s no reason not to give these Teas for Stress a try and enjoy their natural benefits wisely!... teas for stress

Wild Dock And Wild Sorrel

Rumex crispus and Rumex acetosella

Description: Wild dock is a stout plant with most of its leaves at the base of its stem that is commonly 15 to 30 centimeters brig. The plants usually develop from a strong, fleshy, carrotlike taproot. Its flowers are usually very small, growing in green to purplish plumelike clusters. Wild sorrel similar to the wild dock but smaller. Many of the basal leaves are arrow-shaped but smaller than those of the dock and contain a sour juice.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants can be found in almost all climatic zones of the world, in areas of high as well as low rainfall. Many kinds are found as weeds in fields, along roadsides, and in waste places.

Edible Parts: Because of tender nature of the foliage, the sorrel and the dock are useful plants, especially in desert areas. You can eat their succulent leaves fresh or slightly cooked. To take away the strong taste, change the water once or twice during cooking. This latter tip is a useful hint in preparing many kinds of wild greens.... wild dock and wild sorrel

Eosinophilic Myalgia Syndrome (ems)

An increase in the number of eosinophils in the blood. May occur in a number of allergies, infections, and is sometimes responsible for leukaemia. Among other causes, food supplement tryptophan has been linked. See entry.

Symptoms. Stiffness and severe muscle pain.

Treatment. Formula. Echinacea 2; Burdock 1; Yarrow 1; Poke root quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 2-3 teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Thrice daily. ... eosinophilic myalgia syndrome (ems)

Epsom Salt Bath

Half fill bath with water, temperature about 98°F. Add two handfuls crude (cattle) Epsom salts. Bath stay 20-30 minutes, topping up with hot water as necessary. Massage affected parts under water. Follow with tepid sponge-down and bed with no exposure to cold.

To increase elimination through the skin. As it has a drying effect should not be taken by those with irritative skin disorders. Follow with moisturising lotion next morning. Also not taken in the presence of high blood pressure. ... epsom salt bath

Eyes  - Shadows Under

Due to nervous excitability (Valerian), physical exhaustion (Ginseng), pre- menstrual tension (Agnus Castus), spinal weakness (Ladyslipper), liver disorder (Blue Flag), dyspepsia (Meadowsweet), weakness of immune system (Echinacea).

Diet. Low salt, low fat. High fibre. Dandelion coffee.

Supplements. Evening Primrose, one 500mg capsule morning and evening. Vitamin B-complex. Brewer’s yeast, 2 teaspoons. Zinc, 15mg. ... eyes  - shadows under

Eyes – Sore

Persistent sensitivity. Bruised feeling in eyes. 1 teaspoon Rue herb to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Strain. Half fill eyebath with warm infusion; douche. Evening Primrose capsules: 1 × 500mg, twice daily.

Fennel eye compress. Steep teabag in cold water and apply.

Chickweed Lotion. Take a handful of Chickweed, wash well, crush with a rolling pin, infuse in two cups boiling water until cool. Use as a compress or in an eye bath two or more times daily.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamin A 7500iu. Vitamin B2 10mg. Vitamin C 1g. Vitamin E 400iu. Zinc.

Palming. Bilberries.

If persistent, consult eye specialist. ... eyes – sore

Viola Sylvestris

Lam. (in part)

Family: Violaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir at 1,200-2,400 m.

English: Pale Wood Violet, Wood Violet.

Unani: Banafashaa (related species).

Action: Plant—pectoral, bechic; used in chest troubles. Stem, leaf and flower—applied to foul sores and wounds.

Habitat: Native to Europe; grown as an ornamental.

English: Heartsease, Wild Pansy.

Unani: Banafashaa (related species).

Action: Herb—anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, expectorant, diuretic, antirheumatic, alterative. Used for bronchitis, rheumatism, chronic skin disorders and for preventing capillary haemorrhage when under corticosteroid therapy. Root— antidysenteric; used as a substitute for Cephaelis ipecacuanha.

Key application: Externally in mild seborrheic skin diseases and milk scall in children. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes the herb as an expectorant and dermatological agent.

The herb contains rutin, violin and salicylic acid. The flower contains rutin, quercetin, violanthin (6,8-digly- coside of apigenin), violaxanthin, p- hydroxycinnamic acid and delphini- din. A flavone C-glycoside-saponarin has also been obtained from flowers. Flowers, in addition, contain 15-cis- violaxanthin.

The herb exhibits anticoagulant property and diminishes the aggregation of platelets. It can be used as a preventive measure against thrombosis.

Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal between 1,200 and 2,700 m (a semiparasitic plant).

English: European Mistletoe.

Ayurvedic: Bandaaka, Suvarna- bandaaka. Vrikshaadani (substitute).

Unani: Kishmish Kaabuli.

Action: Vasodilator, cardiac depressant, tranquiliser, stimulates the vagus nerve which slows the pulse, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, immune enhancer, antineoplas- tic. Used for hypertension and tachycardia, as a nervine tonic.

The extract of leafy twigs is anti- inflammatory exerting an action upon capillary permeability and oedema. It stimulates granulation and the neoformation of connective tissue.

Key application: For treating degenerative inflammation of the joints by stimulating cuti- visceral reflexes following local inflammation brought about by intradermal injections; as palliative therapy for malignant tumour through non-specific stimulation. (German Commission E.)

Mistletoe contains glycoproteins; flavonoids, usually quercetin-derived (dependent on host tree to some extent); polypeptides; phenylcarboxylic acids; polysaccharides (including viscid acid); alkaloids; lignans.

Cardiotonic activity is due to the lig- nans. The polysaccharides stimulate the immune response. Antineoplas- tic activity is claimed to be responsible for prolongation of survival time in cancer patients. Polypeptides (visco- toxins) inhibit tumours and stimulate immune resistance. (For uses of lectin from Mistletoe in cancer, see Eur J cancer, 2001, Jan, 37(1), 23-31; Eur J Cancer 2001, 37 (15), 19101920.) (For application in hepatitis, see Fitoterapia, 70, 2001.)... viola sylvestris

Wild Gourd Or Luffa Sponge

Luffa cylindrica

Description: The luffa sponge is widely distributed and fairly typical of a wild squash. There are several dozen kinds of wild squashes in tropical regions. Like most squashes, the luffa is a vine with leaves 7.5 to 20 centimeters across having 3 lobes.

Some squashes have leaves twice this size. Luffa fruits are oblong or cylindrical, smooth, and many-seeded. Luffa flowers are bright yellow. The luffa fruit, when mature, is brown and resembles the cucumber.

Habitat and Distribution: A member of the squash family, which also includes the watermelon, cantaloupe, and cucumber, the luffa sponge is widely cultivated throughout the Tropical Zone. It may be found in a semiwild state in old clearings and abandoned gardens in rain forests and semievergreen seasonal forests.

Edible Parts: You can boil the young green (half-ripe) fruit and eat them as a vegetable. Adding coconut milk will improve the flavor. After ripening, the luffa sponge develops an inedible spongelike texture in the interior of the fruit. You can also eat the tender shoots, flowers, and young leaves after cooking them. Roast the mature seeds a little and eat them like peanuts.... wild gourd or luffa sponge

Fingernails, Splitting

 Most usual cause is nutrition. High in minerals, Alfalfa tea is known to toughen soft or splitting nails. Liquid Extract Echinacea: 10-20 drops in water, thrice daily. Paint nails with Tincture Myrrh.

Supplementation: zinc. ... fingernails, splitting

Glauber Salts

One pinch Glauber salts in an early morning cup of tea, every day, was once taken as a preventative for gout. ... glauber salts

Glottis – Spasm Of

May be caused by a reflux from the stomach. Cramp bark.

Formula. Liquid Extracts: Goldenseal 1 drachm, Gelsemium 1 drachm, Stone root 2 drachms, Burdock 4 drachms. Water to 4oz. Dose: 1 teaspoon after meals, thrice daily. (W.W. Fraser, MD). Practitioner use. ... glottis – spasm of

Grape Seed Oil

High in polyunsaturates. Contains nearly 75 per cent linoleic acid. Made from crushed seeds of white grapes. Contains more polyunsaturated fats than corn or sunflower oil. Used chiefly in cooking for coronary patients. ... grape seed oil

Greasy Skin

Blue Flag, Goldenseal, Queen’s Delight, Garlic. ... greasy skin

Gullet, Stricture Of.

See: OESOPHAGEAL STRICTURE.... gullet, stricture of.

Wood Sage

Teucrium scorodonia. N.O. Labiateae.

Synonym: Garlic Sage, Wood Germander.

Habitat: Heaths, commons, woods.

Features ? Very similar in appearance to the ordinary garden, or culinary sage. Part used ? Herb.

Action: Diaphoretic, astringent, emmenagogue, tonic.

In feverish colds and faulty menstruation due to chills. Wineglass doses of the 1 ounce to 1 pint infusions are taken warm. Hool tells us that Wood Sage "combined with Comfrey and Ragwort, freely influences the bladder," and that it is "an appetiser of the first order, and as a tonic will be found equal to Gentian."... wood sage

Wormwood Tea Benefits And Side Effects

Wormwood Tea has been known for centuries as a great herbal treatment. Greeks used it as a treatment for many diseases, mostly concerning the digestive system problems or nervous system affections. Wormwood is a perennial herb that grows mainly in areas like Europe, Asia and Africa. It has speared-like green leaves, bright yellow flowers and its roots resemble to a rhizome. Also known as artemisia absinthus, wormwood has hallucinogenic and psychoactive properties. Wormwood is widely known as absinthe and it is said that great artists like Van Gogh and Hemingway owe a lot of their creation to wormwood consumption. Wormwood Tea Properties Aside from its hallucinogenic properties, Wormwood Tea turns out to be quite a help when it comes to treating certain health problems. Wormwood Tea is one of the bitterest teas on Earth so only take it combined with honey, ginger or lemon. Wormwood is the main ingredient of absinthe liquor and it’s also used as an important additive for wines, vinegar and vermouth. The active substances of this tea are thujone (absinthol or tenacetone), thujyl alcohol, acids, absinthin, tannins, resin, potash, and starch. Wormwood Tea Benefits Wormwood Tea has been used since ancient times as a hallucinogen in many rituals around the world. Africans believed that Wormwood Tea contained the secret to an absolute freedom of mind and that by taking it you could have reached the peak of human creativity. As crazy as these theories may sound, there are still many cults today that base their entire philosophy on Wormwood Tea consumption. Back to the real world, alternative medicine, by its practitioners, found the real medical benefits of this treatment. Wormwood Tea may come in hand if you are suffering from one of the following conditions: - Indigestion, by inhibiting gastric bacterial and by lowering the microbial risk to infections. - Gastric pains, by decreasing the gastric acidity level. - Loss of appetite, by stimulating intestinal actions and stomach functions. - Worms and other parasites of the digestive system, by flushing them away thanks to an active substance called absinthin. - Immune system deficiencies, by increasing the number of antibodies and by redirecting them to the affected areas. How to make Wormwood Tea Infusion When preparing Wormwood Tea infusion, first you need to make sure that the plants you are about to use are exactly what the label says they are. Only buy Wormwood Tea from trusted providers! Second of all, only use a teaspoon of herbs for every two cups of tea you want to make: the wormwood is a very concentrated herb and you need to be careful when dosing the ingredients. Put the dried herbs in a teapot and add boiling water. Wait for 15 or 20 minutes and drink it hot or cold. However, don’t drink more than a cup of tea per day or you’ll poison your entire nervous system! Wormwood Tea Side Effects When taken according to instructions and under supervised care, Wormwood Tea is safe. However, high dosages may lead to hallucinations, paranoia and other severe conditions of the nervous system. If you’ve been taking Wormwood Tea for a more than three weeks and you’ve noticed some unusual changes in your body reaction, talk to a specialist as soon as possible and don’t try to treat it at home! Wormwood Tea Contraindications Wormwood Tea is not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women, children, patients suffering from mental deviations or other serious conditions that imply the use of blood thinners and anti-coagulants. The best thing you can do when it comes to Wormwood Tea consumption is to talk to a herbalist or to your doctor in order to find out more about the ups and downs of this very controversial tea. If you get a specialized approval and you feel very confident about this treatment, give it a try and enjoy the benefits of Wormwood Tea responsibly!... wormwood tea benefits and side effects

Hair – Surplus

See: HIRSUTISM.

HAKIMS. A group of herbal therapists, usually Indian or Muslim, who practise the Ayurvedic system of medicine. See: AYURVEDIC.

HALFA SUDANI. Sudanese grass. Hamareb. Traditional reputation in Egypt and the Sudan for breaking- up gravel and stone. Due to high salt content in soil and water, gravel is a common native affliction.

Tea: whole plant: 1oz to 1 pint water simmered 5 minutes. 1 cup freely until all is taken during the day. Continue until positive results ensue. ... hair – surplus

He Shou Wu

Polygonum multiflorum. Chinese remedy. Part used: tuber. Action. Antibacterial, antispasmodic, laxative, tonic, blood tonic, diuretic. Uses. Menopause. Mild kidney disturbance. Greying of hair early in life. Preparations. Thrice daily.

Tea. 2-4g root to each cup water gently simmered 5 minutes (decoction). Dose: half-1 cup. Tincture. Dose: 1 teaspoon.

Caution. Not used in presence of irritable bowel syndrome. ... he shou wu

Heart - Over-strained

See: ATHLETE’S HEART. ... heart - over-strained

Jelly Fish Sting

Antihistamines indicated: (topical). Plant juices: pulp of leaves of any one – Plantain, Aloe Vera, Houseleek, Garlic, Marigold, Comfrey. Oil Eucalyptus. Witch Hazel water. Neat Cider vinegar.

Internal: Echinacea. Acid tincture of Lobelia (10-20 drops). Wounds may be severe enough to require surgical exploration, herbal antibiotic therapy or tetanus prophylaxis. Pain control is essential (Black Willow, Black Cohosh) as pain may be intense and patient restless from respiratory and cardiac distress. Wash with strong spirit (methylated, whiskey, etc). ... jelly fish sting

Xanthium Strumarium

Linn.

Synonym: X. indicum Koenig. ex Roxb.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Tropical India.

English: Cocklebur, Burweed.

Ayurvedic: Shankheshwara, Arishta, Aartagala.

Siddha/Tamil: Maruloomatham, Marlumutta.

Folk: Bana-okraa.

Action: Plant—used for leucoderma, ulcers, abscesses, strumous and malignant diseases.

Root—antitumour. Leaves and shoots—applied externally on venereal sores, herpes and scrofula.

Leaves contain seaquiterpene lac- tones—xanthinin, xanthumin, xan- thanol and iso-xanthanol. Leaves also contain isohexacosane, chlorobu- tanol, stearyl alcohol, beta-sitosterol and palmitic acid. A highly toxic compound, carboxyatractyloside, has been isolated from the plant.

Beta-sitosterol glucoside is anti-inflammatory, xanthumin is a central nervous system depressant. Alcoholic solution of xanthinin shows strong antibacterial activity against Gramnegative bacteria and fungi. A cy- totoxic compound, xanthatin (a seco- 4,5-guaianolide) has been detected in the resin.

The root gave n-heptacosanol, stig- masterol, 3,4,-dihydro oxycinnamic acid, beta-sitosterol and its D-gluco- side, and campesterol.

Xanthium spinosum Linn. (introduced from Europe into West Bengal and Assam), known as Spiny Clotbur, is used as a diuretic, antiperiodic (also in intermittent fevers), sudorific, antidiarrhoeal and styptic.

The whole plant gave several xan- thanolides. The sesquiterpene lac- tones, xanthinin, solstitialin and sti- zolicin, isolated from the plant, demonstrated limited antitumour action in vitro. Xanthatin has also been isolated.... xanthium strumarium

Yerba Santa Tea Benefits

Yerba Santa Tea has been known for centuries for its astringent, stimulant and antibacterial action. Although it remains unknown to European public, Yerba Santa Tea has gain an impressive popularity among South and North Americans during the last 30 years. Yerba Santa is an ever-green shrub that grows in extended areas of the United Stated and which can be easily recognized by its light purple flowers, needle-like green leaves and elongated roots. The main use of Yerba Santa leaves consisted of an improvised bandage that was made by smashing a small amount of leaves in a cloth and press it against open wounds. However, this temporary bandage could only be used until a more appropriate one was found. Some say that Yerba Santa leaves are very efficient, but their effect doesn’t last too long. Yerba Santa Tea Properties Aside from its wonderful benefits as a great wound cleanser, Yerba Santa Tea has important properties that place this herb among the most important elements of the alternative medicine. The active ingredients of this tea are: bitter resins, eriodictyol, eriodictyonic acid, essential oils and tannins, which can be found mostly in the leaves. The bitter resins have antiseptic and cleansing properties which make this exotic tea a real cure in cases of internal damage. Yerba Santa Tea Benefits For many centuries, Native Americans believed that Yerba Santa Tea was truly saint thanks to its ability to treat open wounds by stopping infections from developing. Luckily, recent studies showed that Yerba Santa Tea benefits consist of much more than just open cuts cleansing.You may find this tea helpful in case you’re suffering from one of the following conditions: - Respiratory conditions, such as asthma, bronchitis, pleurisy, cough, by clearing the respiratory ways and restoring the well-being of your organism. - Bruises and pains, by de-clotting the affected areas and increasing the localized blood flow. - Joint pain and rheumatism, by inhibiting pain triggers and enhancing the metabolisms functions. - Fever, fatigue, counter stress, by inducing healing endorphins and nourishing the nervous system. - Yerba Santa Tea also combats allergies, insect bites and other minor injuries. How to make Yerba Santa Tea Infusion When preparing Yerba Santa Tea, you first need to make sure that the herbs you’re using are perfectly clean: you don’t want any bacteria to interfere with your treatment. Use a teaspoon of dried of freshly picked leaves for every cup of tea you want to make, add boiling water and wait for 30 minutes for the health benefits to be released, strain and drink it hot or cold. You can add honey or lemon if the taste feels a bit unpleasant. Don’t drink more than 4 cups of Yerba Santa Tea per day in order to avoid other complications. Yerba Santa Tea Side Effects When taken properly, Yerba Santa Tea is perfectly safe. However, high dosages may lead to ailments of the digestive tract, such as diarrhea or constipation. If you’re yet unsure about this medical treatment, talk to your doctor or to a specialist to gather more information. Yerba Santa Tea Contraindications Do not take Yerba Santa Tea if you are pregnant or breastfeeding, suffering from a serious health conditions that implies blood thinners or anticoagulant ingestion or if you’re preparing for a surgery that would require anesthesia. Also, children should be kept away from this treatment. However, if you’ve been already taking this tea for a while and your health is deteriorating, talk to a doctor as soon as possible! But if your general health is good and there is nothing that could interfere with a treatment based on Yerba Santa Tea, give it a try and enjoy its wonderful benefits!... yerba santa tea benefits

Manager’s Stress

All in charge of other people are subject to a wide range of environmental stress, working conditions, conflict with superiors. Some are more predisposed to stress than others. Alternatives. Ginseng, Valerian, Skullcap, Oats, Gotu Kola.

Tea. Skullcap 1; Oats 2; Valerian half. Mix. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water. 1 cup as desired.

Life Drops. Few drops in tea.

Lime flower tea, at night.

Ginkgo. For brain fatigue.

Diet. Avoid strong tea, coffee, alcohol. ... manager’s stress

Nerve Stimulants

Often necessary to bring added vitality to the body or one of its parts. Often combined with circulatory stimulants to help support the nervous system in the presence of nerve weakness and paralysis.

Ephedra, Ginseng, Siberian Ginseng, Oats, Damiana, Kola, Gotu Kola, Thuja, Vervain. ... nerve stimulants

Zygophyllum Simplex

Linn.

Family: Zygophyllaceae.

Habitat: Arid and sandy tracts of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Folk: Alethi (Punjab), Lunio, Lunwaa (Rajasthan).

Action: Leaves and seeds—an infusion is applied to the eyes in ophthalmia and glucoma. Seeds— anthelmintic.

An acylated glycoside was isolated from aerial parts. Isorhamnetin, its 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O- rutinoside, sitosterol glucoside and quinovic acid-3 alpha-L-rhamnoside were present in the herb.

An infusion of the leaves acts as a skin cleanser. The plant contains free ascorbic acid. The leaves and fruits contain kaempferol; quercetin (0.10 mg/g dry weight) is present in fruits.... zygophyllum simplex

Acid Rain Sickness

Acid rain air pollution is responsible for increased hospital admissions with respiratory illness when it hangs in a haze over a polluted area. The main components of acid rain are sulphates, salts of sulphur, known to cause breathing difficulties.

Alternatives. Teas: Alfalfa, Angelica leaves, Boneset, Catnep, Chamomile, Coltsfoot, Comfrey leaves, Dandelion leaves, Hyssop, Lemon Balm, Lime flowers, Milk Thistle, Mullein, White Horehound, Red Clover flowers, Sage, Violet leaves, Umeboshi tea.

Tablets/capsules. Chamomile, Echinacea, Iceland Moss, Irish Moss, Liquorice, Lobelia.

Powders. Formula. Equal parts: Echinacea, Barberry bark, Elecampane root. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.

Formula. Tinctures. Echinacea 2; Sarsaparilla 1; Fringe Tree half; Liquorice quarter. Mix. 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily. ... acid rain sickness

Anaemia: Sickle Cell

A form of anaemia growing into an acute social problem, affecting people of African, Asian, and Mediterranean origin. Thalassaemias are caused by defects of a gene that produces the globin part of haemoglobin. Such defects in the DNA can now be detected in the womb before birth. The name derives from sickle-shaped cells instead of circular red blood cells. Few sufferers survive beyond their 40th year.

Symptoms. Unhealthy pallor, listlessness, sore tongue, dizziness, vague aches and pains, rapid pulse and breathing, tinnitus, palpitation. The skull may be disproportionately large, resistance to infection feeble, chances of survival poor. This form of anaemia is linked with defective colour vision. Impaired liver function. Stunted growth, great pain. Sufferers have a higher risk of infection.

Malaria. Sufferers are less likely to die of malaria because their red cells do not support the growth of malaria parasites very well.

Carriers: Carriers of the sickle-cell gene can now be identified by a simple blood test.

Treatment. No specifics exist but supportive herbal treatment has been known to increase output of red cells and raise haemoglobin levels:– Red Clover flowers, Yellow Dock, Echinacea, Burdock, Wild Indigo, Gentian, Nettles, Birch leaves, Sage, Walnut leaves, Centaury, Gota Kola (Indian Pennywort). Alternatives:– Tea. Mix equal parts: Iceland Moss, Nettles, Red Clover flowers. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; 1 cup morning and evening.

Decoction. Mix equal parts; Echinacea, Walnut leaves, Balm of Gilead buds; 1 teaspoon to each cup water gently simmered for 20 minutes. Half-1 cup, cold, 3 times daily, before meals.

Tablets/capsules. Sarsaparilla. Ginseng. Iceland Moss. Red Clover. Echinacea. Gentian.

Powders. Formula: Echinacea 1; Fringe Tree half; Ginseng half; White Poplar bark 1. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily before meals.

Liquid extracts. Formula. Echinacea 2; Dandelion 1; Oat Husk (avena sativa) 1. Mix. Dose, 1-2 teaspoons before meals, in water or one of the above teas or decoctions.

Tinctures. Same combination. Dose: 2-3 teaspoons.

Dong quai. See entry.

Pollen. Claimed to be of value.

Diet. Dandelion coffee. Molasses. Desiccated liver. Calf liver, fresh. Green leafy vegetables contain chlorophyll, iron and folic acid. Cider vinegar. Dried beans, apricots and shellfish. Dandelion leaves in salads. Milk, eggs, meats, Soya. Carrot juice to increase red cells.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamin B12. Vitamin C, 1g; Folic acid 400mcg, Floradix. Of particular value: Vitamin E 400iu. Zinc.

Note: Those at risk should submit themselves for screening. The disease cannot be cured but can be controlled largely by orthodox measures and sometimes by natural medicine. ... anaemia: sickle cell

Nervous Stomach

Stomach hypersensitivity, with absence of acidity or organic disturbance. Calamus, Cinnamon, Burnett Saxifrage, Lovage, Fumitory, Rosemary, Wormwood, Oats, Skullcap.

German Chamomile tea. ... nervous stomach

Alendronate Sodium

See alendronic acid.... alendronate sodium

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

See motor neuron disease.... amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Anal Stenosis

A tightness of the anus, sometimes referred to as anal stricture.

Anal stenosis prevents the normal passage of faeces, causing constipation and pain during defaecation.

The condition may be present from birth, or may be caused by a number of conditions in which scarring has occurred, such as anal fissure, colitis, or cancer of the anus.

Anal stenosis sometimes occurs after surgery on the anus (for example, to treat haemorrhoids).

The condition is treated by anal dilatation.... anal stenosis

Anal Stricture

See anal stenosis.... anal stricture

Appetite Stimulants

Various tonics and remedies traditionally prescribed to stimulate the appetite.

None are proven to be effective.

Some drugs such as corticosteroids may stimulate the appetite when used to treat unrelated disorders.... appetite stimulants

Anti-spasmodics

Agents for relief of muscular cramp, spasm or mild pain. To reduce spasm of smooth muscle. The key remedy is Cramp bark but all have their specific uses.

They may be general (Black Haw, Cramp bark), or those that exert their influence upon specific structures: Hyssop (lungs), Cloves (mucous membranes), Wild Thyme (bronchi), Figwort (anus).

Others in common use: Asafoetida, Balm, Betony, Black Haw (muscles generally, also womb), Black Cohosh, Blue Cohosh, Butterburr, Blood root (externally), Cayenne, German Chamomile (stomach), Dong Quai (ovaries), Eucalyptus, Hops (stomach), Ladyslipper, Liquorice, Lime Blossom, Lobelia, Mistletoe, Motherwort (heart), Nutmeg (angina), Passion Flower, Skullcap, Skunk Cabbage, Thyme, Valerian, Vervain, Wild Cherry (respiratory), Wild Carrot (kidneys and bladder), Wild Lettuce, Wild Yam. Devil’s Claw (muscles).

Anti-Spasmodic Drops (Heath and Heather). Cramp, neuralgia, etc. Tincture Myrrh 6 per cent; Tincture Capsic 15 per cent; with 45 per cent ethanol extractive from Scutellaria (Skullcap) 10 per cent; Lobelia 1.25 per cent; Fennel 2.5 per cent; American Valerian 5 per cent. Dose: 10-30 drops according to age.

John Christopher: 2oz crushed Lobelia seeds; half an ounce Lobelia herb; 1 teaspoon Cayenne; macerated in 1 pint cider 8 days. 1-2 teaspoon when necessary.

Combination: powders. Equal parts: Skullcap, Valerian, Lobelia, Black Cohosh. Myrrh quarter part. Mix. Sift. Quarter of a teaspoon in water, honey etc as necessary.

Formula. Powders. Cramp Bark 2; Skullcap 1; Cloves half; Cayenne Pepper quarter. Mix. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon thrice daily. (Indian Herbology of North America, Alma R. Hutchens) ... anti-spasmodics

Anti-staphylococcals

Agents that have anti-bacterial action on most strains of staphylococcus. For treatment of pus-forming lesions, necrotic tissue and for after-surgery infections.

Angostura, Balm, Barberry, Bayberry, Bearberry, Benzoin, Bistort, Blood root, Black Cohosh, Black Currant, Buchu, Bugleweed (Lycopus virginicus and Lycopus europaeus), Butternut (Juglans cinerea), Camphor, Catechu, Cola, Cornsilk, Elecampane, Eucalyptus, Fringe Tree, Goldenseal, Guaiacum, Holy Thistle, Hops, Jaborandi, Jalap, Jambul, Juniper, Kino, Ladysmantle, Labrador tea, Lavender, Liquorice, Male fern, Mandrake, Marjoram, Meadowsweet, Mountain Grape, Myrtle (common), Oleander, Olive, Orthosiphon, Pennyroyal, Peony (common), Pine (Hemlock spruce), Pulsatilla, Rhus toxicodendron, Sage, St John’s Wort, Senna, Sumach, Sumbul, Sundew, Thuja, Turmeric, Unicorn root true, Walnut (juglans regia), Wild Indigo. Propolis, a resin foraged by bees for the exclusion of draughts in the hive has proved to be an effective anti-staphylococcal. ... anti-staphylococcals

Anxiety States

Acute or chronic, mild or severe.

Pathological anxiety is caused by a mood of fear, the resolution of which is usually psychological or spiritual. Apart from wise counselling it is sometimes necessary to give relaxants to reduce tension. Causes may be fatigue, low blood pressure, emotional exhaustion, autonomic imbalance, endocrine disturbance (hyperthyroidism, pre-menstrual tension), stress, conflict, schizophrenia, depression. Symptoms: dry mouth, increased sweating, fainting attacks, rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath. Prolonged consumption of strong tea, coffee and other caffeine drinks leads to a deficiency of Vitamin B1 which manifests as general anxiety, even agoraphobia.

Alternatives:– Passion Flower, German Chamomile, Lime Blossom, Skullcap, Oats, Cowslip, Damiana, Dogwood, Valerian, Wild Lettuce, Motherwort, Pulsatilla.

In cases of anxiety the heart is involved – whether physically or otherwise. A ‘heart sustainer’ may give the patient an unexpected ‘lift’ enabling him to cope.

Motherwort tea. Combine equal parts: Motherwort (heart), Balm (gentle nerve relaxant), Valerian (psycho-autonomic). 1-2 teaspoons in each cup boiling water; infuse 10-15 minutes; 1 cup 2-3 times daily.

Powders. Formula. Motherwort 2; Passion Flower 1; Valerian half. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) 2-3 times daily.

Tinctures. Combine, Oats 3; Hawthorn 1; Valerian 1. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons in water or honey thrice daily. Anxiety before menstruation. Evening Primrose Oil capsules. OR: Liquid Extract Pulsatilla BHP (1983) 3-5 drops, thrice daily.

Anxiety with obvious heart symptoms. Hawthorn 6; Valerian 1; Cactus 1; Holly 1; Hyssop 1. (Dr A. Vogel)

Bach Flower remedies: Rescue remedy.

Biostrath. Kava kava of special value.

Diet. Low salt, low fat, high fibre. Avoid alcohol, coffee, sugar and refined foods. Alfalfa tea for remineralisation.

Supplements. Vitamin B-complex, Magnesium, Zinc. 2-3 bananas daily for potassium.

Supportive: Relaxation technique: yoga, etc. ... anxiety states

Appetite Suppressants

A group of drugs that reduce the desire to eat. Appetite suppressants may be used in the treatment of severe obesity, along with diet and exercise. Their use is limited to a maximum of 12 weeks due to the risk of serious effects on the blood supply to the lungs and on heart valves.... appetite suppressants

Arterial Reconstructive Surgery

An operation to repair arteries that are narrowed, blocked, or weakened. Arterial reconstructive surgery is most often performed to repair arteries that have been narrowed by atherosclerosis. It is also used to repair aneurysms and arteries damaged as a result of injury. (See also angioplasty, balloon; coronary artery bypass; endarterectomy.)... arterial reconstructive surgery

Artificial Sweeteners

Synthetic substitutes for sugar that are used by people on slimming diets and by the food industry.

Saccharin and aspartame are often recommended in calorie-controlled diets but are of questionable value because the appetite compensates for the lack of calories from sugar, and other foods are eaten to maintain the calorie intake.

Sorbitol is an artificial sweetener that is useful for diabetics, but it can cause diarrhoea and bloating when consumed in large quantities.... artificial sweeteners

Bile Secretion Deficiency

Bile is a greenish-yellow alkaline substance secreted by the liver which emulsifies fat and prevents putrefaction in the intestines. An aid to pancreatic juices.

Alternatives. To stimulate flow, Boldo, Horsetail, Dandelion, Blue Flag root, Milk Thistle, Bogbean, Burdock. Teas, capsules, tablets, Liquid extracts, or Tinctures.

A. Vogel recommends: Barberry, Centuary, St John’s Wort, Sarsaparilla.

Combination tea. Equal parts: Peppermint leaves, Milk Thistle, Dandelion root. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes, 1 cup thrice daily for limited period (1 month).

Bile in the urine. (Bilviria)

Arthur Barker: Liquid Extract Black root 1oz (30ml). Liquid Extract Cornsilk 1oz (30ml). Essential Peppermint 30 drops (2ml). Water to 8oz (240ml). 2 teaspoons in water 3 times daily before meals.

Diet. Dandelion coffee. Artichokes.

See: CHOLAGOGUES. CHOLERETICS. ... bile secretion deficiency

Breasts, Milk Scanty

To promote milk production: Alfalfa, Aniseed, Borage, Caraway, Centuary, Balm, Dill, Fennel, Goat’s Rue, Holy Thistle, Nettles, Burnet Saxifrage, Bitter Milkwort, Marshmallow root, Raspberry leaves, Vervain. John Parkinson (1640) recommended Agnus Castus. Formula (1). Fenugreek seeds 2; Aniseeds 1. Mix. 2 teaspoons to each cup water gently simmered 2 minutes in a covered vessel. Dose: 1 cup 3 or more times daily. Consume seeds.

Formula (2). Equal parts: Goat’s Rue, Raspberry leaves. Mix. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes. Dose: 1 cup 3 or more times daily.

Tablets/capsules. Agnus Castus, Fenugreek, Borage. ... breasts, milk scanty

British Herbal Medicine Association, Scientific Committee, 1995

Peter R. Bradley MSc CChem FRSC (Chairman). Whitehall Laboratories.

Sheila E. Drew BPharm PhD MRPharms. Deputy Head of Technical Services, William Ransom & Son plc.

Fred Fletcher-Hyde BSc FNIMH. President Emeritus, British Herbal Medicine Association. President Emeritus, National Institute of Medical Herbalists.

Simon Y. Mills MA FNIMH. Director, Centre for Complementary Health Studies, University of Exeter. Hugh W. Mitchell MNIMH (Hon). President, British Herbal Medicine Association. Managing Director, Mitchfield Botanics Ltd.

Edward J. Shellard BPharm PhD DSc(Hon) (Warsaw Medical Academy) FRPharmS CChem FRSC FLS. Emeritus Professor of Pharmacognosy, University of London.

Arnold Webster CChem MRSC. Technical Director, English Grains Ltd.

Peter Wetton BSc LRSC. G.R. Lane Health Products Ltd.

Hein Zeylstra FNIMH. Principal. School of Phytotherapy, Sussex. ... british herbal medicine association, scientific committee, 1995

Burns & Scalds

Scalds are caused by moist heat and burns by dry heat but their treatment is the same. There are six degrees of burns; anything beyond the first degree (skin not broken) and second degree (blisters and broken skin) should receive hospital treatment.

All burns are serious. Vulnerary herbs are available to promote healing and cell growth, including: Aloe Vera, Comfrey, Fenugreek, Marigold, Marshmallow, Slippery Elm, Chickweed, Myrrh (powder).

Even hospital authorities may find these effective, enhancing healing, reducing risk of infection, and often concluding with a minimum of scar tissue. Echinacea – to mobilise the immune system.

Exclude air from affected parts as soon as possible. Remove no clothing adhering to wound; cut round. For corrosive alkalis: bathe with cider vinegar (2-4 teaspoons to teacup water). Follow with honey: apply lint and bandage. Honey has a long traditional reputation for burns. The following are analgesic and antiseptic, keeping wounds clean and free from pus. Apply sterile dressings.

Tea for internal use: Nettles 1; Valerian 1; Comfrey leaf 2. Mix. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup every 2 hours. Or, cup of ordinary tea laced with 2-3 drops Life Drops.

Topical. (1) Tea Tree oil: 1 part to 20 parts Almond oil. (2) Strong Nettle tea – pain killer. (3) St John’s Wort oil. (4) Aloe Vera – cut off piece of leaf and pulp; or, gel. (5) Slippery Elm – Powder mixed with little milk to form a paste. (6) Pierce Vitamin E capsule and anoint area. (7) Distilled extract of Witch Hazel. (8) Cod liver oil.

Compress. Apply piece of suitable material steeped in teas of any of the following: Chamomile, Chickweed, Comfrey, Cucumber, Elderflowers, Marigold, Plantain, St John’s Wort.

Alcohol should not be taken.

Supplementation. Vitamins A, B-complex, C, D, E. Potassium. Zinc. ... burns & scalds

Autism Spectrum Disorders

A range of developmental disorders, usually first diagnosed in childhood, that are characterized by obsessive behaviour and impaired communication and social skills (see autism; Asperger’s syndrome).... autism spectrum disorders

Babinski’s Sign

A reflex movement in which the big toe bends upwards when the outer edge of the sole of the foot is scratched. In adults, Babinski’s sign indicates damage or disease of the brain or the spinal cord. In babies, Babinski’s sign is a normal reflex.... babinski’s sign

Cancer – Sarcoma

Cancer appearing in bone, muscle, connective tissue or cartilage. Malignant tissue which differs from carcinoma. Pain is intermittent, often relieved by exercise. The following is an example.

“I saw a man suffering from sarcomatous tumour infiltrating the body tissue of the upper jaw, extending to the nose. We recommended an operation. Dr O’Sullivan, Professor of Pathology, Trinity College, declared the growth to be a round-celled sarcoma. Of that there was no doubt. A month after excision the growth returned with increased vigour, bulging through the incision and protruding upon the face. The new tumour, almost closing the right eye, was blue, tense, firm and tabulated, but it did not break.

“Early in October the patient walked into my study. He looked better in health than I have ever seen him. The tumour had completely disappeared from the face and I could not identify any trace of it in the mouth. He said he had no pain of any kind. He has since gone home apparently well.

“He told me he had applied poultices of Comfrey root, and that the swelling had gradually disappeared. Now this was a case of which none of us had any doubt at all. Our first view was confirmed by the distinguished pathologist mentioned and by my own observation at the time of the major operation.” (Dr Wm Thompson, President, Royal College of Surgeons, Eire, in his address in Dublin).

Vinchristine. An alkaloid of the Vinca plant.

Internal Treatment. See: CANCER – NOSE AND THROAT. Diet. See: DIET – CANCER.

Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital oncologist. ... cancer – sarcoma

Cancer – Skin

There is strong evidence that sunlight plays a major role in the development of human skin cancers. Skin malignancy usually takes the form of Basal Cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma that may develop from pre-existing naevi.

Basal Cell Cancer. Strong sunlight on fair skins. Common on face and hands and other exposed areas. Commences as a tiny hard nodule. See – RODENT ULCER.

Squamous Cell Cancer. The role of sunlight in this type of cancer is even more positive. Other causes: photosensitisers such as pitch and PUVA photochemotherapy. Commences as a raised scaly rapidly- growing nodule.

Malignant Melanoma. Rare, but incidence rising. Four different kinds. Incidence is increased in individuals with fair or red hair who tend to burn rather than tan in the sun.

Causes may be numerous: genetic, occupational hazards or exposure to low-level radiation. Heavy freckling in youth doubles the risk. (Western Canada Melanoma study)

A study carried out by the New York’s Memorial-Sloan Kettering Cancer Centre refers to damage to the ultra violet-blocking ozone layer by supersonic jet exhaust and aerosol propellants that can also raise the malignant melanoma rate. A University of Sydney study links fluorescent lighting with the disease. Symptoms. Itching lesion increases in size and with growing discoloration. Colours may present as brown, black, red, blue, white, with a red inflammatory border. May progress to a dry crust, with bleeding.

Study. A study conducted by a team from Melbourne University, Anti-Cancer Council and St Vincent’s Hospital, Australia, describes a summer-long experiment that showed that people who used a sun-screen lotion (in this case SPF-17) cut their chances of developing the first signs of skin cancer.

Study. Patients who receive blood transfusions are more likely to develop malignant lymphomas and non- melanomatous skin cancers. (European Journal of Cancer (Nov 1993))

Eclectic physicians of the 19th century reported success from the use of American Mandrake (podophylum peltatum). Recent experience includes a 76 per cent cure rate achieved in 68 patients with carcinoma of the skin by treatment twice daily for 14 days with an ointment consisting of Podophyllum resin 20 per cent, and Linseed oil 20 per cent, in lanolin, followed by an antibiotic ointment. (Martindale 27; 1977, p. 1341) Podophyllum is an anti-mitotic and inhibits cell-division and should not be applied to normal cells.

Aloe Vera. Fresh cut leaf, or gel, to wipe over exposed surfaces.

Vitamin E oil. Applying the oil to the skin can reduce chances of acquiring skin cancer from the sun. (University of Arizona College of Medicine)

Red Clover. “I have seen a case of skin cancer healed by applying Red Clover blossoms. After straining a strong tea, the liquid was simmered until it was the consistency of tar. After several applications the skin cancer was gone, and has not returned.” (May Bethel, in “Herald of Health”, Dec. 1963)

Clivers. Equal parts juice of Clivers (from juice extractor) and glycerine. Internally and externally.

Thuja. Internal: 3-5 drops Liquid Extract, morning and evening.

Topical. “Take a small quantity powdered Slippery Elm and add Liquid Extract Thuja to make a stiff paste. Apply paste to the lesion. Cover with gauze and protective covering. When dry remove pack and follow with compresses saturated with Thuja.” (Ellingwood’s Therapeutist, Vol 10, No 6, p. 212) Echinacea and Thuja. Equal parts liquid extracts assist healthy granulation and neutralise odour.

Rue Ointment. Simmer whole fresh leaves in Vaseline.

Poke Root. An old physician laid great stress on the use of concentrated juice of green leaves. Leaves are bruised, juice extracted, and concentrated by slow evaporation until the consistency of a paste, for persistent skin cancer. Care should be taken to confine to the distressed area. (Ellingwood’s Therapeutist, Vol 8, No 7, p. 275)

Maria Treben. Horsetail poultice.

Laetrile. Some improvement claimed. 1 gram daily.

Cider vinegar. Anecdotal evidence: external use: small melanoma.

Diet. See: DIET – CANCER. Beta-carotene foods.

Treatment by skin specialist or oncologist. ... cancer – skin

Binge–purge Syndrome

An alternative term for bulimia.... binge–purge syndrome

Biopsy Samples

are analysed by staining, in which Abnormal area dyes are used to Normal to show up structures or identify constituents such as antibodies or enzymes. A tissue sample may be tested with specific antibodies in the investigation of infection and inflammation. In some cases, a tis-sue culture may be required.... biopsy samples

Blood Smear

See blood film.... blood smear

Cancer – Spleen

Chronic enlargement with tumour. Cannot lie on the left side for pain. A common cause is the use of vaccines for which Thuja would be indicated.

Where irradiation and chemotherapy are not possible, any of the following alternatives may be taken with profit as secondary to medical treatment.

Astragalus. Popular spleen protective in Chinese medicine. Reduces toxicity of chemotherapy.

New Jersey tea. (Ceanothus americanus) has an affinity for the spleen and may sustain that organ under stress.

Chinese medicine. Ho-Shou-wu (Polygonum multiflorum).

Decoction, Red root. 1 teaspoon to each cup water simmered gently 10 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup 3-4 times daily.

Formula. Red root 2; Barberry 1; Bayberry 1. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. 3-4 times daily in water or honey. Formula. Alternative. Tinctures. Fringe Tree 1; Goldenseal 2; Red root 3. Mix. Dose: 15-30 drops before meals and at bedtime.

Diet: See: DIET – CANCER.

Vinchristine: use in orthodox medicine reported.

Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital oncologist. ... cancer – spleen

Cancer – Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Given three months to live, Jason Winters, terminal cancer patient, was suffering from infiltrating squamous cell carcinoma wrapped round his carotid artery. Refusing major surgery, he travelled the world in search of native remedies. He was able to contact people who put him on the track of Wild Violet leaves, Red Clover flowers (Trifolium pratense) and leaves of the Chaparral bush (Larrea divaricata). The story of how he infused them, together with a well- known spice, is dramatically recorded in his book “Killing Cancer”. After a spectacular recovery, remission has lasted for over 15 years and others have benefited from his experience.

Treatment by oncologist. ... cancer – squamous cell carcinoma

Cancer – Stomach And Intestines

Fibroma, myoma, lipoma, polyp, etc. When any of these breakdown bleeding can cause anaemia and melaena. Rarely painful. May obstruct intestinal canal causing vomiting. Periodic vomiting of over one year suspect.

Symptoms (non-specific). Loss of appetite, anaemia, weight loss; pain in abdomen, especially stomach area. Vomit appears as coffee grounds. Occult blood (tarry stools).

Causes. Alcohol, smoking cigarettes, low intake of fruits and vegetables. Foods rich in salt and nitrites including bacon, pickles, ham and dried fish. (Cancer Researchers in Digestive Diseases and Sciences) Long term therapy with drugs that inhibit gastric acid secretion increase risk of stomach cancer.

Of possible value. Alternatives:– Tea. Mixture. Equal parts: Red Clover, Gotu Kola, Yarrow. Strong infusion (2 or more teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. As many cups daily as tolerated.

Formula. Condurango 2; Bayberry 1; Liquorice 1; Goldenseal quarter. Mix. Dose: Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons. Thrice daily in water or honey.

Traditional. Rosebay Willowherb. Star of Bethlehem.

Chinese green tea. Anti-cancer effects have been found in the use of Chinese green tea extracts. Clinical trials on the therapeutic effects against early stomach cancer were promising. (Chinese Journal Preventative Medicines 1990. 24 (2) 80-2)

Chinese Herbalism. Combination. Oldenlandia diffusa 2 liang; Roots of Lu (Phragmites communis) 1 liang; Blackened Ginger 1 ch’ien; Pan-chih-lien (Scutellaria barbarta 5 ch’ein; Chih-tzu (gardenia jasminoides) 3 ch’ien. One concoction/dose daily. Follow with roots of Bulrush tea.

William H. Cook, MD. “Mullein greatly relieves pain, and may be used with Wild Yam and a little Water- Pepper (Polygonum Hydropiper).” The addition of Water-Pepper (or Cayenne) ensures diffusive stimulation and increased arterial force. Burns Lingard, MNIMH. Inoperable cancer of the stomach. Prescribed: Liquid Extract Violet leaves and Red Clover, each 4 drachms; Liquid Extract Cactus grand., 2 drops. Dose every 4 hours. Woman lived 30 years after treatment attaining age of 70.

Arthur Barker, FNIMH. Mullein sometimes helpful for pain.

Wm Boericke MD. American Cranesbill.

George Burford MD. Goldenseal.

Maria Treben. “After returning from a prison camp in 1947 I had stomach cancer. Three doctors told me it was incurable. From sheer necessity I turned to Nature’s herbs and gathered Nettle, Yarrow, Dandelion and Plantain; the juice of which I took hourly. Already after several hours I felt better. In particular I was able to keep down a little food. This was my salvation.” (Health Through God’s Pharmacy – 1981) Essiac: Old Ontario Cancer Remedy. Sheila Snow explored the controversy surrounding the famous cancer formula ‘Essiac’. This was developed by Rene Caisse, a Canadian nurse born in Bracebridge, Ontario, in 1888. Rene noticed that an elderly patient had cured herself of breast cancer with an Indian herbal tea. She asked for the recipe and later modified it. Rene’s aunt, after using the remedy for 2 years, fully recovered from an inoperable stomach cancer with liver involvement, and other terminal patients began to improve.

Rene’s request to be given the opportunity to treat cancer patients in a larger way was turned down by Ottawa’s Department of Health and Welfare. She eventually handed over the recipe to the Resperin Corporation in 1977, for the sum of one dollar, from whom cancer patients may obtain the mixture if their doctors submit a written request. However, records have not been kept up.

In 1988 Dr Gary Glum, a chiropractor in Los Angeles, published a book called ‘Calling of an Angel’: the true story of Rene Caisse. He gives the formula, which consists of 11b of powdered Rumex acetosella

(Sorrel), 1 and a half pounds cut Arctium lappa (Burdock), 4oz powdered Ulmus fulva (Slippery Elm bark), and 1oz Rheum palmatum (Turkey Rhubarb). The dosage Rene recommended was one ounce of Essiac with two ounces of hot water every other day at bedtime; on an empty stomach, 2-3 hours after supper. The treatment should be continued for 32 days, then taken every 3 days. (Canadian Journal of Herbalism, July 1991 Vol XII, No. III)

Diet. See: DIET – CANCER. Slippery Elm gruel.

Note: Anyone over 40 who has recurrent indigestion for more than three weeks should visit his family doctor. Persistent pain and indigestion after eating can be a sign of gastric cancer and no-one over 40 should ignore the symptoms. A patient should be referred to hospital for examination by endoscope which allows the physician to see into the stomach.

Study. Evidence to support the belief that the high incidence of gastric cancer in Japan is due to excessive intake of salt.

Note: A substance found in fish oil has been shown experimentally to prevent cancer of the stomach. Mackerel, herring and sardines are among the fish with the ingredient.

Treatment by or in liaison with hospital oncologist or general medical practitioner. ... cancer – stomach and intestines

Candida, Of Skin And Nails

Infection by Candida albicans.

Internal. Goldenseal 1; Myrrh 1; Thuja half; Poke root half. Dose – Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: two 5ml teaspoons. Thrice daily before meals.

Capricin. See entry.

Topical. Thuja lotion: 1 teaspoon Liquid extract Thuja to 1oz (30ml) distilled extract Witch Hazel.

Aloe Vera; fresh juice or gel.

Tea Tree oil; may be diluted many times.

Comfrey cream; Castor oil, Oil of Mullen or Houseleek. Cider vinegar.

Night wash. Warm water to which is added a few drops Tincture Myrrh, Tincture Thuja or Tea Tree oil. Diet and Supplements. Same as for CANDIDA – VAGINAL. ... candida, of skin and nails

Caraway Seeds

Carum carvi L. Dried seeds.

Action: Antimicrobial, antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant, galactagogue, emmenagogue.

Keynote: colic.

Uses: Wind and colic in children; loss of appetite; flatulent indigestion, ‘summer’ diarrhoea in children, colds, painful menses; to stimulate flow of breast milk. Gastric symptoms of cardiac origin.

Sometimes combined with Chamomile for digestive disorders.

Preparations: Thrice daily.

Tea: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 10 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup. Tincture BHP (1983) 1 part to 5 parts 45 per cent alcohol: 0.5-4ml (8-60 drops). Powdered seeds: half-2 grams.

Oil of Caraway: 1-3 drops. ... caraway seeds

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (cts)

Compression of the median nerve between the transverse carpal ligament and the carpal bone. May cause damage to the sensory and motor nerves and manifest as teno-synovitis or ganglion. Affects chiefly middle-aged women.

Symptoms. Numbness or tingling in first three fingers which feel ‘clumsy’. Worse at night. Muscle wasting of palm of the hand.

Diagnostic sign: the ‘flick’ sign – shaking or ‘flicking’ of the wrist when pain is worse and which is believed to mechanically untether the nerve and promote return of venous blood. (J. Neural Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 1984, 47, 873)

Differential diagnosis: compression of seventh cervical spinal nerve root (osteopathic lesion) has tingling of the hands when standing or from exaggerated neck movements.

Treatment. Reduction of spasm with peripheral relaxants (antispasmodics). Also: local injection of corticosteroid or surgical division of the transverse carpal ligament.

Alternatives:– Tea. Equal parts. Chamomile, Hops, Valerian. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup 2-3 times daily.

Tablets/capsules. Cramp bark. St John’s Wort. Wild Yam. Lobelia. Prickly Ash. Passion flower. Black Cohosh. Hawthorn.

Powders. Formula. Cramp bark 1; Guaiacum half; Black Cohosh half; Pinch Cayenne. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) 2-3 times daily.

Bromelain, quarter to half a teaspoon between meals.

Turmeric. Quarter to half a teaspoon between meals.

Tinctures. Formula: Cramp bark 1; Lobelia half; Black Cohosh half. Few drops Tincture Capsicum. Mix. 1 teaspoon in water when necessary. To reduce blood pressure, add half part Mistletoe.

Practitioner. For pain. Tincture Gelsemium BPC 1963 5-15 drops when necessary.

Topical. Rhus tox ointment. Camphorated oil.

Lotion: Tincture Lobelia 20; Tincture Capsicum 1.

Supplements. Condition responsive to Vitamin B6 and B-complex. Some authorities conclude that CTS is a primary deficiency of Vitamin B6, dose: 50-200mg daily.

General. Yoga, to control pain. Attention to kidneys. Diuretics may be required. Cold packs or packet of peas from the refrigerator to site of pain for 15 minutes daily. ... carpal tunnel syndrome (cts)

Body Contour Surgery

Surgery performed to remove excess fat, skin, or both, from various parts of the body, especially the abdomen, thighs, and buttocks. Abdominal wall reduction, also known as abdominoplasty, involves removing excess skin and fat from the abdomen. With all of these procedures there is a risk of complications, and the wound may become infected.

In suction lipectomy (liposuction), a rigid hollow tube is inserted through a small skin incision and use to break up large areas of fat, which can then be sucked out through the instrument.

Minor irregularities and dimpling of the skin commonly occur after surgery.... body contour surgery

Bowel Sounds

Sounds made by the passage of air and fluid through the intestine. Absent or abnormal bowel sounds may indicate a disorder. Those that are audible without a stethoscope are known as borborygmi and are a normal part of the digestive process, but they may be exaggerated by anxiety and some disorders of the intestine.... bowel sounds

Breast Enlargement Surgery

A type of mammoplasty.... breast enlargement surgery

Budd–chiari Syndrome

A rare disorder in which the veins draining blood from the liver become blocked or narrowed.

Blood accumulates in the liver, which swells.

Liver failure and portal hypertension result.

Treatment is aimed at removing the cause of the obstruction: this may be a blood clot, pressure on the veins from a liver tumour, or a congenital abnormality of the veins.

In most cases, treatment has only a limited effect and, unless a liver transplant can be done, the disease is fatal within 2 years.... budd–chiari syndrome

Chestnut, Sweet

 Spanish chestnut. Castanea sativa, Mill. Leaves. French: Cha?taignier. German: Kastanienbaum. Italian: Castagno. Indian: Ni-keri. Russian: Keschtan. Dutch: Kastangeboorn.

Constituents include tannins. Leaves and fruits.

Action: drying astringent, antirheumatic, antitussive.

Uses: Dry violent spasmodic coughs (whooping cough, croup). Copious catarrh. Diarrhoea (infants). Piles. Muscular rheumatism. Polymyalgia. Sore throat (gargle).

Formula. Chestnut 1; Celery 1; Black Cohosh quarter; and Meadowsweet 1; for polymyalgia and muscular rheumatism.

Formula. Sweet Chestnut 2; Wild Cherry bark 1; for whooping cough.

Preparations: Tea: 2 teaspoons shredded leaves to each cup water, bring to boil and simmer 5 minutes. Half-1 cup freely.

Liquid Extract BHP (1983) 1:1 in 25 per cent alcohol. Dose 1-4ml, thrice daily.

Home tincture: 1oz shredded leaves to 20oz Vodka (40-45 per cent alcohol). Macerate 8 days. 2-4 teaspoons in water, thrice daily. ... chestnut, sweet

Caliper Splint

An orthopaedic device that corrects or controls a deformed leg or supports a leg weakened by a muscular disorder, allowing a person to stand and walk.... caliper splint

Callus, Skin

An area of thickened skin, usually on the hands or feet, caused by regular or prolonged pressure or friction.

A corn is a callus on a toe.

If corns are painful, the thickened skin can be pared away by a chiropodist using a scalpel.... callus, skin

Cancer Screening

Tests to detect early signs of cancer in groups of people who are susceptible to cancer because of their age, occupation, lifestyle, or genetic predisposition. Tests for cancers of the cervix (see cervical smear test), breast (see mammography), bladder, and colon have proven to be effective.... cancer screening

Confusional State

An acute distressing symptom in elderly and very young people. ‘Lack of clarity in thinking.’ Mild brain failure. Temporary character-change and alteration in behaviour. Absence of classical symptoms of illness. Cannot formulate answers.

Diagnosis: dementia requires six months mental impairment, whereas acute confusional states may develop in a few days. Distinguish from Alzheimer’s disease.

Causes: Oxygen deficiency in the tissues (Vitamin E). Toxaemia (eliminatives). Delirium (nerve relaxants). Infections (Echinacea). Metabolism (Dandelion). Drugs (Ginseng). Hypothermia (Cayenne). Nutritional (Slippery Elm, thiamine).

Tea. Combine herbs, equal parts: Agrimony, Skullcap, Balm. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. 1 cup freely.

Ginkgo: Favourable results reported.

Vitamins. B-complex. B12. Thiamine. E (1000iu daily). Minerals. Dolomite. Zinc. ... confusional state

Corn Silk

Stigmata maidis. Zea mays, L. German: Turkisches Korn. French: Mai?s. Arabian: Durah shami. Iranian: Kho?shahemakki. Chinese: Yu-kao-liang. Malayan: Jagung. Dried silky flower threads of maize. Constituents include: rutin, flavonoids.

Constituents: allantoin, saponins, Vitamin C and K.

Keynote: kidneys and bladder.

Action: antilithic, mild stimulant, soothing urinary demulcent, diuretic.

Uses: Kidney and bladder disorders. Cystitis, uncontrollable bladder, retention, pus in the urine, bed- wetting, prostate gland enlargement, irritation of the urinary tract by phosphatic and uric acids, urethritis, expulsion of gravel. Gonorrhoea, in combination with powerful alteratives: Yellow Dock, Burdock, Queen’s Delight.

Heart failure with oedema and scanty urine; used with success. (William Boericke MD) Chronic malaria – in strong infusion the shucks have been used with success. (Dr E.C. Lowe) Nephritis (with equal parts Marshmallow) for temporary relief. Its value is increased by adding to it (equal parts) Dandelion root and Shepherd’s Purse herb. (J.H. Greer MD) Of special value for bed-wetting: with Agrimony herb (equal parts). Diabetes. (Chinese medicine)

Preparations: It is a consensus of professional opinion that the infusion (tea) is the best form. 3-4 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; drink freely.

Liquid Extract: 1-2 teaspoons, in water.

Tincture: 1-3 teaspoons, in water. ... corn silk

Dementia, (senile)

Progressive loss of brain cells, atrophy; caused by stress and a number of diseases: Huntingdon’s Chorea, Alzheimer’s Disease, Pick’s Disease, syphilis, trauma, and by certain sedative, anxiolytic, diuretic and hypotensive drugs.

Symptoms. Disorientation, failure of memory for recent events, failure to comprehend, unable to form elemental judgements, confusion, ataxia (lack of coordination of muscles), emotional instability with outbursts, forgetful.

Alternatives. Remedies known to sustain the brain. Nervines and alteratives believed to leach from the body deposits of toxic minerals: aluminium, sulphur, mercury, etc. Gotu Kola, Ginseng, Ginkgo, Vitamin E conserve oxygen. Pulsatilla – success reported for mental outbursts. Vasodilator of value. Ginkgo favourably reported.

Teas. Basil, Ginseng, Gotu Kola, German Chamomile, Horsetail, Yarrow.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts, Ginkgo, German Chamomile, Yarrow. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes; 1 cup thrice daily.

Tablets/capsules. Prickly Ash, Ginseng, Ginkgo, Kelp, Pulsatilla.

Powders, Liquid Extracts, Tinctures. Combine: Gotu Kola 3; Vervain 2; Rosemary 1. Doses.

Powders: 500mg; two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon. Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. In water, honey or fruit juice thrice daily.

Incontinence. A frequent problem for which American Cranesbill is indicated.

Aromatherapy. Inhalation: Feverfew, Thyme.

Contra-indicated: Black Cohosh.

Diet. Low salt. Low fat. High fibre. Egg yolk. Lecithin.

Supplements. Folic acid, Vitamins B-complex, B12, C and E. Selenium, to conserve oxygen. Magnesium, Manganese, Zinc.

General. Home help. Meals on Wheels. Service from local Psychogeriatric unit. ... dementia, (senile)

Capgras’ Syndrome

The delusion that a relative or friend has been replaced by an identical impostor. Also known as the

“illusion of doubles’’, the syndrome is seen most frequently in paranoid schizophrenia, but also occurs in organic brain disorders (see brain syndrome, organic) and affective disorders.... capgras’ syndrome

Cardiac Stress Test

One of a group of tests used to assess the function of the heart in people who experience chest pain, breathlessness, or palpitations during exercise. The test establishes whether the patient has coronary artery disease. An ECG machine records the patterns of the heart’s electrical activity while the heart is stressed. This is usually achieved by the patient exercising on a treadmill or cycling. Specific changes in the electrical pattern as exercise levels increase indicate angina. Cardiac stress testing may be used in conjunction with radionuclide scanning to identify damaged areas of heart muscle.... cardiac stress test

Cardiovascular Surgery

The branch of surgery concerned with the heart and blood vessels.

Cardiovascular surgery includes operations to prevent or repair damage caused, for example, by congenital heart disease (see heart disease, congenital), atherosclerosis, or a myocardial infarction (heart attack).

Procedures include heart valve surgery, coronary artery bypass, and heart transplant.... cardiovascular surgery

Diet - Low Salt

Salt is present in most foods. Spices, herbs and peppers (Black or Cayenne) may be used for flavouring. No salt should be used in cooking or added at table. Salty foods such as the following should be avoided:

Reject: canned foods (except fruit), packet mixes, all bought cooked meats – sausages, bacon, ham. Cakes containing baking soda, chocolate, toffee, treacle, bought biscuits, kippers and other smoked fish, yeast extracts, chutneys, sauces, excessively salted cheeses, butter and margarine.

Accept: rice, pasta, cereals, home-made cottage cheese, eggs (3 per week), all meats, chicken, poultry, whitefish, shellfish, herring, salmon, unsalted bread, butter, margarine, vegetable oils, restricted milk and cream, all vegetables and fruits, fruit juices, brown sugar, wines.

Excess salt leads to retention of fluid in body tissues and adds to work the heart will perform. ... diet - low salt

Diet - Skin Disorders

Low fat, low salt, high fibre. Dairy-free (no milk, cream, cheese, eggs). Soya milk is more suitable for children and adults than cow’s milk and provides protein, calories, calcium and vitamins. Polyunsaturates: oils of safflower, corn, Soya, sunflower seed, etc which are rich in essential fatty acids, low levels of which are frequently found in the blood of those with chronic skin disorders. Evening Primrose oil is a rich source of EFAs. Gluten-free diet has proved successful in some cases.

Accept. Goat’s milk, yoghurt, eggs – twice weekly. The high potassium and low salt content of bananas help reduce itching. Lecithin. Oily fish. Purslane is a non-fish source of EPA and suitable for the vegetarian approach. Cottage cheese. Pumpkin seeds as a source of zinc. Dandelion coffee. Artichoke: such as Schoenenberger plant juice. Salad dressing: emulsify 1 teaspoon Cider vinegar to each 2 teaspoons safflower seed oil.

Reject: Fried and greasy foods, pastries, chocolates, sweets, ice cream, spicy foods, seasoning, sausage meats, white flour products, white sugar products, alcoholic drinks, meat from the pig (ham, pork, bacon), peppers, horseradish, condiments. Powdered kelp in place of salt, powdered garlic or celery.

Foods known to contain artificial colours and preservatives. All soft drinks, except those made at home from fresh fruits or raw vegetables; coffee, strong tea, oranges. Cola drinks, chocolate, milk, cream, cheese, whey.

Supplement. Beta carotene.

Study. A flare-up can be caused by nuts, jams, fruits, artificially coloured or flavoured foods. (British Journal of Dermatology, 110, 457, (1984)) ... diet - skin disorders

Diet - Slimming

 Diet should be based on 1200 calories a day, eating habits being changed to a simple regime. Low-fat, high carbohydrate and fibre.

Eat plenty of fresh fruit and raw vegetables for vitamins and minerals as well as for fibre. As a substitute for mayonnaise use low-fat plain yoghurt. Vegetable fats should replace animal fats: instead of butter – margarine from Sunflower or Safflower oils.

Carbohydrates. At liberty: porridge, muesli, wholemeal bread and wholegrain products, pasta, potatoes, beans, peas, brown rice. These are high in fibre and low in fat. Processed foods should be avoided and those with natural goodness preferred, except for All-Bran which is rich in iron.

Protein. Meat should be taken in small quantities only – turkey, poultry, steamed fish, replace red with grilled lean white meats. Chicken is the most versatile, least expensive and most nutritious of meats. Cottage cheese is low in calories. Food should not be fried but grilled, roasted or baked.

Fluids. Juices, or drinks made with skimmed milk, herb teas. Dandelion coffee. In place of alcohol – carrot, tomato and other fresh vegetable juices.

Reject. Fried foods, white and brown sugar products, honey, sweets, contectionery, jams, biscuits, chocolates, canned fruits, thick soups. Frankfurters, beefburgers, hamburgers, everything from the pig: bacon, ham, pork, lard. Avoid between-meal snacks but chew a carrot or piece of other raw vegetable or fresh fruit.

There is increasing support for a well-balanced vegetarian diet for weight reduction as it contains no animal fats. Protein is preferred from such foods as beans, pulses, nuts, eggs; and calcium from cottage cheese and milk. The Hay Diet also has been found to be frequently effective. ... diet - slimming

Doctrine Of Signatures

It was believed by some ancient civilisations that the Creator has placed his seal on plants to indicate their medicinal use. Nicholas Culpeper was an outstanding advocate. The seeds of Skullcap (headache) resemble tiny skulls; Lungwort has white spotted leaves relative to the tubercula lung; Garlic, with its hollow stalk, relates to the windpipe; White Willow growing in damp places was believed good for rheumatic disorders (it was from the bark of this tree that aspirin was first isolated). Examples are numerous. It is a curiosity that many liver remedies have yellow flowers, those for the nerves (blue), for the spleen (orange), for the bones (white). Serpentaria (Rauwolfia) resembles a snake and is an old traditional remedy for snake-bite.

Herbalism confirms the Doctrine of Signatures but is not based on it. ... doctrine of signatures

Car Sickness

See motion sickness.... car sickness

Cataract Surgery

Removal of the lens from the eye, performed to restore sight in people whose vision is impaired by a cataract. The lens is usually replaced with a plastic implant during the operation, although for young people and those with other eye disorders, a contact or spectacle lens fitted after the operation may be preferable.... cataract surgery

Cat Scanning

An abbreviation for computerized axial tomographic scanning, commonly known as CT scanning.... cat scanning

Celsius Scale

A temperature scale in which the melting point of ice is zero degrees (0°C) and the boiling point of water is 100 degrees (100°C). On this scale, normal body temperature is 37°C.

(See also Fahrenheit scale.)... celsius scale

Centigrade Scale

The obsolete name for the celsius scale.... centigrade scale

Cervical Smear Test

A test to detect cervical dysplasia (abnormal changes in the cells of the cervix) that could develop into cervical cancer (see cervix, cancer of). A smear test also detects viral infections of the cervix, such as herpes simplex and papilloma (see warts, genital). The test should be carried out 6 months after a woman starts to have sexual intercourse, with a repeat test 6–12 months later, and then every 3 years.

A sample of cells is taken from the surface of the cervix using a spatula and examined under a microscope.

If cells appear normal, nothing further needs to be done.

If cells show dysplasia, further investigations may be required.... cervical smear test

Exploding Head Synrome (ehs)

Explosive bomb-like sensation – ‘like a thunderclap’ – coming from the back of the head. Not a morning-after-the-night-before feeling or pain in the head, but an unexplained loud noise occurring during sleep. Sufferers are mostly women, middle-aged or elderly, with no other symptoms and usually in good health.

Described as “seems as if my head was bursting, with a flash of light”. Reaction is one of fear and violent heart beat. Attacks unrelated to alcohol or excitement of the previous evening. No circulatory changes in the brain or cerebrospinal fluid are known to cause such a symptom.

Treatment. Cup of one of the following teas at bedtime: Buckwheat, Yarrow, Hawthorn flowers, Skullcap, Oats. Morning and evening: one 500mg Evening Primrose capsule; one 400iu Vitamin E capsule.

Diet: low-salt. Cholesterol-rich foods should be kept to a minimum. ... exploding head synrome (ehs)

Eyes – Sight Deterioration

Presbyopia. General deterioration of the eye, usually from long- sightedness. A natural ageing process. Nutritional deficiency is a common cause, promoted by smoking, alcohol and denatured foods. If the eyes are treated nutritionally good sight lasts much longer. Strong emotions such as anger, and infections such as colds may weaken.

Services of a qualified optician should be sought after limits of the Bate’s Method of eyesight training have been reached.

Alternatives. Tablets/capsules. Ginseng. Gotu Kola.

Powders. Mix. Parts: Gentian 2; Dandelion 1; pinch Cayenne. Dose: 500mg, (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily. (To build-up good general health)

Cider Vinegar. 2 teaspoons to tumbler water; sips during the day.

Topical. Teas. Any one: Eyebright, Fennel, German Chamomile, Plantain, Rue. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes, strain, half fill eyebath and use as a douche.

Diet. Low salt. High fibre. Bilberries.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamin A, 7500iu. Beta-carotene. B-complex. Vitamin C, 100mg. Vitamin E, 100iu. Zinc.

Supportive. Palming. Bate’s exercises. ... eyes – sight deterioration

Feet – Hot, Sweaty, Smelly

Excessive foot-sweat directs our attention to constitutional weakness, kidney malfunction or to general toxic condition. For fungoid infections: see under FUNGUS. Kidney remedies (diuretics) often reduce foot sweat (Juniper, Buchu, Golden Rod, Horsetail, Parsley root or leaves, Plantain, Thuja). Teas, decoctions, etc.

Constitutional treatment (oral): Liquid Extract Thuja: 5-10 drops morning and evening.

Topical. Foot baths: with teas from Chamomile, Sage, Rosemary, Juniper, or Southernwood. Half an ounce dried or fresh herb in 2 pints boiling water; infuse until warm. Weleda Foot Balm.

Diet. Dandelion coffee. Raw food days. Avoid eggs. Increase protein.

Vitamins. B-complex. B6. B12. E.

Minerals. Dolomite. Zinc.

General. Ban rubber shoes (plimsolls) which prevent adequate ventilation.

See: SWEATING, ABNORMAL. ... feet – hot, sweaty, smelly

Cervical Spondylosis

An alternative name for cervical osteoarthritis.... cervical spondylosis

Chapped Skin

Sore, cracked, rough skin, usually on the hands, face, and particularly the lips, due to dryness. Chapping is caused by the lack, or removal, of the natural oils that keep skin supple. It tends to occur in cold weather, when oil-secreting glands produce less oil, or after repeated washing or wetting. Treatment is with a lanolin-based cream.... chapped skin

Cheyne–stokes Respiration

An abnormal pattern of breathing in which the rate and depth of respiration varies. Cheyne–Stokes respiration is characterized by repeated cycles, lasting a few minutes, of deep, rapid breathing that becomes slower and shallower and then stops for 10–20 seconds. The pattern

may be due to malfunction of the part of the brain that controls breathing (as occurs in some cases of stroke and head injury).

It may also occur as a result of heart failure or in healthy people at high altitudes, especially during sleep.... cheyne–stokes respiration

Cns Stimulants

Drugs that increase mental alertness (see stimulant drugs).... cns stimulants

Colon, Spastic

See irritable bowel syndrome.... colon, spastic

Fluid Retention Syndrome (frs)

Accumulation of fluid beneath the skin; frequent sites – fingers, abdomen, breast, ankles.

Symptoms. Headache, frequency of urine, palpitation, possible irritable bowel syndrome. “My feet are killing me”, “I can’t get my wedding ring off” are typical complaints by women with FRS. Sometimes a complication of diabetes, or follows abuse of laxatives or diuretic drugs. A part of the premenstrual syndrome.

Alternatives. Teas. Any of the following: Buchu, Dandelion, Hawthorn, Motherwort, Yarrow. One or more cups daily, cold.

Tablets. Popular combination. Powdered Dandelion root BHP (1983) 90mg; powdered Horsetail extract 3:1 10mg; powdered Uva Ursi extract 3:1 75mg. (Gerard House)

Formula. Equal parts: Hawthorn, Dandelion, Broom. Dose: Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons. Thrice daily.

Practitioner. Tincture Lily of the Valley (Convallaria) BHP (1983) (1:5 in 40 per cent alcohol). Dose 8- 15 drops (0.5-1ml). Thrice daily.

Aromatherapy. 6 drops Lavender oil on wet handkerchief: use as a compress for relief of ankles during a journey.

Traditional Gypsy Medicine. The sufferer is exposed to the rising smoke of smouldering Juniper berries which exudes volatile oils and has a gentle diuretic effect.

Diet. Salt-free. High protein. Dandelion coffee. Supplements. Vitamin B-complex, Potassium, Copper. ... fluid retention syndrome (frs)

Ginseng - Siberian

Eleutherococcus senticosus, Maxim. Part used: root. Believed to be stronger and more stimulating than Panax Ginseng.

Action. Anti-stress, antiviral, adaptogen, aphrodisiac, vasodilator, hypoglycaemic, tonic, adrenal hormone stimulant, anti-toxic activity in chemotherapy. Beneficial for boosting the body’s natural defence system, to resist viruses, free-radical toxins and even radiation. Increases immune resistance.

Uses: Conditions related to stress. Improves capacity for mental and physical exertion, to revitalise a run- down constitution, shingles, myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), atherosclerosis in heart and arterial conditions, increases cerebral circulation in the elderly, non-caffeine invigorator, depression from overwork, jet-lag, children – classroom stress, recovery from surgical operation, radiation injury, immune stimulant in cancer therapy. To increase fertility. Enables patient to tolerate higher doses of radiation. Counters nuclear reactor leakage. Inhibits HIV-1 replication in cells acutely or chronically infected. Preparations. Miscellaneous products available.

Tea. Quarter of a teaspoon powdered root to each cup boiling water. OR: dissolve 1-2 capsules in cup of boiling water, once daily.

Tablets/capsules. 150mg, one thrice daily.

General uses and contra-indications: see GINSENG (PANAX). ... ginseng - siberian

Gluten-sensitive Disease

Adult coeliac disease, coeliac sprue, non-tropical sprue, idiopathic steatorrhoea. Allergy to gluten which disturbs the small intestine by preventing the body from absorbing food nutrients. A child’s condition may worsen when put on solid cereals containing wheat, barley, rye or oats. “Allergic to pasta” disease. A change in the mucous membrane of the intestines with enzyme deficiency.

Symptoms: diarrhoea, abdominal swelling and pain, irritability, inability to gain weight, neuritis, ulcers on tongue and mouth, low blood pressure, debility, lactase-deficiency. Breast-feeding stops coeliac disease.

Alternatives. Tea. Mix, equal parts: Raspberry leaves, Agrimony, Lemon Balm. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup freely.

Tablets/capsules. Goldenseal, Slippery Elm. Calamus. Fenugreek seeds, Papaya. Wild Yam.

Powders, Liquid Extracts, Tinctures. Formula. Equal parts: Sarsaparilla, Wild Yam, Stone root. Dose. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid Extracts: 30-60 drops. Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons. In water, banana mash or honey, thrice daily.

Papaya (papain) digests wheat gluten and assists recovery. Half-1g with meals.

Aloe Vera juice. Promotes improved bowel motility, increases stool specific gravity, and reduces indication of protein putrefaction, flatulence and bloating after meals. (J. Bland PhD. JAM June 1985, p.11)

Topical. Warm hip baths of Lemon Balm, Chamomile, etc. (Alfred Vogel)

Diet. Gluten-free. Rice. Unpasteurised yoghurt. Buttermilk. Sweet acidophilus milk. Raw carrot juice. Bananas mashed with a little Slippery Elm or dried milk powder, carob bean powder and Soya milk. Supplementation. Vitamins A, B-complex, B6, B12, Folic acid, C, D, E, K (Alfalfa tea). Calcium, Iron and Magnesium orotates. ... gluten-sensitive disease

Cosmetic Surgery

An operation performed to improve appearance rather than to cure or treat disease.

Cosmetic surgery techniques include the removal of skin blemishes or dermabrasion; rhinoplasty to alter the shape or size of the nose; face-lifts; mammoplasty to reduce or enlarge the breasts; body contour surgery to remove excess body fat and tissue; hair transplants; blepharoplasty to remove excess skin on the eyelids; and mentoplasty to alter the size or shape of the chin.

All cosmetic surgery carries the risk of side effects from the anaesthetic, as well as of complications of the procedure itself.... cosmetic surgery

Haemolytic-uraemia Syndrome (hus)

An uncommon cause of kidney failure in children. The association of three processes: reduced platelets, haemolytic anaemia and kidney failure. Foodborne infection is spread by micro-organisms (E. coli, etc) with an affinity for the alimentary canal. The central nervous system is involved.

Onset: diarrhoea with streaks of blood, vomiting, breathlessness, feverishness, dizziness, jaundice and enlargement of the spleen.

Other causes may be mismatched food transfusion, environmental chemicals, nitrite food preservatives and analgesic drugs.

Alternatives. Tea. Combine herbs: Red Clover (to increase platelets) 3; Yarrow (kidneys) 2; Hops (cerebrospinal supportive) 1. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup freely.

Formula: Combine, Tinctures. Red Clover 2; Fringe Tree 1; Hops half. Dose: one 5ml teaspoon. Babies: 2 drops in feed; infants 3-5 years 10 drops in water and honey thrice daily.

Supplementation. Vitamin B-complex. C.

To be treated by or in liaison with a qualified medical practitioner. ... haemolytic-uraemia syndrome (hus)

Health Stores (wholesale) Ltd

Registered as a Friendly Society (1932) under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act. The buying society of the independent health food trader. Owned and managed entirely by retailer members and concerned with food standards. Stringent rules govern membership and conduct of business. Members are the only shareholders, who are required to hold 20 withdrawable shares of £5 each.

Financial advantages to members include earning profit-sharing discounts: suppliers are relieved of the burden of collecting separate accounts and benefit from having their products approved by the retailers own organisation. Its meetings are a focal point for reporting on up-to-date research and protecting the public interest. Address: Queen’s Road, Nottingham NG2 3AS. ... health stores (wholesale) ltd

Herb Society, The

Founded as the Society of Herbalists in 1927 by Hilda Leyel who carried on a consulting service together with retailing herbs and preparations under the name of “Culpeper”.

Practical medical herbalism in Britain received an impetus under the work of Mrs Leyel until the 1968 Medicine’s Act which made this alternative therapy available to all. In 1974 the Society became a registered educational charity and its name changed to The Herb Society. The brand name “Culpeper” was franchised to a private company which continues to trade as the “Culpeper” retail chain of shops.

Today, The Herb Society promotes interest in and knowledge of all aspects of herbs, as well as herbal medicine. Information is available from: The Secretary, The Herb Society, PO Box 599, London SW11 4RW. ... herb society, the

Herbs, Source Of

Today’s practice: only first grade organically grown herbs (European, British, American, etc) without the aid of pesticides or herbicides are the general rule, but standards vary in different countries. Some herbs are freshly picked and processed on the same day, and it is modern practice to cultivate in a remote location to avoid wind-blown chemical contamination.

Herbs are soft-stemmed plants that die back in winter. No artificial additives; no cruelty to animals; and no damage to the environment is the ideal in the preparation of herbal remedies.

All herbs are subject to natural variations such as weather, climate and constituents of the soil. In herbal pharmacy products are standardised as carefully as possible under strict laboratory conditions. ... herbs, source of

Ispaghula Seeds

(Pale). Spogel seeds. Psyllium seeds. Ispaghula husk BP. Plantago ovata. Dried ripe seeds. Keynote: constipation and bowel irritation.

Constituents: mucilage, triterpenes, alkaloids.

Action: gentle bulk laxative without irritation; antidiarrhoeal, demulcent, bacteriostatic. Increases stool output while decreasing transit time in healthy people. Anti-inflammatory.

Uses: Chronic constipation, particularly in the elderly. Irritable bowel syndrome, mucous colitis. Amoebic dysentery. (Indian traditional) To assist management of diverticular disease. To reduce incidence of bowel complaints. An alternative to constant use of purgatives that decrease sensitivity of alimentary mucous membranes. Useful in pregnancy. Hyperlipaemia. Lowers cholesterol level by eliminating excess bile salts. To assist slimming regime in obesity.

Preparations: Average dose: 3-5 grams (2 grams, children).

Seeds: 1-2 teaspoons once or twice daily, helped down with sips of water. (May be soaked overnight in warm water.) In the intestines seeds swell into a gelatinous mass many times their normal size thus ‘lubricating’ contents of the bowel for easy defecation. Isogel.

“Regulan” Ispaghula husk BP. Sachets containing 3-6 grams. Average dose: 1 sachet thrice daily. Psyllium seed husks, plus pectin, Vitamin C and Guar gum to cleanse the colon while leaving behind important nutrients. Aids detoxification and absorption of iron. Regulates blood sugar levels and nutrient absorption. (JAM. Nov 86, p.23) Poultice. With Slippery Elm for boils, abscesses, etc. ... ispaghula seeds

Cough, Smoker’s

A recurrent cough in smokers.

The cough is usually triggered by the accumulation of thick sputum in the airways due to inflammation caused by smoking.

Giving up smoking usually stops the cough but it may take time.

In general, the longer a person has been smoking, the longer it will take.

Smokers with a cough should seek medical advice, particularly if their cough changes, because smoking is associated with lung cancer (see tobacco-smoking).... cough, smoker’s

Death, Sudden Infant

See sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).... death, sudden infant

De Morgan’s Spots

Harmless red or purple raised spots in the skin, consisting of a cluster of minute blood vessels. About 2 mm across, the spots usually affect middle-aged or older people. With increasing age, the spots become more numerous but do not increase in size. They may bleed if injured. Treatment is unnecessary.... de morgan’s spots

Lady’s Slipper

Nerve root. American Valerian. Cypripedium pubescens, Willd. German: Frauenschuh. French: Sabot de Ve?nus. Spanish: Zucco. Italian: Calceolo. Dried root and rhizome. Time- honoured North American Indian remedy. Keynote: central nervous system.

Constituents: tannin, resin.

Action: nerve relaxant, autonomic regulator, mild pain-killer, thymoleptic. A fine brain and spinal remedy and should be at the hand of every spinal manipulator. Antidote to caffeine poisoning.

Use s. Nervous excitability, insomnia, irritability, neuralgia, muscle twitching, anxiety states, schizophrenia, pressive headache, nerve tension, epilepsy, pre-menstrual tension, spermatorrhoea, post- influenzal depression, weepiness.

“Yellow Lady’s Slipper was held in big esteem by the Indians as a sedative and an antispasmodic, acting like Valerian in alleviating nervous symptoms . . . said to have proved itself in hysteria and chorea.” (Virgil Vogel)

Combinations. (1) with Oats and Skullcap for anxiety states and (2) with Hops for insomnia with depression BHP (1983).

Preparations: Average dose: 2-4g. Thrice daily.

Tea. Half-1 teaspoon to each cupful water; bring to boil; simmer 2-3 minutes in covered vessel; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup.

Liquid Extract BHP (1983) 1:1 in 45 per cent alcohol. Dose: 2-4ml.

Powder. Dose, 2-4g. ... lady’s slipper

Dermatome, Surgical

A surgical instrument for cutting varying thicknesses of skin for use in skin grafting.... dermatome, surgical

Deviated Nasal Septum

See nasal septum.... deviated nasal septum

Deviation, Sexual

A form of sexual behaviour, most common in men, in which intercourse between adults is not the final aim. Forms of sexual deviation include exhibitionism, fetishism, paedophilia, and transvestism.... deviation, sexual

Dexa Scan

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, a technique that measures bone density by passing beams of lowdose radiation through bone. scans are used to assess the severity of osteoporosis. (See also densitometry.)... dexa scan

Digital Subtraction Angiography

See angiography.... digital subtraction angiography

Disc, Slipped

See disc prolapse.... disc, slipped

Dmsa Scan

A type of kidney imaging technique (see radionuclide scanning).... dmsa scan

Monosodium Glutamate Syndrome

Pains in arms, neck, shoulders and spine from excessive consumption of monosodium glutamate which increases the body’s salt levels.

Tea. Mix, equal parts: Agrimony, Centuary, Meadowsweet.

Decoction. Mix, equal parts: Dandelion root, Echinacea root.

Tablets/capsules. Blue Flag. Devil’s Claw. Wild Yam.

Formula (1). Turkey Rhubarb, with pinch of Cayenne or drops of Tincture Capsicum. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.

Formula (2). Dandelion 2; Meadowsweet 1; Goldenseal quarter. Dose: as above. ... monosodium glutamate syndrome

National Association Of Health Stores (nahs)

Founded 1931. Objects:

(a) To promote and protect the interests of Health Foods Stores among members.

(b) To set standards in retailing of health foods and herbs.

(c) To encourage production, marketing and sales of products derived from purely natural and vegetable sources.

((d) To provide qualifications by certificate and diploma courses for those engaged in the industry.

The Association provides advice on aspects of health food and herb retailing and is able to help its members with professional advice and merchandising. NAHS Diploma of Health Food Retailing qualifies for membership of the Institute of Health Food Retailing. Address: Bastow House, Queens Road, Nottingham NG2 3AS. ... national association of health stores (nahs)

Nervous Bowel Syndrome

Frequent urging to stool due to nervous irritability or emotional distress.

Indicated: astringents, nerve relaxants.

Teas. Hops, Vervain, Chamomile, Cranesbill.

Tablets/capsules. Chamomile, Calamus, Wild Yam, Fenugreek.

Formula. Bayberry 2; Wild Yam 1; Valerian half. Dose: Liquid extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 2-3 teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Thrice daily.

Tincture. Black Catechu BHP (1983). 1:5 in 45 per cent alcohol. Dose 2.5 to 5ml in water, thrice daily. Fenulin. (Gerard House)

Diet. Slippery Elm gruel.

Supplements. Vitamins A, B6, C, Calcium, Dolomite. ... nervous bowel syndrome

Nervous Shock

Non-medical term for nervous collapse. “All gone to pieces” syndrome following a period of abnormal stress or shock. Nervous breakdown. Psychiatric illness. Posttraumatic stress disorder.

Alternatives. Betony, Black Cohosh, Hops, Lady’s Slipper, Mistletoe, Oats, Skullcap, Valerian.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Skullcap, Mistletoe, Valerian. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup water gently simmered 10 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup thrice daily.

Formula. Equal parts: Hops, Rosemary, Valerian. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.

Supplements. B-complex, B12, B6, E. Magnesium, Dolomite. Calcium. ... nervous shock

Drain, Surgical

An appliance inserted into a body cavity or wound to release air or to permit drainage.

Drains range from simple soft rubber tubes that pass from a body cavity into a dressing to wide-bore tubes that connect to a collection bag or bottle.

Suction drains are thin tubes with many small holes to help collect fluid or air, which is drawn into a vacuum bottle.... drain, surgical

Dressler’s Syndrome

An uncommon disorder, also known as postinfarction syndrome, that may occur after a myocardial infarction (heart attack) or heart surgery.

It is characterized by fever, chest pain, pericarditis, and pleurisy.

Treatment is with aspirin or, in severe cases, with corticosteroid drugs.... dressler’s syndrome

Ear, Nose, And Throat Surgery

See otorhinolaryngology.... ear, nose, and throat surgery

Ehlers–danlos Syndrome

An inherited disorder of collagen, the most important structural protein in the body. Affected individuals have abnormally stretchy, thin skin that bruises easily. Wounds are slow to heal and leave paper-thin scars, and the joints are loose and prone to recurrent dislocation. Sufferers bleed easily from the gums and digestive tract. Ehlers–Danlos syndrome is most often inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern (see genetic disorders). There is no known specific treatment.... ehlers–danlos syndrome

Abdominal Swelling

Enlargement of the abdomen. Abdominal swelling is a natural result of obesity and growth of the uterus during pregnancy. Wind in the stomach or intestine may cause uncomfortable, bloating distension of the abdomen. Some women experience abdominal distension due to temporary water retention just before menstruation. Other causes may be more serious.

For instance, ascites (accumulation of fluid between organs) may be a symptom of cancer or disease of the heart, kidneys, or liver; swelling may also be due to intestinal obstruction (see intestine, obstruction of) or an ovarian cyst.

Diagnosis of the underlying cause may involve abdominal X-rays, ultrasound scanning, laparotomy, or laparoscopy. In ascites, some fluid between organs may be drained for examination.... abdominal swelling

Biliary System

The organs and ducts by which bile is formed, concentrated, and carried from the liver to the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). Bile is secreted by the liver cells and collected by a network of bile ducts that carry the bile out of the liver by way of the hepatic duct. A channel called the cystic duct branches off the hepatic duct and leads to the gallbladder where bile is concentrated and stored. Beyond this junction, the hepatic duct becomes the common bile duct and opens into the duodenum at a controlled orifice called the ampulla of Vater. The presence of fat in the duodenum after a meal causes secretion of a hormone, which opens the ampulla of Vater and makes the gallbladder contract, squeezing stored bile into the duodenum.

The main disorders affecting the biliary system are gallstones, congenital biliary atresia and bile duct obstruction.

(See also gallbladder, disorders of.)... biliary system

Brain Syndrome, Organic

Disorder of consciousness, intellect, or mental functioning that is of organic (physical), as opposed to psychiatric, origin. Causes include degenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease; infections; certain drugs; or the effects of injury, stroke, or tumour. Symptoms range from mild confusion to stupor or coma. They may also include disorientation, memory loss, hallucinations, and delusions (see delirium). In the chronic form, there is a progressive decline in intellect, memory, and behaviour (see dementia). Treatment is more likely to be successful with the acute form. In chronic cases, irreversible brain damage may already have occurred. (See also psychosis.)... brain syndrome, organic

Electric Shock Treatment

See ECT.... electric shock treatment

Emphysema, Surgical

The abnormal presence of air in tissues under the skin following surgery or injury.... emphysema, surgical

Endocrine System

The collection of glands around the body that produce hormones.

These glands include the thyroid gland, pancreas, testes, ovaries, and adrenal glands.

Their hormones are responsible for numerous bodily processes, including growth, metabolism, sexual development and function, and response to stress.

Any increase or decrease in the production of a specific hormone interferes with the process it controls.

To prevent under- or overproduction, hormone secretion from many endocrine glands is regulated by the pituitary gland, which is in turn influenced by the hypothalamus in the brain according to a feedback mechanism.... endocrine system

Ent Surgery

See otorhinolaryngology.... ent surgery

Etidronate Sodium

See disodium etidronate.... etidronate sodium

Exploratory Surgery

Any operation that is carried out to investigate or examine part of the body to discover the extent of known disease or to establish a diagnosis. Advances in imaging techniques, such as MRI, have reduced the need for exploratory surgery.... exploratory surgery

Ct Scanning

A diagnostic technique in which the combined use of a computer and X-rays passed through the body at different angles produces cross-sectional images of tissues. (computed tomography) scanning has revolutionized the diagnosis and treatment of tumours, abscesses, and haemorrhages in the brain, as well as head injuries and strokes. scanning is also used to locate and image tumours, investigate diseases, and aid needle biopsy in organs of the trunk.

Newer types of scanners use a spiral technique: the scanner rotates around the body as the patient is moved slowly forwards on a bed, causing the X-ray beams to follow a spiral course. The computer produces 3-D images. Injected or swallowed contrast media (chemicals opaque to X-rays) may be used to make certain tissues more visible.... ct scanning

Decompression, Spinal Canal

Surgery to relieve pressure on the spinal cord or a nerve root emerging from it (see microdiscectomy). Pressure may have various causes, including a disc prolapse, a tumour or abscess of the spinal cord, or a tumour, abscess or fracture of the vertebrae. Any of these conditions can cause weakness or paralysis of the limbs and loss of bladder control.

To treat major disc prolapses and tumours, a laminectomy (removal of the bony arches of 1 or more vertebrae) to expose the affected part of the cord or nerve roots may be performed. Recovery after treatment depends on the severity and duration of the pressure, the success of the surgery in relieving the pressure, and whether any damage is sustained by the nerves during the operation.... decompression, spinal canal

Eyelid Surgery

See blepharoplasty.... eyelid surgery

Eye-strain

A common term for aching or discomfort in or around the eye. This is usually due to a headache caused by fatigue, tiredness of muscles around the eye, sinusitis, blepharitis (inflammation of the eyelids), or conjunctivitis.... eye-strain

Facial Spasm

An uncommon disorder in which there is frequent twitching of facial muscles, which are supplied by the facial nerve. Facial spasm affects predominantly middle-aged women and is of unknown cause.... facial spasm

Fahrenheit Scale

A temperature scale in which the melting point of ice is 32º and the boiling point of water is 212º. On this scale, normal body temperature is 98.4ºF, which is the equivalent of 37º Celsius (C). To convert a Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius, subtract 32 and multiply by 0.56 (or 5/9). To convert a Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit, multiply by 1.8 (or 9/5) then add 32. (See also Celsius scale.)... fahrenheit scale

Digestive System

The group of organs responsible for digestion. It consists of the digestive tract (also known as the alimentary tract or canal) and various associated organs. The digestive tract consists of the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestines, and the anus. The intestines are the small intestine (comprising the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) and the large intestine (comprising the caecum, colon, and rectum). The associated organs, such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas, secrete digestive juices that break down food as it goes through the tract.

Food and the products of digestion are moved from the throat to the rectum by peristalsis (waves of muscular contractions of the intestinal wall).

Food is broken down into simpler substances before being absorbed into the bloodstream.Physical breakdown is performed by the teeth, which cut and chew, and the stomach, which churns the food. The chemical breakdown of food is performed by the action of enzymes, acids, and salts.

Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars. Proteins are broken down into polypeptides, peptides, and amino acids. Fats are broken down into glycerol, glycerides, and fatty acids.

In the mouth, saliva lubricates food and contains enzymes that begin to break down carbohydrates. The tongue moulds food into balls (called boli) for easy swallowing. The food then passes into the pharynx. From here, it is pushed into the oesophagus and squeezed down into the stomach, where it is mixed with hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Produced by the stomach lining, these substances help break down proteins. When the food has been converted to a semi-liquid consistency, it passes into the duodenum where bile salts and acids (produced by the liver) help to break down fats. Digestive juices released by the pancreas into the duodenum contain enzymes that further break down food. Breakdown ends in the small intestine, carried out by enzymes produced by glands in the intestinal lining. Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. The residue enters the large intestine, where water is absorbed. Undigested matter is expelled via the rectum and anus as faeces.... digestive system

Femoral Epiphysis, Slipped

Displacement of the upper epiphysis (growing end) of the femur (thigh bone). Such displacement is rare; it usually affects children between 11 and 13, and occurs more often in boys and obese children. The condition may also run in families. During normal growth, the epiphysis is separated from the shaft of the bone by a plate of cartilage. This is an area of relative weakness, so that a fall or other injury can cause the epiphysis to slip out of position. A limp develops, and pain is felt in the knee or groin. The leg tends to turn outwards and hip movements are restricted.

Surgery is needed to fix the epiphysis into its correct position and is usually completely successful.

In some cases, the other hip may also need to be stabilized.... femoral epiphysis, slipped

Floppy Valve Syndrome

See mitral valve prolapse.... floppy valve syndrome

Freudian Slip

A slip of the tongue or a minor error of action that could be what the person really wanted to say or do.... freudian slip

Frozen Section

A method of preparing a biopsy specimen that provides a rapid indication of whether or not a tissue, such as a breast lump, is cancerous. Frozen section can be undertaken during an operation so that the results can be used to determine the appropriate surgical treatment.... frozen section

Glue-sniffing

See solvent abuse.... glue-sniffing

Groin Strain

Pain and tenderness in the groin as a result of overstretching of a muscle, typically while running or playing sports. The muscles commonly affected are the adductors and the rectus femoris. Groin strain is usually treated with physiotherapy, but recovery may be slow.... groin strain

Guillain–barré Syndrome

A rare condition affecting the peripheral nerves (see peripheral nervous system) that causes weakness, usually in the limbs. The cause is believed to be an allergic reaction to an infection, usually viral; the nerves are damaged by antibodies produced by the body to eliminate the infection. In most cases, the disease develops 2 or 3 weeks after the onset of infection. Weakness, often accompanied by numbness and tingling, usually starts in the legs and spreads to the arms. The weakness may become progressively worse, resulting in paralysis. The muscles of the face and those controlling speech, swallowing, and breathing may also be affected.

Diagnosis of Guillain–Barré syndrome is confirmed by electrical tests to measure how fast nerve impulses are being conducted, or by a lumbar puncture. Most people recover fully with only supportive treatment. However, in severe cases, treatment with plasmapheresis or immunoglobulin may be given. Mechanical ventilation may be needed to aid breathing if the respiratory muscles and diaphragm are severely affected. Some people are left with permanent weakness in affected areas and/or suffer from further attacks of the disease.... guillain–barré syndrome

Haemolytic–uraemic Syndrome

A rare disease in which red blood cells are destroyed prematurely and the kidneys are damaged, causing acute kidney failure. Thrombocytopenia can also occur. Haemolytic–uraemic syndrome most commonly affects young children and may be triggered by a serious bacterial or viral infection. Symptoms include weakness, lethargy, and a reduction in the volume of urine. Seizures may occur. Blood and urine tests can determine the degree of kidney damage. Dialysis may be needed until the kidneys have recovered. Most patients recover normal renal function.... haemolytic–uraemic syndrome

Hand–arm Vibration Syndrome

Pain and numbness in the hand and arm due to prolonged use of vibrating tools. Symptoms often also include blue or white coloration of the fingers and a tingling sensation in affected areas. Hand–arm vibration syndrome tends to develop slowly over years and is the result of repeated damage to blood vessels and nerves. Exposure to cold tends to aggravate the condition. There is no specific treatment, but avoiding vibrating tools is essential to prevent the disease progressing. In some cases, calcium channel blockers may help relieve some symptoms.... hand–arm vibration syndrome

Heart Sounds

The sounds made by the heart during each heartbeat. In each heart cycle, there are 2 main heart sounds that can clearly be heard through a stethoscope. The first is like a “lubb”. It results from closure of the tricuspid and mitral valves at the exits of the atria, which occurs when the ventricles begin contracting to pump blood out of the heart. The second sound is a higher-pitched “dupp” caused by closure of the pulmonary and aortic valves at the exits of the ventricles when the ventricles finish contracting.

Abnormal heart sounds may be a sign of various disorders.

For example, highpitched sounds or “clicks” are due to the abrupt halting of valve opening, which can occur in people with certain heart valve defects.

Heart murmurs are abnormal sounds caused by turbulent blood flow.

These may be due to heart valve defects or congenital heart disease.... heart sounds

Heart-valve Surgery

An operation to correct a heart valve defect or to remove a diseased or damaged valve. A heart valve may have to be repaired, widened, or replaced because it is either incompetent (leaky) or stenotic (narrowed). Widening of a valve may involve valvotomy or valvuloplasty. A damaged valve can be replaced by a mechanical one (fashioned from metal and plastic), a valve constructed from human tissue, a pig valve, or a valve taken from a human donor after death. A heart–lung machine is used during replacement.After heart-valve surgery, symptoms such as breathlessness may take weeks to improve and require medication to be continued. Some people need longterm treatment with anticoagulant drugs to prevent the formation of blood clots around the new valve.... heart-valve surgery

Hereditary Spherocytosis

See spherocytosis, hereditary.... hereditary spherocytosis

Hypothermia, Surgical

The deliberate reduction of body temperature to prolong the period for which the vital organs can safely be deprived of their normal blood supply during open heart surgery.

Cold reduces the rate of metabolism in tissues and thus increases their tolerance to lack of oxygen.

Cooling may be achieved by continuously instilling cold saline at about 4°C into the open chest cavity.... hypothermia, surgical

Henoch–schönlein Purpura

Inflammation of small blood vessels, causing leakage of blood into the skin, joints, kidneys, and intestine. The disease is most common in young children, and may occur after an infection such as a sore throat. The condition may also be due to an abnormal allergic reaction.

The main symptom is a raised purplish rash on the buttocks and backs of the limbs. The joints are swollen and often painful, and colicky abdominal pain may occur. In some cases, there is intestinal bleeding, leading to blood in the faeces. The kidneys may become inflamed, resulting in blood and protein in the urine.

The only treatment usually required is bed rest and analgesic drugs. Complications may arise if kidney inflammation persists. In severe cases, corticosteroid drugs may be given.... henoch–schönlein purpura

Hypoplastic Left-heart Syndrome

A very serious form of congenital heart disease (see heart disease, congenital). The baby is born with a poorly formed left ventricle, often associated with other heart defects. The aorta is malformed and blood can reach it only via a duct (the ductus arteriosus) that links the aorta to the pulmonary artery.

At birth, the baby may seem healthy. However, within a day or 2 the ductus arteriosus naturally closes off and the baby collapses, becoming pale and breathless. In most cases, hypoplastic left-heart syndrome cannot be treated surgically, and most affected babies die within a week. A few infants have been treated with heart transplants.... hypoplastic left-heart syndrome

Insect Stings

Reactions produced by the sting of insects such as bees and wasps.

Venom injected by the insect contains inflammatory substances that cause local pain, redness, and swelling for about 48 hours. Any sting in the mouth or throat is dangerous because the swelling may obstruct breathing. About 1 person in 200 is allergic to insect venom, and a severe allergic reaction can occur, leading to anaphylactic shock. A procedure known as hyposensitization is sometimes recommended for such people.

If the symptoms of anaphylactic shock develop, it is essential to seek emergency medical treatment. Any person who is known to be hypersensitive to bee or wasp venom should obtain and carry an emergency kit for the self-injection of adrenaline (epinephrine).... insect stings

In Situ

A Latin term meaning “in place”. The phrase “carcinoma in situ” is used to describe tissue (particularly of the skin or cervix) that is cancerous only in its surface cells.... in situ

Isotope Scanning

See radionuclide scanning.... isotope scanning

Jellyfish Stings

Stings from jellyfish, which belong to a group of marine animals called coelenterates or cnidarians.

Stinging capsules discharge when jellyfish tentacles are touched.

Usually, the sting causes only a mildly painful or itchy rash, but some jellyfish and Portuguese men-of-war (other members of the same group) can cause a severe sting.

Rarely, venom may cause vomiting, sweating, breathing difficulties, and collapse.

Dangerous species live mainly in tropical waters.

Antivenoms may be available.... jellyfish stings

Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca

Persistent dryness of the cornea and conjunctiva caused by deficiency in tear production. The condition is associated with autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren’s syndrome, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Prolonged dryness may lead to blurred vision, itching, grittiness, and, in severe cases, the formation of a corneal ulcer. The most effective treatment is frequent use of artificial tears (see tears, artificial).... keratoconjunctivitis sicca

Laurence–biedl–moon Syndrome

A rare inherited disorder characterized by increasing obesity, retinitis pigmentosa that may lead to blindness, learning difficulties, polydactyly, and hypogonadism.

(See also genetic disorders.)... laurence–biedl–moon syndrome

Leg, Shortening Of

Shortening of the leg is usually caused by faulty healing of a fractured femur (thigh-bone) or tibia (shin).

Other causes are an abnormality present from birth, surgery on the leg, or muscle weakness associated with poliomyelitis or another neurological disorder.... leg, shortening of

Lichen Sclerosus Et Atrophicus

A chronic skin condition of the anogenital area. The skin is scarred and white, and the anatomy of areas such as the vaginal opening or the foreskin may become distorted. Treatment is with potent topical steroid drugs.... lichen sclerosus et atrophicus

Lichen Simplex

Patches of thickened, itchy, sometimes discoloured skin, due to repeated scratching. Typical sites are the neck, wrist, elbow area, and ankles. Lichen simplex is most common in women and is often stress-related. Treatment is with oral antihistamine drugs and creams containing corticosteroid drugs, and may also involve addressing any underlying stress or anxiety.... lichen simplex

Lipectomy, Suction

A type of body contour surgery in which excess fat is sucked out through a small skin incision.... lipectomy, suction

Lumbosacral Spasm

Excessive tightening of the muscles that surround and support the lower region of the spine, causing back pain. Treatment of lumbosacral spasm may include analgesic drugs and muscle-relaxant drugs.... lumbosacral spasm

Mallory–weiss Syndrome

A tear at the lower end of the oesophagus, causing vomiting of blood. The syndrome is commonly caused by retching and vomiting after drinking excessive amounts of alcohol. Less often, violent coughing, a severe asthma attack, or epileptic convulsions may be the cause.

An endoscope is passed down the oesophagus to confirm the diagnosis. The tear generally heals within 10 days and no special treatment is usually required. However, a blood transfusion may sometimes be necessary.... mallory–weiss syndrome

Meig’s Syndrome

A rare condition in which a tumour of an ovary is accompanied by ascites and a pleural effusion. The fluid usually disappears when the tumour is removed.... meig’s syndrome

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus

See MRSA.... methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus

Milk–alkali Syndrome

A rare type of hypercalcaemia accompanied by alkalosis and kidney failure. The syndrome is due to excessive, long-term intake of calciumcontaining antacid drugs and milk. It is most common in people with a peptic ulcer and associated kidney disorders. Symptoms include weakness, muscle pains, irritability, and apathy. Treatment is to reduce milk and antacid intake.... milk–alkali syndrome

Mineral Supplements

Dietary supplements containing one or more minerals in tablet or liquid form.Some mineral supplements may be harmful in excess. Iron is the most commonly taken mineral supplement and is used to treat irondeficiency anaemia. It may also be given to pregnant or breast-feeding women.

(See also individual mineral entries.)... mineral supplements

Minimal Access Surgery

See minimally invasive surgery.... minimal access surgery

Mongolian Blue Spot

A blue-black pigmented spot found on the lower back and buttocks at birth. The spots are a type of naevus and are caused by a concentration of melanocytes (pigmentproducing cells). Mongolian blue spots are commonly found in black or Asian children, and they usually disappear by the age of 3–4 years.... mongolian blue spot

Muscle Spasm

Sudden and involuntary contraction of a muscle. Muscle spasm is a normal reaction to pain and inflammation around a joint. Common causes are muscle strain, disc prolapse, and stress. Usually, the cause of the spasm is treated. Muscle-relaxant drugs may also be needed. (See also spasticity.)... muscle spasm

Myofascial Pain Syndrome

See temporomandibular joint syndrome.... myofascial pain syndrome

Nuchal Thickness Scan

Ultrasound scanning performed in early pregnancy in order to identify fetuses at high risk of chromosomal abnormalities such as Down’s syndrome. The scan investigates the nuchal fold, an area of skin at the back of the neck. Excessive thickness of the skin is an indicator of possible chromosomal abnormalities.... nuchal thickness scan

Oesophageal Speech

A technique for producing speech after surgical removal of the larynx (see laryngectomy).

Air is trapped in the oesophagus and is gradually expelled while the tongue, palate, and lips form distinguishable sounds.... oesophageal speech

Open Heart Surgery

Any operation on the heart in which it is stopped temporarily and its function taken over by a mechanical pump. The main forms of open heart surgery are correction of congenital heart defects (see heart disease, congenital), surgery for narrowed or leaky heart valves (see heart-valve surgery), and coronary artery bypass surgery. Once the pump is connected, the heart is opened, and the defects repaired. Surgical hypothermia is used to keep the heart cool and help prevent damage to the heart muscle from lack of oxygen (see hypothermia, surgical).... open heart surgery

Muscular System

The muscles of the body that are attached to the skeleton. These muscles are responsible for voluntary movement, and also support and stabilize the skeleton. In most cases, a muscle attaches to a bone (usually by means of a tendon) and crosses over a joint to attach to another bone. Muscles can produce movement by contracting and shortening to pull on the bone to which they are attached. They can only pull, not push, and are therefore arranged so that the pull of one muscle or group of muscles is opposed to another, enabling a movement to be reversed. Although most actions of the skeletal muscles are under conscious control, reflex movements of certain muscles occur in response to stimuli.

There are more than 600 muscles in the body, classified according to the type of movement they produce.

An extensor opens out a joint, a flexor closes it; an adductor draws a part of the body inwards, an abductor moves it outwards; a levator raises it, a depressor lowers it; and constrictor or sphincter muscles surround and close orifices.... muscular system

Nasal Septum

The dividing partition inside the nose. The nasal septum consists of cartilage at the front and bone at the rear, both of which are covered by mucous membrane.

Disorders include a deviated septum (twisting of the septum to one side), which may be present from birth or caused by injury. Surgery may be needed if breathing is obstructed.

Injury may also cause a haematoma (a collection of clotted blood) to form between the cartilage of the septum and the wall of one nasal cavity. A haematoma may obstruct breathing and may become infected, causing an abscess that could require surgical drainage.

Rarely, a hole may be eroded in the nasal septum by tuberculosis, syphilis, Wegener’s granulomatosis, or as a result of sniffing cocaine.... nasal septum

Nerve Conduction Studies

Tests carried out to assess the extent of nerve damage caused by disorders of the peripheral nervous system (see neuropathy). In the test, an electrical stimulus is applied to a nerve, and the speed at which the nerve responds to the stimulus and transmits a signal is recorded.

nerve injury Damage or severance of conducting fibres within a nerve as a result of trauma, causing loss of skin sensation and muscle power. (See neuropathy for nerve damage from cause.

other than injury.)

If a peripheral nerve (a nerve outside the brain or spinal cord) is only partially severed, the cut fibres may be able to regenerate. Provided the severed ends are still aligned, new fibres can grow across the cut to rejoin the connection, restoring function. If a nerve is totally severed, the individual fibres cannot regenerate successfully and there is no recovery of function. Nerve tracts within the brain and spinal cord are structurally different from the peripheral nerves, and severed fibres in these tracts do not regenerate. For example, vision cannot be restored if the optic nerves are cut.Microsurgery can sometimes be used to stitch a severed peripheral nerve into place, but recovery is rarely complete.... nerve conduction studies

Organic Brain Syndrome

See brain syndrome, organic.... organic brain syndrome

Osgood–schlatter Disease

Painful enlargement and tenderness of the tibial tuberosity (the bony prominence of the tibia), which occurs most commonly in boys aged between 10 and 14. It results from excessive, repetitive pulling of the quadriceps muscle, due to repeated exercise. The disorder often clears up without treatment; severe pain may require physiotherapy or immobilization of the knee in a plaster cast.... osgood–schlatter disease

Painful Arc Syndrome

A condition in which pain occurs when the arm is raised between 45 and 160 degrees from the side. The usual cause is an inflamed

tendon or bursa around the shoulder joint being squeezed between the scapula and humerus.

Treatment includes physiotherapy and injection of corticosteroid drugs.... painful arc syndrome

Pap Smear

See cervical smear test.... pap smear

Passive Smoking

Involuntary inhalation of tobacco smoke by people who do not smoke. Passive smoking has been shown to increase the risks of chest and ear infections in children and of tobaccoinduced cancers in adults.... passive smoking

Peutz–jeghers Syndrome

A very rare, inherited condition in which polyps occur in the gastrointestinal tract and small, flat, brown spots appear on the lips and in the mouth. Occasionally the polyps bleed, or cause abdominal pain or intussusception. Tests include barium X-ray examination and endoscopy. Bleeding polyps may be removed.... peutz–jeghers syndrome

Pickwickian Syndrome

An unusual disorder characterized by extreme obesity, shallow breathing, and sleep apnoea.

The cause is unclear.

Symptoms usually improve with weight loss.... pickwickian syndrome

Plummer–vinson Syndrome

Difficulty in swallowing due to webs of tissue forming across the upper oesophagus. The syndrome often occurs with severe iron-deficiency anaemia and affects middle-aged women.... plummer–vinson syndrome

Postmyocardial Infarction Syndrome

Another name for Dressler’s syndrome.... postmyocardial infarction syndrome

Protein Synthesis

The formation of protein molecules through the joining of amino acids.... protein synthesis

Radioisotope Scanning

See radionuclide scanning.... radioisotope scanning

Radionuclide Scanning

A diagnostic technique based on detection of radiation emitted by radioactive substances introduced into the body. Substances are taken up to different degrees by different tissues, allowing specific organs to be studied. For example, iodine is taken up mainly by the thyroid gland, so by “tagging” a sample of iodine with a radioactive marker (radionuclide), the uptake of iodine can be monitored to investigate the functioning of the gland. A radionuclide is swallowed or injected into the blood and accumulates in the target organ. It emits radiation in the form of gamma radiation, which is detected by a gamma camera to produce an image. Cross-sectional images (“slices”) can be obtained using a computer-controlled gamma camera that rotates around the patient. This specialized form of radionuclide scanning is known as (single photon emission computed tomography). Moving mation on blood flow, the movement of the heart walls, the flow of urine through the kidneys, and bile flow through the liver.

Radionuclide scanning is a safe procedure, requiring only minute doses of radiation that are excreted within hours. The radionuclides carry virtually no risk of toxicity or hypersensitivity.... radionuclide scanning

Reconstructive Surgery

See arterial reconstructive surgery; plastic surgery.... reconstructive surgery

Reproduction, Sexual

The process of producing offspring by the fusion of 2 cells from different individuals; this is achieved in humans by the fusion of 1 sperm and 1 ovum. This fusion (fertilization) is achieved by sexual intercourse or artificial insemination.... reproduction, sexual

Reproductive System, Female

The female organs involved in ovulation, sexual intercourse, nourishing a fertilized ovum until it has developed into a full-grown fetus, and childbirth. With the exception of the vulva, which protects the opening of the vagina, these organs lie within the pelvic cavity.

Ova (eggs) are released at monthly intervals from the 2 ovaries, which also secrete oestrogen hormone; and progesterone hormones that control the reproductive cycle. The ova travel through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. Fertilization takes place if a sperm released into the vagina during sexual intercourse travels through the cervix and uterus to penetrate an ovum while it is in the fallopian tube.... reproductive system, female

Rheumatoid Spondylitis

See ankylosing spondylitis.... rheumatoid spondylitis

Sadomasochism

The tendency or practice of deriving sexual pleasure by inflicting pain (see sadism) and receiving abuse (see masochism); one trait usually predominates. The term also describes a relationship in which one partner is very dominant and one is submissive.... sadomasochism

Reproductive System, Male

The male organs involved in the production of sperm and in sexual intercourse. Sperm and male sex hormones (androgen hormones) are produced in the testes, which are suspended in the scrotum. From each testis, sperm pass into an epididymis, where they mature and are stored. Shortly before ejaculation, sperm are propelled into a duct called the vas deferens, which carries the sperm to the seminal vesicles behind the bladder. These 2 sacs produce seminal fluid, which is added to the sperm to produce semen.

Semen travels along 2 ducts to the urethra.

The ducts pass through the prostate gland, which produces secretions that are added to the semen.

At orgasm, semen is ejaculated from the urethra through the erect penis, which is placed in the woman’s vagina during sexual intercourse.... reproductive system, male

Sads

The abbreviation for seasonal affective disorder syndrome.... sads

Safer Sex

Preventive measures to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections; for example, maintaining a monogamous sexual relationship and using a condom.... safer sex

Salicylate Drugs

A group of drugs, such as aspirin and benorilate, with antiinflammatory, fever-reducing, and mild analgesic action.

Overdose causes hyperventilation, tinnitus, sweating, abnormal bleeding, biochemical disturbances, and, in severe cases, convulsions and coma.... salicylate drugs

Salivation, Excessive

The production of too much saliva. Excess salivation sometimes occurs during pregnancy. Other causes include mouth problems such as irritation of the mouth lining, gingivitis, or mouth ulcers; digestive tract disorders such as peptic ulcers and oesophagitis; and nervous system disorders such as Parkinson’s disease. In some cases, it may be reduced by anticholinergic drugs.... salivation, excessive

Salve

A healing, soothing ointment.... salve

Sandfly Bites

Bites of small, long-legged sandflies, found in many warm climates, which can transmit disease to humans.

In tropical and subtropical areas they transmit leishmaniasis.

In parts of Asia and the Mediterranean, they transmit sandfly fever, an influenza-like illness.

In the western Andes, they transmit bartonellosis, different forms of which cause either joint pain and fever, or a rash.... sandfly bites

Saturated Fats

See fats and oils; nutrition.... saturated fats

Scaling, Dental

Removal of dental calculi (see calcuus, dental) from the teeth to prevent or treat periodontal disease.... scaling, dental

Scaphoid

One of the wrist bones. It is the outermost bone on the thumb side of the hand, in the row of wrist bones nearest the elbow.

A fracture of the scaphoid is a common wrist injury usually caused by a fall on an outstretched hand.

A characteristic symptom is tenderness in the space between the tendons at the base of the thumb on the back of the hand.

Treatment is by immobilizing the wrist in a cast.... scaphoid

Schistosome

A type of fluke.

Three types of schistosome are parasites of humans, causing different forms of schistosomiasis.... schistosome

Schizoid Personality Disorder

Inability to relate socially to other people. People with this trait, which is apparent from childhood, are often described as “loners” and have few, if any, friends. They are eccentric, seem to lack concern for others, and are apparently detached from normal day-to-day activities.... schizoid personality disorder

Scintigraphy

An alternative name for radionuclide scanning.... scintigraphy

Sclerosing Cholangitis

A rare condition in which many of the bile ducts are narrowed, causing progressive liver damage for which the only treatment may be a liver transplant. (See also cholangitis.)... sclerosing cholangitis

Scorpion Stings

Injection of venom by a scorpion into a victim using a sting in its tail.

Many species are not dangerous, but some in North Africa, southern , South America, the Caribbean, and India are highly venomous.

Some stings may cause only mild pain and tingling; but in more venomous species severe pain, restlessness, sweating, diarrhoea, and vomiting can occur.

Stings are rarely fatal in adults but require prompt attention.

If pain is the only symptom, analgesics and a cold compress may be enough.

In severe cases, antivenom may be needed.... scorpion stings

Scuba-diving Medicine

A medical speciality concerned with the physiological hazards of diving with self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.

Most hazards stem from the pressure increase with depth.

Conditions treated include burst lung and decompression sickness.... scuba-diving medicine

Sealants, Dental

Plastic coatings that are applied to the chewing surfaces of the back teeth to help prevent decay.... sealants, dental

Seborrhoeic Dermatitis

See dermatitis.... seborrhoeic dermatitis

Secondary

A term applied to a disease or disorder that results from or follows another disease (the primary disease). It also refers to a malignant tumour that has spread from a primary cancer elsewhere in the body (see metastasis).... secondary

Secretory Otitis Media

An alternative name for glue ear.... secretory otitis media

Sectioning

A commonly used term to describe the implementation of a section of the Mental Health Act.... sectioning

Security Object

A significant item, such as a favourite soft toy, that provides comfort and reassurance to a young child.

Attachment to such an item is normal and usually diminishes by age 7 or 8.... security object

Sedative Drugs

A group of drugs used to produce sedation. Sedative drugs include sleeping drugs, antianxiety drugs, antipsychotic drugs, and some antidepressant drugs. A sedative drug is often included in a premedication.... sedative drugs

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

(SSRIs) A relatively new class of drugs that are used to treat depression.

They work by blocking the reabsorption of the neurotransmitter serotonin following its release in the brain.

The increased serotonin levels that result are associated with improved mood.

Common drugs in this group include fluoxetine and sertraline.

SSRIs are usually taken orally once a day; it may take 1–3 weeks for any noticeable improvement in symptoms.

SSRIs usually produce fewer side effects than other types of antidepressant drug.

However, they may cause diarrhoea, nausea, restlessness, and anxiety.... selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Semen, Blood In The

A usually harmless condition in which a small amount of blood is present in the semen.

Occasionally, there is an underlying cause (such as an infection or, very rarely, cancer) that requires treatment.

Blood in the semen may also occur after a prostate biopsy.... semen, blood in the

Semicircular Canal

A structure in the inner ear that plays a role in balance. There are 3 semicircular canals in each ear, at right angles to each other, and connected via a chamber called the vestibule. The fluid-filled canals contain small hairs that detect movement and acceleration, and transmit information to the brain via the vestibular nerve.... semicircular canal

Seminal Fluid Analysis

Analysis of sperm concentration, shape, and motility (ability to move).

It is used to investigate male infertility and is also done some weeks after vasectomy to ensure that the semen no longer contains sperm.... seminal fluid analysis

Senile Purpura

A skin condition in which areas of the skin develop a purplish or reddish-brown appearance due to bleeding of small blood vessels underneath.

Senile purpura is a disease of middle to old age and is more common in women.... senile purpura

Sensate-focus Technique

A method taught to couples who are experiencing sexual difficulties caused by psychological rather than physiological factors. The aim of the technique is to make both partners more aware of pleasurable bodily sensations, and to reduce anxiety about performance. It is particularly effective in treating loss of sexual desire (see sexual desire, inhibited), or inability to achieve orgasm (see orgasm, lack of), and in helping men to overcome impotence or premature ejaculation (see ejaculation, disorders of).... sensate-focus technique

Sensation, Abnormal

Dulled, unpleasant, or otherwise altered sensations in the absence of an obvious stimulus.

Numbness and pins-and-needles are common abnormal sensations. The special senses can be impaired by damage to the relevant sensory apparatus (see vision, disorders of; smell; deafness; tinnitus). Other causes of abnormal sensation include peripheral nerve damage caused by diabetes mellitus, herpes zoster infection, or pressure from a tumour, and disruption of nerve pathways in the brain or spinal cord due to spinal injury, head injury, stroke, and multiple sclerosis.

Pressure on or damage to nerves can sometimes be relieved by surgery or by treatments for the cause.

In other cases, distressing abnormal sensation can be relieved only by cutting the relevant nerve fibres or by giving injections to block the transmission of signals.... sensation, abnormal

Senses

See sensation.... senses

Sensorineural Deafness

Deafness due to problems with the inner ear, nerves, or the brain’s auditory area.... sensorineural deafness

Serotonin Agonists

A group of drugs, also known as 5HT1 agonists, used to treat acute attacks of migraine.

They work on the same receptors in the brain as 5 hydroxytryptamine (5HT), a neurotransmitter and vasodilator.

Common serotonin agonists include naratriptan and sumatriptan.

These drugs can cause chest pain, particularly in people with heart disease.

They should be used with caution in those at increased risk of coronary artery disease.

Other side effects include flushing, tingling, and nausea.... serotonin agonists

Serotonin Antagonists

A group of drugs used to treat the nausea and vomiting caused by radiotherapy and anticancer drugs. They are also used to control nausea and vomiting following surgery. Common serotonin antagonists include granisetron and ondansetron.... serotonin antagonists

Sexual Characteristics, Secondary

Physical features appearing at puberty that indicate the onset of adult reproductive life.

In girls, breast enlargement is the first sign.

Shortly afterwards, pubic and underarm hair appears, and body fat increases around the hips, stomach, and thighs to produce the female body shape.

In boys, the first sign is enlargement of the testes, followed by thinning of the scrotal skin and enlargement of the penis.

Pubic, facial, axillary, and other body hair appears, the voice deepens, and muscle bulk and bone size increase.... sexual characteristics, secondary

Sexual Desire, Inhibited

Lack of sexual desire or of the ability to become physically aroused during sexual activity.... sexual desire, inhibited

Sexual Intercourse

A term sometimes used to describe a variety of sexual activities, but which specifically refers to the insertion of the penis into the vagina.... sexual intercourse

Sexuality

A term describing the capacity for sexual feelings and behaviour, or an individual’s sexual orientation or preference. Heterosexuality is sexuality directed towards the anatomically opposite sex; homosexuality is attraction to the same sex; and bisexuality is attraction to both sexes. (See also gender identity.)... sexuality

Sexually Transmitted Infections

(STIs) Infections transmitted primarily, but not exclusively, by sexual intercourse. Common STIs include chlamydial infections, genital herpes, pubic lice, genital warts, trichomoniasis, syphilis, gonorrhoea, and HIV infection. Antibiotics can be used to treat most bacterial STIs. Confidential tracing and treatment of an affected person’s partners is an essential part of the management of STIs (see contact tracing).

Practising safer sex can help prevent STIs.... sexually transmitted infections

Sexual Problems

Any difficulty associated with sexual performance or behaviour. Sexual problems are often psychological in origin (see psychosexual dysfunction). Sex therapy may help such problems. Some sexual problems are due to physical disease, such as a disorder affecting blood flow or a hormonal dysfunction. A disorder of the genitals may result in pain during intercourse (see intercourse, painful). Such problems are addressed by treating the cause, where possible.... sexual problems

Shellfish Poisoning

See food poisoning.... shellfish poisoning

Shell Shock

See post-traumatic stress disorder.... shell shock

Shivering

Involuntary trembling of the entire body that is caused by rapid contraction and relaxation of muscles. Shivering is the body’s normal automatic response to cold; contraction of muscles generates heat. Shivering also occurs in fever.... shivering

Shock, Electric

The sensation caused by an electric current passing through the body, and its effects.

A current of sufficient size and duration can cause loss of consciousness, cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, burns, and tissue damage.

(See also electrical injury.)... shock, electric

Shortsightedness

See myopia.... shortsightedness

Short Sight, Operations For

See LASIK; photorefractive keratectomy; keratotomy, radial.... short sight, operations for

Shoulderblade

The common name for the scapula.... shoulderblade

Shoulder, Dislocation Of

Displacement of the head of the humerus out of the shoulder joint. The main symptom is pain in the shoulder and upper arm, made worse by movement. A forward dislocation often produces obvious deformity; a backward dislocation usually does not.

Diagnosis is by X-rays. The head of the humerus is repositioned in the joint socket. The shoulder is then immobilized in a sling for about 3 weeks.

Complications of shoulder dislocation include damage to nerves, causing temporary weakness and numbness in the shoulder; damage to an artery in the upper arm, causing pain and discoloration of the arm and hand; and damage to muscles that support the shoulder.... shoulder, dislocation of

Shoulder–hand Syndrome

Pain and stiffness affecting one shoulder and the hand on the same side; the hand may also become hot, sweaty, and swollen. Arm muscles may waste through lack of use (see Sudeck’s atrophy). The cause of shoulder–hand syndrome is unknown, but it may occur as a complication of myocardial infarction, stroke, herpes zoster, or shoulder injury. Recovery usually occurs in about 2 years. This period may be shortened by physiotherapy and corticosteroid drugs. In rare cases, a cervical sympathectomy is performed.... shoulder–hand syndrome

Shy–drager Syndrome

A rare degenerative disorder of unknown cause that progressively damages the autonomic nervous system. It begins gradually at age 60–70 and is more common in men. Symptoms include dizziness and fainting due to postural hypotension, urinary incontinence, impotence, reduced ability to sweat, and parkinsonism. The condition eventually leads to disability, and sometimes premature death. There is no cure or means of slowing degeneration, but many symptoms are relieved by drugs.... shy–drager syndrome

Sibling Rivalry

A term that describes the intense competition that sometimes occurs between siblings.... sibling rivalry

Sibutramine

A centrally acting appetite suppressant drug used to treat obesity in people who have not responded to other methods of weight loss, such as dieting.

Common side effects include constipation, dry mouth, and hypertension.

People taking this drug should have regular follow-ups and have their blood pressure and pulse monitored.... sibutramine

Sick Building Syndrome

A collection of symptoms reported by some workers in office buildings.

Symptoms include loss of energy, headaches, and dry, itching eyes, nose, and throat.

The cause is unknown, but various factors are involved, including air conditioning, passive smoking, lack of natural ventilation and light, and psychological factors.... sick building syndrome

Sick Sinus Syndrome

Abnormal function of the heart’s sinoatrial node that leads to episodes of bradycardia (slow heart-rate), alternating bradycardia and tachycardia (fast heart-rate), or very short episodes of cardiac arrest.

The cause is usually coronary artery disease, but may be a cardiomyopathy.

Symptoms may include lightheadedness, fainting, and palpitations.

The diagnosis is confirmed by a 24-hour ECG recording.

Treatment is usually by antiarrhythmic drugs and the fitting of an artificial pacemaker.... sick sinus syndrome

Sight, Partial

Loss of vision short of total blindness. Partial sight may involve loss of visual acuity and/or visual field.... sight, partial

Sickle Cell Anaemia

An inherited blood disease in which the red blood cells contain haemoglobin S, an abnormal type of haemoglobin. This crystallizes in the capillaries, making red cells sickle-shaped and fragile, and leading to haemolytic anaemia. The abnormal cells are unable to pass easily through tiny blood vessels. The blood supply to organs is blocked intermittently, causing sickle cell crises. The disease affects mainly black people.Symptoms usually appear after age 6 months, often beginning with painful swelling of the hands and feet. Chronic haemolytic anaemia causes fatigue, headaches, shortness of breath on exertion, pallor, and jaundice. Sickle cell crises start suddenly; they are sometimes brought on by an infection, cold weather, or dehydration, but may also occur for no apparent reason. The sufferer may experience pains (especially in the bones), blood in the urine (from kidney damage) or damage to the lungs or intestines. If the brain is affected, seizures, a stroke, or unconsciousness may result.

In some affected children, the spleen enlarges and traps red cells at a particularly high rate, causing a life-threatening form of anaemia. After adolescence, the spleen usually stops functioning, increasing the risk of infection in those affected.

Diagnosis is made from examination of a blood smear and electrophoresis.

Supportive treatment may include folic acid supplements, and penicillin and immunization to protect against infection.

Life-threatening crises are treated with intravenous infusions of fluids, antibiotics, oxygen therapy, and analgesic drugs.

If the crisis still does not respond, an exchange blood transfusion may be performed.

This may be done regularly for people who suffer frequent severe crises.... sickle cell anaemia

Silicone

A long-chain, carbon-containing compound of silicon and oxygen. Synthetic silicones are sometimes used as implants in cosmetic surgery.... silicone

Silver Sulfadiazine

An antibacterial drug applied as a cream to prevent infection after skin grafts or in burns, legulcers, and pressure sores. Side effects may include permanent grey skin discoloration, rashes, or itching.... silver sulfadiazine

Singer’s Nodes

Small, greyish-white nodules that develop on the vocal cords as the result of constant voice strain.

In acute cases, treatment consists of resting the voice.

In chronic cases, surgical removal of the nodes may be necessary.... singer’s nodes

Sinus Bradycardia

A slow, but regular heart-rate (less than 60 beats per minute) caused by reduced electrical activity in the sinoatrial node. Sinus bradycardia is normal in athletes, but in others it may be caused by hypothyroidism, a myocardial infarction, or by drugs such as beta-blockers or digoxin.... sinus bradycardia

Sinus, Facial

Any of the air-filled cavities in the bones surrounding the nose. These include 2 frontal sinuses in the

lower forehead; 2 ethmoidal sinuses between the eyes; 2 maxillary sinuses in the cheekbones; and the sphenoidal sinuses in the skull behind the nose. Mucus drains from each sinus along a channel that opens into the nose. Infection of a sinus causes sinusitis.... sinus, facial

Situs Inversus

An unusual condition in which the internal organs are situated in the mirror image of their normal positions. No treatment is needed provided all the organs are functioning normally.... situs inversus

Skin Allergy

Irritation of the skin following contact with a specific substance that provokes an inappropriate or exaggerated reaction from the immune system. There are 2 main types of allergic skin reaction. In contact allergic dermatitis, red, itchy patches develop a few hours to 2 days after contact with the allergen. In contact urticaria, red, raised areas appear a few minutes after skin contact. In some cases, skin tests are needed, to identify the allergen, for contact with it to be minimized. (See also atopic eczema.)... skin allergy

Skin Biopsy

Removal of a portion of skin for laboratory analysis in order to diagnose a skin disorder.... skin biopsy

Skin Cancer

A malignant tumour in the skin. Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma are common forms related to long-term exposure to sunlight. Bowen’s disease, a rare disorder that can become cancerous, may also be related to sun exposure. Less common types include Paget’s disease of the nipple and mycosis fungoides. Kaposi’s sarcoma is a type usually found in people with AIDS. Most skin cancers can be cured if treated early.... skin cancer

Skin, Disorders Of The

The skin is vulnerable to various disorders, including birthmarks and other naevi; infections that may be viral (such as cold sores and warts), bacterial (for example, cellulitis), or fungal (such as tinea, which causes athlete’s foot); rashes due to vitamin deficiency or the side effects of drugs; and tumours, both noncancerous and cancerous.

Acne is common in adolescents and is partly related to the action of androgen hormones.

Inflammation of the skin occurs in dermatitis, eczema, and skin allergy.

The skin is also vulnerable to injuries such as burns, cuts, and bites (see bites, animal; insect bites).... skin, disorders of the

Skin Flap

A surgical technique in which a section of skin and underlying tissue, sometimes including muscle, is moved to cover an area from which skin and tissue have been lost or damaged by injury, disease, or surgery.

Unlike a skin graft, a skin flap retains its blood supply, either by remaining attached to the donor site or through reattachment to blood vessels at the recipient site by microsurgery, so skin flaps adhere well even where there is extensive loss of deep tissue.... skin flap

Skin Patch

See transdermal patch.... skin patch

Skin Peeling, Chemical

A cosmetic operation in which the outer layers of the skin are peeled away by the application of a caustic paste in order to remove freckles, acne scars, delicate wrinkles, or other skin blemishes.... skin peeling, chemical

Skin Tag

A harmless, small, brown or flesh-coloured flap of skin that may appear spontaneously or as a result of poor healing of a wound.... skin tag

Skin Tests

Procedures for determining the body’s reaction to various substances by injecting a small quantity of the substance under the skin or by applying it to the skin (usually on patches).

Patch tests are used in the diagnosis of contact allergic dermatitis.

They can also be used to test immunity to certain infectious diseases (such as in the tuberculin test).... skin tests

Skin Tumours

A growth on or in the skin that may be cancerous (see skin cancer) or noncancerous.

Keratoses and squamous papillomas are common types of noncancerous tumour; other types include sebaceous cysts, cutaneous horns, keratoacanthomas, and haemangiomas.... skin tumours

Skull, Fracture Of

A break in 1 or more of the skull bones caused by a head injury. In most skull fractures, the broken bones are not displaced and there are no complications. Severe injury may result in bone fragments rupturing blood vessels in the meninges, or, more rarely, tearing the meninges, leading to brain damage.

A fracture without complications usually heals by itself; damage to brain structures often requires neurosurgery.... skull, fracture of

Skull X-ray

A technique for providing images of the skull.

X-rays of the skull are usually taken after a head injury to look for a fracture or foreign body, or to evaluate disorders that affect the skull.... skull x-ray

Sleep Deprivation

Insufficient sleep.

Irritability and a shortened attention span may occur after a short night’s sleep.

Longer periods without sleep leave a person increasingly unable to concentrate or perform normal tasks.

Three or more sleepless nights may lead to hallucinations and, in some cases, to paranoia.... sleep deprivation

Sleeping Drugs

A group of drugs used to treat insomnia.

They include benzodiazepines, antihistamines, antidepressants, and chloral hydrate.

Sleeping drugs may cause drowsiness and impaired concentration on waking.

Long-term use may induce tolerance and dependence.... sleeping drugs

Sleep Terror

See night terror.... sleep terror

Sleepwalking

Walking while asleep.

Sleepwalking is usually calm and aimless, although it is sometimes more frantic when it occurs with night terror.

Some people regularly sleepwalk.

Sleepwalking in children is not normally a cause for concern and tends to disappear with age.

In adults, it may be related to anxiety or the use of sleeping drugs.... sleepwalking

Slimming

See weight reduction.... slimming

Slipped Femoral Epiphysis

See femoral epiphysis, slipped.... slipped femoral epiphysis

Slow Virus Diseases

A group of diseases of the central nervous system that occur many months or even years after infection with a virus. They cause gradual widespread destruction of nerve tissue, with progressive loss of brain function and a fatal outcome. Examples include Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and kuru.... slow virus diseases

Snails And Disease

Snails act as host to various types of fluke that infest humans, such as liver flukes.... snails and disease

Snake Bites

Most snake bites are by nonvenomous species. Venomous snakes are found mainly in the tropics; the only species native to the is the adder.

The effects of a venomous bite depend on the species and size of the snake, the amount of venom injected, and the age and health of the victim. A bite from an adder or other viper typically causes immediate pain and swelling at the site, followed by dizziness and nausea, a drop in blood pressure, an increase in heart-rate, and internal bleeding.

Antibiotic drugs and tetanus antitoxin injections are given for all bites to prevent infection and tetanus.

An injection of antivenom is also given for a venomous bite.

With prompt treatment, most victims recover completely.... snake bites

Snuff

A preparation of powdered tobacco (often with other substances) for inhalation. Snuff is addictive because it contains nicotine; it also irritates the nasal lining and increases the risk of cancer of the nose and throat.... snuff

Social And Communication Disorders

A collective term for disorders such as Asperger’s syndrome and autism, which begin in childhood. Problems tend to persist throughout life.... social and communication disorders

Social Skills Training

A form of behaviour modification in which individuals are encouraged to improve their ability to communicate.

This is an important part of rehabilitation for people with mental handicap or those with chronic psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia.

Role-playing is a commonly used technique in which various social situations are simulated in order to improve the individual’s confidence and performance.... social skills training

Sociopathy

An outdated term for antisocial personality disorder.... sociopathy

Sodium Picosulfate

A stimulant laxative drug used to treat constipation and to empty the bowel prior to procedures such as X-ray, endoscopy, and surgery on the intestines. Side effects may include abdominal cramps and diarrhoea. The drug should be avoided in cases of intestinal obstruction.... sodium picosulfate

Soft-tissue Injury

Damage to the tissues (see ligament; tendon; muscle) that surround bones and joints.... soft-tissue injury

Soiling

Inappropriate passage of faeces after the age at which bowel control is achieved (usually at about 3 or 4 years). Causes include slowness in developing bowel control, longstanding constipation, poor toilet-training, and emotional stress. Soiling due to constipation is usually resolved with treatment. If there is no physical cause, psychotherapy may help.

Encopresis is a form of soiling in which children deliberately pass faeces in inappropriate places, such as behind furniture.... soiling

Solvent Abuse

The practice of inhaling the intoxicating fumes given off by certain volatile liquids. Glue sniffing is the most common form.

Inhalation of solvent fumes produces a feeling of intoxication similar to that produced by alcohol. Solvent abuse can cause headache, vomiting, confusion, and coma. Death may occur due to a direct toxic effect on the heart, a fall, choking on vomit, or asphyxiation. Longterm effects include erosion of the lining of the nose and throat, and damage to the kidneys, liver, and nervous system.

Acute symptoms resulting from solvent abuse require urgent medical attention. Counselling may be helpful in discouraging the behaviour.... solvent abuse

Somatization Disorder

A condition in which a person complains over a period of several years of various physical problems for which no organic cause can be found. The disorder, which is more common in women, usually begins before age 30 and leads to numerous tests by many doctors. Unnecessary surgery and other treatments may result. The condition is often associated with anxiety, depression, or substance abuse. (See also conversion disorder; hypochondriasis.)... somatization disorder

Somatostatin Analogues

Synthetic versions of the hormone somatostatin that acts on the pituitary gland, controlling the release of growth hormone.

These drugs are used to treat acromegaly and symptoms associated with some other hormone-secreting tumours (particularly in carcinoid syndrome).

Octreotide is a common somatostatin analogue.... somatostatin analogues

Somatropin

A biosynthetic growth hormone given to children to treat short stature due to growth-hormone deficiency.... somatropin

Specific Learning Disability

Difficulty in one or more areas of learning in a child of average or above average intelligence.

Specific learning disabilities include dyslexia and dyscalculia, where there is a problem with mathematics.... specific learning disability

Specimen

A sample of tissue, body fluids, waste products, or an infective organism taken for analysis, identification, and/or diagnosis. The sample may be prepared for examination under a microscope.... specimen

Spect

The abbreviation for single photon emission computed tomography, a type of radionuclide scanning.... spect

Spectacles

See glasses.... spectacles

Speech

A system of sounds by which humans communicate. Children learn speech through listening to and imitating the speech of others.Speech production originates in 2 regions of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain. These regions are linked to the centre for language expression (Broca’s area) in the dominant hemisphere. They send signals down nerve pathways to muscles controlling the larynx, tongue, and other parts involved in speech. The cerebellum plays a part in coordinating movements of these parts. Air from the lungs is vibrated through the vocal cords in the larynx. This produces a noise, which is amplified in the cavities of the throat, nose, and sinuses. The sound of the vibrated air is modified by movements of the tongue, mouth, and lips to produce speech sounds.... speech

Spermicides

Contraceptive preparations that kill sperm. They are usually recommended for use with a barrier device.... spermicides

Sphincter, Artificial

A surgically created valve or other device used to treat or prevent urinary or faecal incontinence.... sphincter, artificial

Spider Bites

Nearly all spiders produce venom, which they use to kill their prey.

However, only a few species, such as the black widow in North America, are harmful to humans.

Antivenoms are available for many dangerous spider bites.... spider bites

Spinal Tap

See lumbar puncture.... spinal tap

Spirometry

A pulmonary function test used to diagnose or assess a lung disorder or to monitor treatment. It records the rate at which a person exhales air from the lungs and the total volume exhaled.... spirometry

Splinting

The application of a splint, most often used to immobilize a fractured or otherwise injured limb or digit.... splinting

Splinting, Dental

The mechanical joining of several teeth to hold them firmly in place while an injury heals or while periodontal disease is treated.... splinting, dental

Split Personality

A common term for multiple personality.

It is also used, incorrectly, to describe schizophrenia.... split personality

Sport, Drugs And

Four main types of drug are abused by athletes to enhance physical or mental condition.

Stimulants such as amfetamines can prevent fatigue and increase confidence.

Three types of hormone drugs may be abused: anabolic steroids (see steroids, anabolic) to speed muscle recovery after exercise; erythropoietin to boost the haemoglobin content of the blood, which may increase stamina; and growth hormone to stimulate muscle growth.

Analgesic drugs may be used to mask the pain of an injury.

Betablockers are taken to reduce tremor in sports that require a steady hand.

Aside from the health risks associated with abuse of these drugs, their use is prohibited in many competitive sports.... sport, drugs and

Sports Injuries

Any injury that arises during sports participation.

Typical sports injuries include fractures, head injury (including concussion), muscle strain or compartment syndrome, ligament sprain, tendinitis or tendon rupture, and joint dislocation or subluxation.

Some so-called sports injuries, such as tennis elbow, are in fact a type of overuse injury.... sports injuries

Spot

A general term for a small lump, mark, or inflamed area on the skin.... spot

Spotting

See breakthrough bleeding.... spotting

Stable

A term used in medicine to describe a patient’s condition that is neither deteriorating nor improving; a personality that is not susceptible to mental illness; or a chemical substance that is resistant to changes in its composition or physical state, or is not radioactive.... stable

Staining

The process of dyeing specimens of cells, tissues, or microorganisms in order for them to be clearly visible or easily identifiable under a microscope.... staining

Stanford–binet Test

A type of intelligence test.... stanford–binet test

Staphylococcal Infections

Infections caused by bacteria of the genus STAPHYLOCOCCUS.

Different types of staphylococci are responsible for a variety of disorders, including skin infections such as pustules, boils, and abscesses, and a rash in newborn babies (see necrolysis, toxic epidermal); pneumonia; toxic shock syndrome in menstruating women; urinary tract infection; food poisoning; and, if the bacteria enter the circulation, septic shock, infectious arthritis, osteomyelitis, or bacterial endocarditis.... staphylococcal infections

Statistics, Medical

The collection and analysis of numerical data relating to medicine.

Information on the incidence and prevalence of various conditions is an important aspect of medical statistics.... statistics, medical

Statistics, Vital

Assessment of a population’s health that relies on the collection of data on birth and death rates and on the causes of death.... statistics, vital

Steam Inhalation

A method of relieving some of the symptoms of colds, sinusitis, and laryngitis by breathing in hot vapour from a bowl of hot water. The moisture loosens secretions in the nose and throat, making them easier to clear.... steam inhalation

Stereotaxic Surgery

Brain operations carried out by inserting delicate instruments through a surgically created hole in the skull and guiding them, with the aid of CT scanning, to a specific area.

Stereotaxic procedures can be used to treat pituitary tumours; for a brain biopsy; or to destroy small areas of the brain to treat disabling neurological disorders.... stereotaxic surgery

Sterilization, Female

A usually permanent method of contraception in which the fallopian tubes are sealed in orderto prevent sperm reaching the ova. Female sterilization is usually performed by laparoscopy, which involves 2 small incisions in the abdomen. Sometimes it is done by minilaparotomy, in which a single incision is made in the pubic area. The fallopian tubes are sealed using clips or by cutting and tying. The operations have a low failure rate. Fertility can sometimes be restored after sterilization using microsurgery. ... sterilization, female

Sterilization, Male

See vasectomy. ... sterilization, male

Steroid Drugs

A group of drugs including corticosteroid drugs and anabolic steroids (see steroids, anabolic).... steroid drugs

Steroids, Anabolic

Drugs that have an anabolic (protein-building) effect similar to testosterone. Anabolic steroids build tissue, promote muscle recovery after an injury, and strengthen bones. They are used to treat to sounds in the body, particularly those made by the heart or lungs.... steroids, anabolic

Stevens–johnson Syndrome

A rare, life-threatening form of erythema multiforme characterized by severe blisters and bleeding in the mucous membranes of the eyes, mouth, nose, and genitals.... stevens–johnson syndrome

Sticky Eye

One of the symptoms of conjunctivitis in which the eyelids become stuck together with discharge.... sticky eye

Stiff Neck

A common symptom, usually due to spasm in muscles at the side or back of the neck. In most cases, it occurs suddenly and for no apparent reason. It may result from a neck injury, such as a ligament sprain, disc prolapse, or whiplash injury. A rare cause is meningitis.

Mild stiffness may be relieved by massage, warming, and use of a liniment. Severe or persistent stiffness requires medical attention. (See also torticollis.)... stiff neck

Stimulant Drugs

Drugs that increase brain activity by initiating the release of noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

Stimulants are of 2 types: central nervous system stimulants (for example, amfetamines), which increase alertness; and respiratory stimulants (see analeptic drugs), which encourage breathing.... stimulant drugs

Stis

See sexually transmitted infections.... stis

Stokes–adams Syndrome

Recurrent episodes of temporary loss of consciousness caused by insufficient blood flow from the heart to the brain. This is due to irregularity of the heartbeat (see arrhythmia, cardiac) or to complete heart block.

Most people with the syndrome are fitted with a pacemaker to prevent attacks.... stokes–adams syndrome

Stomachache

Discomfort in the upper abdomen. (See also indigestion.)... stomachache

Stomach, Disorders Of The

The stomach may be affected by various disorders, including gastrointestinal infections, peptic ulcers, gastritis, pyloric stenosis, volvulus, polyps, and stomach cancer.... stomach, disorders of the

Stomach Imaging

See barium X-ray examinations.... stomach imaging

Stomach Pump

See lavage, gastric.... stomach pump

Stomach Ulcer

A type of peptic ulcer.... stomach ulcer

Stones

Small, hard collections of solid material within the body. (See also calculus, urinary tract; gallstones.)... stones

Stork Mark

A small, flat, harmless, pinkish-red skin blemish found in many newborn babies.

Such marks, which may be temporary, are a type of haemangioma and are usually found around the eyes and at the nape of the neck.... stork mark

Stomach Cancer

A malignant tumour that arises from the lining of the stomach. The exact cause is unknown, but HELICOBACTER PYLORI infection is thought to be linked to increased incidence. Other likely factors include smoking and alcohol intake; diet may also play a part, in particular eating large amounts of salted or pickled foods. Pernicious anaemia, a partial gastrectomy, and belonging to blood group A also seem to increase the risk. Stomach cancer rarely affects people under 40 and is more common in men.

There may also be other symptoms indistinguishable from those of peptic ulcer.

Diagnosis is usually made by gastroscopy or by a barium X-ray examination.

The only effective treatment is total gastrectomy.

In advanced cases in which the tumour has spread, radiotherapy and anticancer drugs may prolong life.... stomach cancer

Strawberry Naevus

A bright red, raised spot which appears in early infancy. It is a type of haemangioma.... strawberry naevus

Streptococcal Infections

Infections caused by bacteria of the STREPTOCOCCUS group.

A particular type, haemolytic streptococci, can cause tonsillitis, strep throat, scarlet fever, otitis media, pneumonia, erysipelas, and wound infections.

Another type is often responsible for urinary tract infection, and another can cause bacterial endocarditis if it enters the bloodstream.... streptococcal infections

Stress Ulcer

An acute peptic ulcer that develops after shock, severe burns or injuries, or during a major illness.

Stress ulcers are usually multiple and are most common in the stomach.

The exact cause is unknown.

Drugs are often given to severely ill patients in hospital to prevent the development of stress ulcers.... stress ulcer

Stretcher

A frame covered with fabric that is used in first aid for carrying the sick, injured, or deceased.... stretcher

Stretch-mark

Another name for stria.... stretch-mark

Strychnine Poisoning

Strychnine is a poisonous chemical found in the seeds of Strychnos species (tropical trees and shrubs). Its main use is as an ingredient in some rodent poisons; most cases of strychnine poisoning occur in children who accidentally eat such poisons.

Symptoms begin soon after ingestion and include restlessness, stiffness of the face and neck, increased sensitivity of hearing, taste, and smell, and photosensitivity, followed by alternating episodes of seizures and floppiness. Death may occur from respiratory arrest.

The victim is given intravenous injections of a tranquillizer or a barbiturate, with a muscle-relaxant drug if needed.

Breathing may be maintained by a ventilator.

With prompt treatment, recovery usually occurs in about 24 hours.... strychnine poisoning

Stuffy Nose

See nasal congestion.... stuffy nose

Stump

The end portion of a limb that remains after amputation.... stump

Sturge–weber Syndrome

A rare, congenital condition that affects the skin and the brain. Characteristically, a large purple birthmark (port wine stain) extends over one side of the face, including the eye. Malformation of cerebral blood vessels may cause weakness on one side of the body, progressive mental handicap, and epilepsy. Glaucoma may develop in the affected eye, leading to loss of vision.

Seizures can usually be controlled with anticonvulsant drugs.

In severe cases, brain surgery may be necessary.... sturge–weber syndrome

Subconjunctival Haemorrhage

Bleeding under the conjunctiva that is usually harmless and disappears in a few days without treatment.... subconjunctival haemorrhage

Subdural Haemorrhage

Bleeding into the space between the outer and middle layers of the meninges, usually following head injury. The trapped blood slowly forms a large clot within the skull that presses on brain tissue. The symptoms, which tend to fluctuate, may include headache, confusion, drowsiness, and one-sided weakness or paralysis. The interval between the injury and the start of symptoms varies from days to months. Diagnosis is by CT scanning or MRI. In many cases, surgical treatment is needed. This involves drilling burr holes in the skull (see craniotomy), so that the blood can be drained out and damaged blood vessels repaired. If treatment is carried out at an early enough stage, the person usually makes a full recovery. A subdural haemorrhage that is small and produces few symptoms may not require any treatment. The affected

person is usually monitored with regular scans, and the clot may clear up on its own. (See also extradural haemorrhage.)... subdural haemorrhage

Subluxated Tooth

A tooth displaced in its socket as the result of an accident. The upper front teeth are the most vulnerable. A subluxated tooth can usually be manipulated back into position, and is then immobilized (see splinting, dental).

If the tooth’s blood vessels are torn, root-canal treatment is required.... subluxated tooth

Submucous Resection

An operation to correct a deviated nasal septum.... submucous resection

Substance Abuse

The use of drugs or other substances for a purpose other than that which is normally recommended. Stimulant drugs, solvents, and glue, are all commonly abused. Problems may arise due to adverse effects or from the habit-forming potential of the substance. (See also drug abuse.)... substance abuse

Sucking Chest Wound

An open wound in the chest wall through which air passes, causing the lung on that side to collapse.

Severe breathlessness and a life-threatening lack of oxygen result.... sucking chest wound

Suction Lipectomy

A cosmetic procedure, also called liposuction, that is used in body contour surgery.... suction lipectomy

Sudden Death

See death, sudden.... sudden death

Sudeck’s Atrophy

Swelling and loss of use of a hand or foot after a fracture or other injury.

Treatment includes elevation of the affected hand or foot, gentle exercise, and heat treatment.

Full recovery is usual within about 4 months.... sudeck’s atrophy

Suicide, Attempted

Any deliberate act of self-harm that is or is believed to be life-threatening but that in effect proves nonfatal. Attempted suicide is more common in women and most common in the 15–30 age group. The rate is highest in people with personality disorders and in those who live in deprived urban areas or have alcohol or drug problems. Common precipitating factors include the death of a loved one, financial worries, or severe loss of any kind that results in depression. The most common method is drug overdose.

Urgent treatment is needed for drug poisoning.

Longer-term therapy aims to provide support and treat depression.... suicide, attempted

Sulindac

A nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve joint pain and stiffness in various types of arthritis and acute gout. Side effects are as for other NSAIDs. ... sulindac

Sulphasalazine

See sulfasalazine.... sulphasalazine

Sulphinpyrazone

See sulfinpyrazone.... sulphinpyrazone

Sulphonamide Drugs

A group of antibacterial drugs that has largely been superseded by more effective and less toxic alternatives.... sulphonamide drugs

Sulpiride

An antipsychotic drug used in the treatment of schizophrenia and

Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome.... sulpiride

Sunscreens

Preparations that help to protect the skin from the harmful effects of sunlight.... sunscreens

Suntan

Darkening of the skin after exposure to sunlight.

Specialized cells in the epidermis respond to ultraviolet light by producing the pigment melanin.

(See also sunlight, adverse effects of; sunburn.)... suntan

Sunlight, Adverse Effects Of

Problems resulting from overexposure to sunlight. Fair-skinned people are more susceptible. Short-term overexposure causes sunburn and, in intense heat, can result in heat exhaustion or heatstroke. Repeated overexposure over a long period can cause premature aging of the skin and solar keratoses. It increases the risk of skin cancer. Protection of the skin with sunscreens helps to prevent sun damage. Photosensitivity is an abnormal sensitivity to sunlight, resulting in a rash.

Exposure to sunlight can affect the eyes, causing irritation of the conjunctiva, actinic keratopathy, or pterygium.

Good sunglasses help to prevent eye problems.... sunlight, adverse effects of

Superiority Complex

An individual’s exaggerated and unrealistic belief that he or she is better than other people. In modern psychoanalytic theory, a superiority complex is considered to be a compensation for unconscious feelings of inadequacy or low self-esteem.... superiority complex

Supernumerary Teeth

One or more teeth in excess of the usual number.

These teeth are usually extracted.... supernumerary teeth

Supraspinatus Syndrome

See painful arc syndrome.... supraspinatus syndrome

Surfer’s Nodules

Multiple bony outgrowths on the foot bones and on the bony prominence just below the knee.... surfer’s nodules

Surrogacy

The agreement by a woman to become pregnant and give birth to a child with the understanding that she will surrender the child after birth to the contractual parents. Surrogacy may be accomplished by artificial insemination or by in vitro fertilization.... surrogacy

Suturing

The closing of a surgical incision or a wound by sutures (stitches) to promote healing.

This may be done by means of a single stitch under the skin (subcuticular) or by using individual stitches (interrupted).

Some materials used in suturing, such as catgut, eventually dissolve in the body; skin sutures made of other materials are removed about 1–2 weeks after insertion.... suturing

Swamp Fever

Another name for leptospirosis. The term is also sometimes applied to malaria.... swamp fever

Sweating

The process by which the body cools itself. (See also sweat glands.)... sweating

Sweeteners, Artificial

See artificial sweeteners.... sweeteners, artificial

Swimmer’s Ear

A common name for otitis externa.... swimmer’s ear

Symptothermal Method

See contraception, natural methods of.... symptothermal method

Syphilis, Nonvenereal

An infection due to TREPONEMA PALLIDUM bacteria that is

spread by nonsexual means, such as through broken skin or saliva.

It occurs mainly in the Middle East and Africa.

Treatment is with antibacterial drugs.... syphilis, nonvenereal

Syringe Driver

A portable device used to provide continuous pain relief in conditions such as cancer.

The syringe driver delivers a certain amount of an analgesic (painkiller) over a set period of time.

It is attached to a syringe, which pumps the drug, via a tube, through a needle inserted into the skin.... syringe driver

Syringing Of Ears

The flushing out of excess earwax or a foreign body from the outer ear canal by introducing water from a syringe into the ear canal.... syringing of ears

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

See lupus erythematosus.... systemic lupus erythematosus

Tay–sachs Disease

A serious inherited metabolic disorder (see metabolism, inborn errors of) that causes premature death. The cause is deficiency of the enzyme hexosaminidase A, which results in a buildup in the brain of a harmful substance. Symptoms usually appear after age 6 months and include blindness, paralysis, and seizures leading to death. Diagnosis is made by enzyme analysis of white blood cells. It is now largely prevented by genetic.... tay–sachs disease

Testis, Swollen

Swelling of the testis or the surrounding tissues in the scrotum. Harmless and painless swellings include epididymal cysts, hydroceles, varicoceles, and spermatoceles. Cancer of the testis (see testis, cancer of) is rare but may be a cause of painless swelling. Swelling that is painful may be caused by a direct blow, torsion of the testis (see testis, torsion of), orchitis, epididymoorchitis, or, in very rare cases, cancer of the testis. Any swelling of the testes should be assessed promptly by a doctor.... testis, swollen

Thoracic Surgery

A surgical speciality concerned with operations on organs within the chest cavity. Sometimes, thoracic surgery is combined with heart surgery, in which case it is known as cardiothoracic surgery.... thoracic surgery

Thyroid Scanning

Techniques, such as radionuclide scanning and ultrasound scanning, that are used to provide information about the location, anatomy, and function of the thyroid gland.... thyroid scanning

Tmj Syndrome

See temporomandibular joint syndrome.... tmj syndrome

Tobacco-smoking

See smoking.... tobacco-smoking

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

A condition in which pressure on the brachial plexus causes pain in the arms and shoulders, pins-and-needles sensation in the fingers, and weakness of grip and other hand movements. Severe symptoms are usually caused by a cervical rib. Thoracic outlet syndrome may also be caused by drooping of the shoulders, an enlarged scalenus muscle in the neck, or a tumour.The condition is made worse by lifting and carrying heavy loads or by increases in body weight.

Treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome usually consists of exercises to improve posture, sometimes together with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and muscle-relaxant drugs. Severe cases may be treated by surgical removal of the 1st rib.... thoracic outlet syndrome

Transplant Surgery

Replacement of a diseased organ or tissue with a healthy, living substitute. The organ is usually taken from a person who has just died. Some kidneys are transplanted from a patient’s living relatives (see organ donation). The results of surgery have also been improved by testing for histocompatibility antigens and tissue-typing.

Rejection is a major problem. However, a combination of a corticosteroid drug and ciclosporin are given in order to suppress this response.

Every patient who undergoes an organ transplant operation must take immunosuppressant drugs indefinitely. (See also heart transplant; heart–lung transplant; liver transplant; kidney transplant.)... transplant surgery

Trauma Surgery

See traumatology.... trauma surgery

Trisomy 21 Syndrome

Another name for Down’s syndrome.... trisomy 21 syndrome

Tumour-specific Antigen

A substance secreted by a specific type of tumour that can be detected in the blood and may be used to help monitor a patient’s response to therapy.

Alpha-fetoprotein is an example of a tumour-specific antigen.... tumour-specific antigen

Ultrasound Scanning

A diagnostic technique in which very high frequency sound waves are passed into the body and the reflected echoes analysed to build a picture of the internal organs or of a fetus in the uterus. The procedure is painless and considered safe.Ultrasonic waves are emitted by a transducer, which is placed on the skin over the part of the body to be viewed. The transducer contains a crystal that converts an electric current into sound waves. These pass readily through soft tissues and fluids, making this procedure useful for examining fluid-filled or soft organs.

One of the most common uses of ultrasound is to view the uterus and fetus, at any time during pregnancy, but often at 18–20 weeks. The age, size, and growth rate of the fetus can be determined; multiple pregnancies detected; and certain problems, such as neural tube defects, diagnosed. Scans may be taken early in pregnancy if problems, such as an ectopic pregnancy, are suspected.

Ultrasound scanning can also be used in newborn babies to examine the brain through a gap in the skull (for example, to investigate hydrocephalus). Ultrasound can help to diagnose disorders such as cirrhosis, gallstones, hydronephrosis, and pancreatitis, as well as problems in the thyroid gland, breasts, bladder, testes, ovaries, spleen, and eyes. The technique is also used during needle biopsy to help guide the needle.Doppler ultrasound is a modified form of ultrasound that uses the Doppler effect to investigate moving objects.

This can be used to examine the fetal heartbeat and to obtain information about the rate of blood flow in vessels.... ultrasound scanning

Urethral Stricture

A rare condition in which the male urethra becomes narrowed and sometimes shortened as a result of shrinkage of scar tissue within its walls. Scar tissue may form after injury to the urethra or after persistent urethritis. The stricture may make passing urine or ejaculation difficult or painful, and it may cause some deformation of the penis when erect. Treatment is usually by urethral dilatation.... urethral stricture

Urethral Syndrome, Acute

A set of symptoms, usually affecting women, that are very similar to cystitis but which occur in the absence of infection.... urethral syndrome, acute

Urinary System

See urinary tract.... urinary system

Venomous Bites And Stings

The injection of venom by certain animals via their mouthparts (bites) or other injecting apparatus (stings). Venoms are often carried to discourage predators, and are sometimes used to kill or immobilize prey. It is rare for a venomous animal to attack a person unless it has been provoked or disturbed. Specific antivenoms are available to treat many, though not all, types of animal venom. (See also insect stings; jellyfish stings; scorpion stings; snake bites; spider bites.)... venomous bites and stings

Wasp Stings

See insect stings.... wasp stings

Zollinger–ellison Syndrome

A rare condition characterized by severe and recurrent peptic ulcers in the stomach, duodenum, and jejunum (the 2nd part of the small intestine). Zollinger–Ellison syndrome is caused by 1 or more tumours in the pancreas that secrete the hormone gastrin. Gastrin stimulates production of large quantities of acid by the stomach, which leads to ulceration. The high levels of acid in the digestive tract often also cause diarrhoea.

The tumours are cancerous, but of a slow-growing type.

If possible, they are removed surgically.

Proton pump inhibitor drugs are given to treat the ulcers.... zollinger–ellison syndrome

Vitamin Supplements

A group of dietary preparations containing 1 or more vitamins. Most healthy people who have a balanced diet do not need them. Supplements are used to treat diagnosed vitamin deficiency. They are also given to prevent vitamin deficiency in susceptible people, such as those who have increased requirements (for example, women who are pregnant or breastfeeding); those who follow a restricted diet (in veganism, for example); those with severe alcohol dependence; and people who have malabsorption, liver disorders, kidney disorders, or another serious illness or injury. In addition,vitamins are used to treat certain disorders.

For example, vitamin D is used to treat osteomalacia, and vitamin A derivatives are given for severe acne.... vitamin supplements

Wernicke–korsakoff Syndrome

An uncommon brain disorder almost always related to malnutrition occurring in chronic alcohol dependence, but occasionally due to that which occurs in other conditions, such as cancer. Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome is caused by deficiency of thiamine (see vitamin B complex), which affects the brain and nervous system.The disease consists of 2 stages: Wernicke’s encephalopathy and Korsakoff’s psychosis. Wernicke’s encephalopathy usually develops suddenly and produces nystagmus (abnormal, jerky eye movements), ataxia (difficulty in coordinating body movements), slowness, and confusion. Sufferers usually have signs of neuropathy, such as loss of sensation, pins-and-needles, or impaired reflexes. The level of consciousness falls progressively and may lead to coma and death unless treated. The condition is a medical emergency. Treatment with high doses of intravenous thiamine often reverses most of the symptoms, sometimes within a few hours.

Korsakoff’s psychosis may follow Wernicke’s encephalopathy if treatment is not begun promptly enough. Symptoms consist of severe amnesia, apathy, and disorientation. Korsakoff’s psychosis is usually irreversible.... wernicke–korsakoff syndrome

Withdrawal Syndrome

Unpleasant mental and physical symptoms experienced when a person stops using a drug on which he or she is dependent (see drug dependence). Withdrawal syndrome most commonly occurs in those with alcohol dependence or dependence on opioids, in smokers, and in people addicted to tranquillizers, amfetamines, cocaine, marijuana, and caffeine.

Alcohol withdrawal symptoms start 6–8 hours after cessation of intake and may last up to 7 days. They include trembling of the hands, nausea, vomiting, sweating, cramps, anxiety, and, sometimes, seizures. (See also confusion, delirium tremens, and hallucinations.)

Opioid withdrawal symptoms start after 8–12 hours and may last for 7–10 days. Symptoms include restlessness, sweating, runny eyes and nose, yawning, diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, dilated pupils, loss of appetite, irritability, weakness, tremor, and depression.

Withdrawal symptoms from barbiturate drugs and meprobamate start after 12–24 hours, beginning with tremor, anxiety, restlessness, and weakness, sometimes followed by delirium, hallucinations, and, occasionally, seizures. A period of prolonged sleep occurs 3–8 days after onset. Withdrawal from benzodiazepine drugs may begin much more slowly and can be life-threatening.

Withdrawal symptoms from nicotine develop gradually over 24–48 hours and include irritability, concentration problems, frustration, headaches, and anxiety. Discontinuation of cocaine or amfetamines results in extreme tiredness, lethargy, and dizziness. Cocaine withdrawal may also lead to tremor, severe depression, and sweating.

Withdrawal symptoms from marijuana include tremor, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating, irritability, and sleep problems. Caffeine withdrawal may lead to tiredness, headaches, and irritability.

Severe withdrawal syndromes require medical treatment.

Symptoms may be suppressed by giving the patient small quantities of the drug he or she had been taking.

More commonly, a substitute drug is given, such as methadone for opioid drugs or diazepam for alcohol.

The dose of the drug is then gradually reduced.... withdrawal syndrome

Abbreviated Injury Scale

a quick method for determining the severity of a case of serious trauma. It can be used for purposes of *triage and *clinical audit.... abbreviated injury scale

Abo System

see blood group.... abo system

Acoustic Shock

an adverse reaction to a sudden unexpected noise (an *acoustic incident). The condition is characterized by symptoms that may include pain, dizziness, tinnitus, anxiety, and depression. It is not usually associated with permanent reduction of hearing, in comparison to noise-induced hearing loss (see deafness).... acoustic shock

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

see AIDS.... acquired immune deficiency syndrome

Acute Coronary Syndrome

a combination of angina (unstable or stable), non-S–T elevation *myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), and S–T elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). It implies the presence of coronary artery disease.... acute coronary syndrome

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

see adult respiratory distress syndrome.... acute respiratory distress syndrome

Adams–stokes Syndrome

see Stokes–Adams syndrome.... adams–stokes syndrome

Adenoma Sebaceum

a condition in which angiofibromas (flesh-coloured or pink papules) are often seen around the nose and cheek or elsewhere on the face. They are a cutaneous sign of *tuberous sclerosis.... adenoma sebaceum

Adie’s Syndrome

(Holmes-Adie syndrome) an abnormality of the pupils of the eyes, often affecting only one eye. The affected pupil is dilated and reacts slowly to light; the response on convergence *accommodation of the eyes is also slow (see tonic pupil). Tendon reflexes may be absent. The condition is almost entirely restricted to women. [W. J. Adie; Sir G. M. Holmes (1876–1965), British neurologist]... adie’s syndrome

Academic Health Science Network

(AHSN, academic health science centre, academic health science system, academic medical partnership) a regional partnership between one or more academic institutions (typically universities) and one or more health-care providers (in England, typically foundation trusts) with a twin focus on promoting economic growth in the region covered and improving the health of the population. Many AHSNs also include third-sector and industry partners and most have a role in providing education and training. The fifteen AHSNs across England were established by NHS England in 2013 and represent a national expansion of the earlier Academic Health Science Partnerships (AHSPs), which were first set up in London in 2007.... academic health science network

Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome

(acute respiratory distress syndrome, ARDS) a form of *acute respiratory failure that occurs after a precipitating event, such as trauma, aspiration, or inhalation of a toxic substance; it is particularly associated with septic shock. Lung injury is characterized by reduced oxygen in the arteries, reduced lung volume, and decreased lung compliance, and diffuse infiltrates are seen on a chest X-ray. Treatment is correction of the original cause, volume replacement, diuretics, oxygen, and mechanical ventilation.... adult respiratory distress syndrome

Advance Directive, Decision, Or Statement

(in England and Wales under the Mental Capacity Act 2005) a legally recognized decision or statement by an adult with *capacity identifying any specific or general treatment the patient does not want in the event that he or she loses capacity. An advance directive or decision (formerly often called a living will) should be informed, made voluntarily, and must be valid and applicable to the medical situation that arises; at the extreme it can constitute an advance refusal of potentially life-saving treatment. It cannot, however, be used to demand future treatment and does not apply as long as the person retains capacity. An advance statement is a more general and less legally binding expression of the person’s values and views on the sort of treatment he or she may or may not wish to undergo. Directives and statements can raise ethical questions: for example, should life-saving treatment refused in advance nevertheless be given if it could restore the patient to a quality of life with which he or she was content before losing capacity.... advance directive, decision, or statement

Advanced Life Support

(ALS) a structured and algorithm-driven method of life support for use in the severest of medical emergencies, especially cardiac arrest. Doctors, nurses, and paramedic personnel involved in ALS receive special training in the use of equipment (e.g. defibrillators and appropriate drugs). Paediatric advanced life support (PALS) is ALS for use in severe medical emergencies in children, while advanced trauma life support(ATLS) is specifically for patients who have been subjected to major trauma, such as a serious road accident. Compare basic life support.... advanced life support

Aicardi Syndrome

a syndrome caused by abnormal development of the brain in which the two halves of the brain do not connect. The *corpus callosum is absent. Affected individuals suffer from learning disability and seizures. They may also have associated abnormalities of the eyes and spine. [J. D. Aicardi (20th century), French neurologist]... aicardi syndrome

Alagille Syndrome

(arteriohepatic dysplasia) an inherited condition in which the bile ducts, which drain the liver, become progressively smaller, causing increased *jaundice. It is associated with abnormalities of other organs, such as the heart, kidneys, eyes, and spine. [D. Alagille (1925–2005), French physician]... alagille syndrome

Albers-schönberg Disease

see osteopetrosis. [H. E. Albers-Schönberg (1865–1921), German radiologist]... albers-schönberg disease

Alien Limb Syndrome

a rare neurological condition in which upper limb movements occur without an individual’s awareness of or control over the actions. In extreme cases, a person will deliberately use their other arm to restrain the ‘alien limb’. It is caused by damage to connections between the cerebral hemispheres or the frontal or occipital brain areas and can occur following stroke or in dementia.... alien limb syndrome

Alport’s Syndrome

a hereditary disease that causes *nephritis accompanied by deafness and, less commonly, ocular defects, such as cataracts. Affected males usually develop end-stage renal failure and, unless treated with a kidney transplant, die before the age of 40. Females have a better prognosis. [A. C. Alport (1880–1959), South African physician]... alport’s syndrome

Amphoric Breath Sounds

see breath sounds.... amphoric breath sounds

Anal Sphincter Tears

see perineal tear; obstetric anal sphincter injury.... anal sphincter tears

Anatomical Snuffbox

the triangular area on the most radial and distal aspect of the wrist overlying the *scaphoid bone and bounded by the extensor tendons of the thumb. It is often tender in injuries to the scaphoid (see scaphoid fracture).... anatomical snuffbox

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome

(AIS) an X-linked (see sex-linked) disorder in which the body does not react to androgens because of structural abnormalities in androgen receptors. In its most extreme form, complete AIS (formerly known as testicular feminization syndrome), there is a fully female body appearance with breast development and a short vagina (but no uterus; testes are present internally). Psychosexuality is female orientated. Partial AIS is also known as *Reifenstein’s syndrome.... androgen insensitivity syndrome

Angelman Syndrome

a neurogenetic disorder characterized by severe developmental delay, absence of speech, seizures, a jerky puppet-like gait (see ataxia), and paroxysmal laughter (giving it the alternative name happy puppet syndrome). Affected children commonly have cranial and facial abnormalities, such as a small or flattened head. Angelman syndrome is a prototype of genomic *imprinting: a deletion on maternal chromosome 15 is the cause in a majority of cases. [H. Angelman (1915–96), British paediatrician]... angelman syndrome

Angioid Streaks

reddish to dark-brown irregular streaks radiating outwards from the optic disc underneath the retina. They represent irregular linear cracks in *Bruch’s membrane and can be the site for the development of new vessels from the choroid. They are seen in such systemic conditions as pseudoxanthoma elasticum, Paget’s disease, and sickle-cell anaemia.... angioid streaks

Antilymphocyte Serum

(antilymphocyte globulin, ALS, ALG) an *antiserum, containing antibodies that suppress lymphocytic activity, prepared by injecting an animal with lymphocytes. ALS may be given to a patient to prevent the immune reaction that causes tissue rejection following transplantation of such organs as kidneys or of bone marrow. Administration naturally also impairs other immunity mechanisms, making infection a serious hazard.... antilymphocyte serum

Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome

(APS, Hughes syndrome) an autoimmune disease in which the presence of antibodies against phospholipid (see anticardiolipin antibodies; lupus anticoagulant) is associated with a tendency to arterial or venous thrombosis and, in women of childbearing age, to recurrent miscarriage. APS may be primary or occur in association with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or other connective-tissue diseases. Treatment is by low-dose aspirin or heparin.... antiphospholipid antibody syndrome

Anton’s Syndrome

see anosognosia. [G. Anton (1858–1933), Austrian neurologist]... anton’s syndrome

Apache Scoring System

acute physiological and chronic health evaluation: a tool used to assess the severity of illness in a critically ill patient and to estimate mortality. The assessment uses information from 12 physiological measurements, including temperature, blood pressure, arterial pH, and certain blood results.... apache scoring system

Apert Syndrome

a hereditary disorder characterized by *craniosynostosis, underdevelopment of the midfacial tissues resulting in a sunken facial appearance, and *syndactyly (fusion) of 2–5 digits (‘mitten glove’). Variable mental deficits and cleft palate may result. The condition may be associated with *Crouzon syndrome, in which case the fusion of the digits is less marked. See also acrocephalosyndactyly. [E. Apert (1868–1940), French physician]... apert syndrome

Aphakic Spectacles

eyeglasses prescribed after cataract surgery when no intraocular lens is inserted into the eye (not common practice now). Usually these are thick convex lenses.... aphakic spectacles

Artificial Sphincter

an apparatus designed to replace or support a *sphincter that is either absent or ineffective. See also neosphincter.... artificial sphincter

A-scan

n. examination of ocular tissue, including measurement of the length of the eye (axial length), by means of a high-frequency ultrasound machine. See also B-scan.... a-scan

Asherman Syndrome

a condition in which *amenorrhoea and infertility follow a major haemorrhage in pregnancy. It may result from overvigorous curettage of the uterus in an attempt to control the bleeding. This removes the lining, the walls adhere, and the cavity is obliterated to a greater or lesser degree. Some 50% of such patients are subsequently infertile, and of those who become pregnant, only a minority achieve an uncomplicated delivery. Compare Sheehan’s syndrome. [J. G. Asherman (20th century), Czechoslovakian gynaecologist]... asherman syndrome

Asymmetric Septal Hypertrophy

(ASH) see hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.... asymmetric septal hypertrophy

Atypical Mole Syndrome

(dysplastic naevus syndrome) a condition in which patients have numerous moles, some of which are relatively large and irregular in shape or pigmentation. There may be a family history of this syndrome or of malignant *melanoma.... atypical mole syndrome

Auditory Neuropathy Spectrum Disorder

(auditory neuropathy, auditory dyssynchrony) a form of hearing loss characterized by normal cochlear function as measured by *otoacoustic emissions or detection of *cochlear microphonics but abnormal or absent *middle ear reflexes and abnormal *auditory brainstem responses.... auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder

Auditory Skills Training

a method of teaching people to use their hearing to its best potential, undertaken in the treatment of *auditory processing disorder.... auditory skills training

Auditory Steady State Response

(ASSR) an objective test of hearing that measures the electrical activity in the auditory nerve and *brainstem following sound stimulation using a modulated continuous tone.... auditory steady state response

Back Slaps

a manoeuvre for the treatment of a choking patient. Firm slaps are given to the patient’s back in an attempt to dislodge the obstructing article from the upper airway.... back slaps

Balanced Salt Solution

(BSS) a solution containing physiological concentrations of sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium acetate, and sodium citrate. Such fluids are isotonic to eye tissue; they are used during intraocular surgery and to replace intraocular fluids.... balanced salt solution

Balint’s Syndrome

a disorder, arising from bilateral occipito-parietal *strokes, characterized by inability to perceive the visual field as a whole (simultanagnosia), difficulty in fixating the eyes (oculomotor apraxia), and inability to move the hand to a specific object using vision (optic ataxia). [R. Balint (1874–1929), Hungarian neurologist]... balint’s syndrome

Ball-and-socket Joint

see enarthrosis.... ball-and-socket joint

Ballantyne Syndrome

(maternal mirror syndrome) a condition that occurs in cases of *hydrops fetalis when the maternal condition begins to mirror the state of the fetus. The maternal signs and symptoms are similar to those of *pre-eclampsia, including vomiting, hypertension, oedema, and proteinuria.... ballantyne syndrome

Balloon Sinuplasty

a surgical procedure to open or enlarge a blocked ostium of the *paranasal sinuses in patients with chronic *rhinosinusitis. A small balloon is inserted into the ostium in a deflated state under endoscopic control. It is then inflated to enlarge the ostium and finally deflated and removed.... balloon sinuplasty

Banana And Lemon Signs

ultrasound features of the *Arnold–Chiari malformation in fetuses with spina bifida. The banana sign refers to the shape of the cerebellum owing to caudal displacement; the lemon sign refers to the lemon-shaped head resulting from scalloping of the frontal bones. See illustration.... banana and lemon signs

Banti’s Syndrome

a disorder in which enlargement and overactivity of the spleen occurs as a result of increased pressure within the splenic vein (see hypersplenism; splenomegaly). It arises primarily in children and occurs with *cirrhosis of the liver. [G. Banti (1852–1925), Italian pathologist]... banti’s syndrome

Bariatric Surgery

surgery performed for the purpose of weight loss in obese patients. Most procedures are restrictive, being designed to promote feelings of fullness and satiety after meals (see gastric banding; stomach stapling). See also gastric bypass surgery; jaw wiring.... bariatric surgery

Barium Swallow And Meal

a radiological technique used to assess the anatomy and function of the upper gastrointestinal tract. The patient swallows radiopaque contrast (barium sulphate), which coats the mucosal surfaces of the oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The descent of the barium is charted by a series of radiographs. Gas-forming agents (such as sodium bicarbonate) may be given to aid gastric distension and improve the quality of the images. This can be used to diagnose disorders of oesophageal motor function, tumours, peptic ulcers, hiatus *hernias, and *gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Many indications for this examination have been replaced by the use of an endoscope.... barium swallow and meal

Bartter Syndrome

an inherited condition of the kidney, which causes abnormalities in the excretion and reabsorption of salts from the blood. This results in lowered levels of potassium and chloride and an increased level of calcium. The baby fails to grow properly and becomes progressively weaker and dehydrated. Treatment consists of correcting the salt imbalance with appropriate supplements. [F. C. Bartter (1914–83), US physician]... bartter syndrome

Basic Life Support

the provision of treatment designed to maintain adequate circulation and ventilation to a patient in *cardiac arrest, without the use of drugs or specialist equipment. Compare advanced life support.... basic life support

Battered Baby Syndrome

see nonaccidental injury.... battered baby syndrome

Bile Salts

sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate – the alkaline salts of *bile – necessary for the emulsification of fats. After they have been absorbed from the intestine they are transported to the liver for reuse.... bile salts

Binge–purge Syndrome

see bulimia.... binge–purge syndrome

Bishop Score

a scoring system to assess the state of the maternal cervix and position of the fetal head to determine the ease or difficulty with which labour may be induced.... bishop score

Bitot’s Spots

cheesy foamy greyish spots that form on the surface of dry patches of conjunctiva at the sides of the eyes. They consist of fragments of keratinized epithelium. A common cause is vitamin A deficiency. [P. A. Bitot (1822–88), French physician]... bitot’s spots

Bladder Pressure Study

a combined X-ray and manometry examination of the bladder to look for abnormal function. The bladder is filled slowly with contrast medium using a small urinary catheter and the pressure is monitored during filling and voiding (micturition). X-ray images of the bladder and urethra (see urethrography) are taken. The test is used to differentiate between obstruction to bladder outflow and abnormal involuntary contractions of the muscle in the bladder wall.... bladder pressure study

Blind And Partially Sighted Register

(in Britain) an incomplete list of persons who are technically blind or partially sighted due to reduced visual acuity, or who have severely restricted fields of vision (see blindness). Registration is voluntary, but it is a precondition for the receipt of some financial benefits. The list is maintained by local authorities (England and Wales), regional or island councils (in Scotland), or the Health and Social Care Board (Northern Ireland).... blind and partially sighted register

Blood Serum

see serum.... blood serum

Bloom’s Syndrome

a specific abnormality of chromosome 15 in which the individual suffers from recurrent infections, blisters on the hands and lips, and poor growth. Such children have a much higher than normal risk of developing cancer. [D. Bloom (20th century), US dermatologist]... bloom’s syndrome

B-lynch Brace Suture

a technique in which a compression suture is applied to the uterus, which can be used in cases of severe *postpartum haemorrhage as an alternative to an emergency hysterectomy. A pair of vertical sutures are inserted around the uterus to appose the anterior and posterior walls and to apply continuous compression, which stems the bleeding. [C. Balogun-Lynch (21st century), British obstetrician and gynaecologist]... b-lynch brace suture

Boas’s Sign

increased or altered sensitivity in the region of the wing of the right scapula, associated with acute *cholecystitis. [I. I. Boas (1858–1938), German gastroenterologist]... boas’s sign

Boerhaave’s Syndrome

spontaneous rupture (see perforation) of the gullet (oesophagus) following forceful retching and vomiting. Usual symptoms are severe chest and upper abdominal pain (that is aggravated by swallowing), fever, and shortness of breath. Surgical *emphysema is often present. Diagnosis is usually made with CT scanning. Surgery is required in most of the cases, combined with broad-spectrum antibiotics and parenteral *nutrition. [H. Boerhaave (1668–1738), Dutch physician]... boerhaave’s syndrome

Bone Scan

an imaging investigation of a patient’s bone using radioactive *tracers. *Technetium-99m phosphate is injected intravenously and absorbed into the hydroxyapatite crystals of bone. It concentrates in areas of increased blood flow and metabolism, such as areas of infection, trauma, and *neoplasia, and gives off radiation that can be detected by a *gamma camera, thereby producing a map or scan of activity in the target area. A bone scan is particularly useful in the diagnosis of subtle fractures (including stress fractures), avascular necrosis (see osteonecrosis), osteomyelitis, tumour spread (metastasis), and loosening of orthopaedic implants.... bone scan

Bottom Shuffling

a normal variant of crawling in which babies sit upright and move on their bottoms, usually by pulling forward on their heels. Babies who bottom-shuffle tend to walk slightly later. There is often a family history of bottom shuffling.... bottom shuffling

British Sign Language

(BSL) see sign language.... british sign language

Brown-séquard Syndrome

the neurological condition resulting when the spinal cord has been damaged. In those parts of the body supplied by the damaged segment there is a flaccid weakness and loss of feeling in the skin. Below the lesion there is a spastic paralysis on the same side and a loss of pain and temperature sensation on the opposite side. The causes include trauma and multiple sclerosis. [C. E. Brown-Séquard (1818–94), French physiologist]... brown-séquard syndrome

Brown’s Syndrome

a condition, usually congenital, in which the tendon sheath of the superior oblique muscle of the *eye does not relax, thus limiting the elevation of the eye, especially in adduction. [H. W. Brown (20th century), US ophthalmologist]... brown’s syndrome

Brudzinski Sign

a sign present when there is irritation of the meninges (the membranes covering the brain); it is present in meningitis. As the neck is pulled forward, the hips and knees bend involuntarily. [J. von Brudzinski (1874–1917), Polish physician]... brudzinski sign

Brushfield Spots

greyish-brown spots seen in the iris of the eye. They can be found in normal individuals but are usually associated with *Down’s syndrome. [T. Brushfield (1858–1937), British physician]... brushfield spots

B-scan

examination of the tissues of the eye in cross section by means of a high-frequency ultrasound machine. It is useful in the diagnosis of eye disease, especially in the posterior segment of the eye when direct viewing is obscured (e.g. by dense cataracts). See also A-scan.... b-scan

Budd–chiari Syndrome

a rare condition that follows occlusion of the hepatic veins by thrombosis or nonthrombotic processes. In the majority of cases the cause is unknown but hypercoagulable states, local or disseminated malignancy, and infection are possible causes. It is characterized by abdominal pain, abdominal distension due to ascites, and jaundice. Clinical examination may reveal hepatomegaly, and *hepatic encephalopathy. [G. Budd (1808–82), British physician; H. Chiari (1851–1916), German pathologist]... budd–chiari syndrome

Buried Bumper Syndrome

a condition in which feeding via a PEG tube (see gastrostomy) is blocked. It occurs when the internal retention disc (bumper) of the tube, which holds it in place inside the stomach, is overgrown by hypertrophic gastric mucosa and becomes embedded in the stomach wall. This serious complication requires surgical removal of the tube. It can be prevented by correct tube care: advancing, retracting, and rotating of the tube.... buried bumper syndrome

Calcium Score

a quantification of the amount of calcium seen in the coronary arteries on a CT scan, calcium being a marker of severe coronary artery disease.... calcium score

Campbell De Morgan Spots

see angioma. [C. G. de Morgan (1811–76), British physician]... campbell de morgan spots

Capgras’ Syndrome

(illusion of doubles) the delusion that a person closely involved with the patient has been replaced by an identical-looking impostor. It is often, but not necessarily, a symptom of paranoid *schizophrenia. [J. M. J. Capgras (1873–1950), French psychiatrist]... capgras’ syndrome

Cardiac Arrest Simulation

a form of education in resuscitation skills using a *resuscitation mannikin wired up to a heart rhythm simulator that can mimic all common cardiac arrest situations. Candidates may be expected to perform basic life support as well as advanced life support and display skills in airway maintenance and team leadership. This form of teaching and assessment is widely used in advanced life support courses.... cardiac arrest simulation

Cardiotomy Syndrome

(postcardiotomy syndrome) a condition that may develop weeks or months after heart surgery and is characterized by fever and *pericarditis. Pneumonia and pleurisy may form part of the syndrome. It is thought to be an *autoimmune disease and may be recurrent. A similar syndrome (Dressler’s syndrome) may follow myocardial infarction. It may respond to anti-inflammatory drugs.... cardiotomy syndrome

Caroli’s Syndrome

an inherited condition in which the bile ducts, which drain the liver, are widened and there are fibrous changes in the liver and cysts within the kidneys. Compare Caroli’s disease. [J. Caroli]... caroli’s syndrome

Carotid Artery Stenosis

(carotid stenosis) narrowing of the carotid artery, which reduces the supply of blood to the brain and is a cause of strokes. It is treated by surgical excision or bypass of the narrowed segment (see also endarterectomy) or by inserting a *stent into the carotid artery.... carotid artery stenosis

Carotid Sinus

a pocket in the wall of the carotid artery, at its division in the neck, containing receptors that monitor blood pressure (see baroreceptor). When blood pressure is raised, impulses travel from the receptors to the vasomotor centre in the brain, which initiates a reflex *vasodilatation and slowing of heart rate to lower the blood pressure to normal.... carotid sinus

Carpopedal Spasm

see spasm.... carpopedal spasm

Cat-scratch Disease

an infectious disease caused by the bacterium *Bartonella henselae, which infects cats and is transmitted to humans by a cat scratch or bite. A papule or pustule develops at the site of the injury followed, a week to two months after infection, by swelling of the lymph nodes (usually those closest to the wound). Fever and malaise are common. The condition usually resolves without treatment but antibiotics may be given to prevent complications.... cat-scratch disease

Cauda Equina Syndrome

damage to the *cauda equina, the nerve roots arising from the terminal end of the spinal cord, due to trauma or compression. Without urgent surgical intervention, it can result in paralysis, loss of sensation in the legs, and bladder and bowel incontinence.... cauda equina syndrome

Caustic Soda

see sodium hydroxide.... caustic soda

Cell Saver

a machine that aspirates blood lost during surgery and immediately spins, washes, and filters it for retransfusion back into the patient’s body (see autotransfusion). The process, called intraoperative cell salvage, is used in surgery that has significant blood loss, such as orthopaedic and vascular surgery and Caesarean section, and avoids the costs and risks of *allogeneic transfusion.... cell saver

Cell-surface Molecules

molecules on the surface of cell membranes that are responsible for most cellular functions directly related to their immediate environment. Many have very precise functions of adhesion (see adhesion molecules), metabolic exchange, hormone reception, respiration, and immune reactions. Cell-to-cell exchanges involve specialized surface structures (junctions), which form a communicating nexus.... cell-surface molecules

Central Serous Chorioretinopathy

shallow *retinal detachment in the area of the macula due to a localized leakage through the retinal pigment epithelium (see retina) into the subretinal space. The cause is unknown. It affects young adult males, causing reduced or distorted central vision that usually settles in a few months.... central serous chorioretinopathy

Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis

the presence of thrombosis in the dural venous sinuses, which drain blood from the brain. Symptoms may include headache, abnormal vision, any of the symptoms of stroke (such as weakness of the face and limbs on one side of the body), and seizures. Treatment is with anticoagulants.... cerebral venous sinus thrombosis

Cervical Screening

*screening tests to detect the presence of precancerous changes in the cervix (neck) of the uterus (see cervical intraepithelial neoplasia). *Cervical smears are the standard first-line screening tools in most countries: screening programmes based on the traditional Papanicolaou (Pap) test have been mostly superseded by *liquid-based cytology. *Colposcopy is indicated when abnormal cells (*dyskaryosis) are detected.... cervical screening

Chediak–higashi Syndrome

a rare fatal hereditary (autosomal *recessive) condition causing enlargement of the liver and spleen, albinism, and abnormalities of the eye. It is thought to be due to a disorder of glycolipid metabolism. [A. Chediak (20th century), Cuban physician; O. Higashi (20th century) Japanese paediatrician]... chediak–higashi syndrome

Cheyne–stokes Respiration

a striking form of breathing in which there is a cyclical variation in the rate, which becomes slower until breathing stops for several seconds before speeding up to a peak and then slowing again. It occurs when the sensitivity of the respiratory centres in the brain is impaired, particularly in states of coma. [J. Cheyne (1777–1836), Scottish physician; W. Stokes (1804–78), Irish physician]... cheyne–stokes respiration

Children’s Auditory Performance Scale

(CHAPS) a questionnaire designed to assess children’s hearing abilities in certain situations. It is used in the diagnosis of *auditory processing disorder.... children’s auditory performance scale

Child–turcotte–pugh Score

a clinical scoring system used to predict the one- and two-year survival rates of patients with chronic liver disease. The score is determined by the assessment of two clinical signs (the presence of ascites and *hepatic encephalopathy) and three biochemical markers (serum bilirubin level, serum albumin level, and prothrombin time).... child–turcotte–pugh score

Chi-square Test

(in statistics) a test to determine if the difference between two groups of observations is statistically significant (see significance), used in controlled trials and other studies. It measures the differences between theoretical and observed values and identifies whether or not *variables are related.... chi-square test

Chondroitin Sulphate

a mucopolysaccharide that forms an important constituent of cartilage, bone, and other connective tissues. It is composed of glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-galactosamine units. Although it is sold as a supplement to help with joint pain, evidence of any benefit is limited.... chondroitin sulphate

Chronic Sick And Disabled Persons Act 1970

(in Britain) an Act providing for the identification and care of those suffering from a chronic or degenerative disease for which there is no cure and which can be only partially alleviated by treatment. Such people are usually distinguished from the elderly who may also suffer from chronic diseases. It is the responsibility of local authorities to identify those with such problems and to ensure that services are available to meet their needs. Identification can be difficult because of the lack of a clear and agreed definition of what constitutes a disability of such severity as to warrant inclusion in such a register.... chronic sick and disabled persons act 1970

Churg–strauss Syndrome

(eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis) a systemic autoimmune *vasculitis comprising severe asthma, allergic rhinitis, and sinusitis associated with an increased *eosinophil count in the peripheral blood and eosinophilic deposits in the small vessels of the lungs. It usually responds to oral corticosteroids. [J. Churg (1910–2005) and L. Strauss (1913–85), US pathologists]... churg–strauss syndrome

Chvosteck’s Sign

twitching of the facial muscles elicited by stimulation of the facial nerve by tapping. This indicates muscular irritability, usually due to calcium depletion (see tetany). [F. Chvosteck (1835–84), Austrian surgeon]... chvosteck’s sign

Cockayne’s Syndrome

a hereditary disorder (inherited as an autosomal *recessive condition) associated with *trisomy of chromosome no. 20. Clinical features include *epidermolysis bullosa, dwarfism, learning disabilities, and pigmentary degeneration of the retina. [E. A. Cockayne (1880–1956), British physician]... cockayne’s syndrome

Coffin–lowry Syndrome

(CLS) an inherited disease, more severe in males, that results in developmental delay and profound learning disability. It is characterized by distinctive facial anomalies, short stature, microcephaly, and *kyphoscoliosis; some patients have episodes of collapse when startled or excited (stimulus-induced drop episodes; SIDE). [G. S. Coffin (1923– ), US paediatrician; R. B. Lowry (1932– ), British geneticist]... coffin–lowry syndrome

Cogan’s Syndrome

a disorder in which *keratitis and iridocyclitis (see uveitis) are associated with tinnitus, vertigo, and bilateral sensorineural deafness. [D. G. Cogan (1908–93), US ophthalmologist]... cogan’s syndrome

Colistimethate Sodium

(colistin) an antibiotic given to treat Gram-negative infections resistant to other antimicrobials and by inhalation to treat pseudomonal infection in patients with cystic fibrosis. Colistin is a mixture of antimicrobial substances produced by a strain of the bacterium Bacillus polymyxa. Its most serious side-effects are nerve and kidney damage.... colistimethate sodium

Colony-stimulating Factor

(CSF) one of a group of substances (haemopoietic growth factors or hormones) that are produced in the bone marrow and stimulate the production of specific blood cells. Genetically engineered granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) stimulates neutrophil production and also limits bone marrow toxicity from chemotherapy.... colony-stimulating factor

Community Services

see domiciliary services.... community services

Complaints System

a process that enables patients to voice concerns about the standard of care they receive. In the UK, any complaints should be raised as soon as possible, in the first instance locally with the NHS provider involved. Various statutory and voluntary advice and advocacy services are available to assist in this. If a patient is not satisfied with the outcome of local resolution, the matter can be referred to the *Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman. Legal action cannot usually proceed at the same time and only a small proportion of complaints proceed to law. Disciplinary procedures are separate from the complaints procedure although complaints may prompt or inform disciplinary action.... complaints system

Complex Partial Seizure

see epilepsy.... complex partial seizure

Complex Regional Pain Syndrome

(CRPS, reflex sympathetic dystrophy, RSD, Sudek’s atrophy) neurological dysfunction in a limb following trauma, surgery, or disease, characterized by intense burning pain, swelling, stiffness, and sweaty shiny mottled skin. It is caused by overactivity of the sympathetic nervous system. The *ESR is often elevated, X-rays may reveal some patchy osteoporosis, and a bone scan usually demonstrates increased blood flow. Early treatment with splinting and physiotherapy are essential, in combination with *sympatholytic drugs, corticosteroids, and regional sympathetic blocks; *sympathectomy may be required in chronic cases.... complex regional pain syndrome

Computer-assisted Surgery

(image-guided surgery, surgical navigation) a technique by which a virtual image or map of the patient is created from CT scans, MRI scans, X-rays, or ultrasound scans and loaded into a computer. Special instruments connected to the computer are then applied to certain reference points on the patient. The computer can then produce a picture of the location of the instrument within the patient.... computer-assisted surgery

Continuous Subcutaneous Insulin Infusion

the administration of insulin by continuous infusion into the subcutaneous tissue via a small pump worn under the clothing and connected to the skin by a tube and a fine needle. The insulin is delivered at a precalculated background rate, but patient-activated *boluses can be administered at meal times. This method is particularly appropriate (as an alternative to regular injections) for patients with repeated or unpredictable episodes of hypoglycaemia.... continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion

Contralateral-routing-of-signal Hearing Aid

(CROS hearing aid) a form of hearing aid used to help people with severe or profound unilateral hearing loss. Sound information is collected by a microphone worn on the affected side and then transmitted by a thin wire or Bluetooth wireless technology to a device worn on the opposite side. If the hearing in the better ear is normal, no amplification is applied to the signal. If the better ear has a hearing loss the device also acts as a conventional hearing aid and amplifies the signal from both sides: this is known as a BICROS hearing aid.... contralateral-routing-of-signal hearing aid

Controlled Ovarian Stimulation

(COS) see superovulation.... controlled ovarian stimulation

Conversion Seizure

see non-epileptic seizure.... conversion seizure

Coronal Suture

see suture.... coronal suture

Corpus Spongiosum

the blood sinus that surrounds the urethra of the male. Together with the corpora cavernosa, it forms the erectile tissue of the *penis. It is expanded at the base of the penis to form the urethral bulb and at the tip to form the glans penis.... corpus spongiosum

Corpus Striatum

the part of the *basal ganglia in the cerebral hemispheres of the brain consisting of the caudate nucleus and the lentiform nucleus.... corpus striatum

Corrigan’s Sign

powerful pulsation of the carotid arteries causing ear movement and/or head nodding. It is a sign of *aortic regurgitation. [Sir D. J. Corrigan]... corrigan’s sign

Cotton-wool Spots

soft fluffy spots in the retina resulting from accumulations of *axoplasm in the nerve-fibre layer of the retina. These may indicate diseases causing hypoxia (oxygen deficiency) in the nerve-fibre layer (e.g. diabetes, hypertension, connective-tissue disease, or AIDS).... cotton-wool spots

Cough Suppressant

see antitussive.... cough suppressant

Cover-slip

n. an extremely thin square or circle of glass used to protect the upper surface of a preparation on a microscope slide.... cover-slip

Crafft Screening Test

a screening tool for young people under the age of 21 to identify alcohol and drug use. The first part consists of three questions about drug or alcohol use over the past year. Participants giving positive answers to two or more questions proceed to the second part (from which the name derives), which contains six questions with the key words car, relax, alone, family/friends, forget, trouble, used to assess the need for further input.... crafft screening test

Crest Syndrome

a disease characterized by the association of *calcinosis, Raynaud’s phenomenon (see Raynaud’s disease), (o)esophageal malfunction, sclerodactyly (tapering fingers), and *telangiectasia (see telangiectasis). It represents a variant of *systemic sclerosis and is also called limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis. It may be associated with severe pulmonary hypertension.... crest syndrome

Crigler–najjar Syndrome

a rare genetic disease in which the liver enzyme glucuronyl transferase, responsible for dealing with bilirubin, is absent. A large amount of unconjugated bilirubin accumulates in the blood leading to refractory jaundice in early childhood. The definitive treatment is a liver transplant; if left untreated, life expectancy is usually less than two years. [J. F. Crigler and V. A. Najjar (20th century), US paediatricians]... crigler–najjar syndrome

Cross-sectional Imaging

any technique that produces an image in the form of a section through the body with the structures cut across. The main techniques are *ultrasonography, *computerized tomography, *magnetic resonance imaging, and some *nuclear medicine techniques (see positron emission tomography; SPECT scanning). If a series of thin-section images is stacked they can be ‘cut’ through to show other planes or allow reconstruction of three-dimensional images.... cross-sectional imaging

Crouzon Syndrome

(craniofacial dysostosis) a genetic disorder characterized by premature fusion of the skull sutures, leading to distortion in the shape of the head. It is a generalized form of *craniosynostosis, with a wide skull, high forehead, widely spaced eyes (ocular *hypertelorism), and *exophthalmos.See also Apert syndrome. [O. Crouzon (1874–1938), French neurologist]... crouzon syndrome

Cullen Sign

a bluish bruiselike appearance around the umbilicus due to bleeding into the peritoneum. Causes include a ruptured ectopic pregnancy and acute *pancreatitis. [T. S. Cullen (1868–1953), US gynaecologist]... cullen sign

Curschmann’s Spirals

elongated *casts of the smaller bronchi, which are coughed up in bronchial asthma. They unroll to a length of 2 cm or more and have a central core ensheathed in mucus and cell debris. [H. Curschmann (1846–1910), German physician]... curschmann’s spirals

Dalteparin Sodium

see low-molecular-weight heparin.... dalteparin sodium

Dance’s Sign

see sign of Dance.... dance’s sign

Dandy–walker Syndrome

a form of *cerebral palsy in which the *cerebellum is usually the part of the brain affected. It leads to unsteadiness of balance and an abnormal gait and may be associated with *hydrocephalus. [W. E. Dandy (1886–1946) and A. E. Walker (1907–95), US surgeons]... dandy–walker syndrome

Day-case Surgery

surgical procedures that can be performed in a single day, without the need to admit the patient for an overnight stay in hospital. Modern techniques of surgery and anaesthesia now enable many surgical cases of minor and intermediate degrees of severity to be treated in this way: examples include many breast lesions, dilatation and curettage, and operations for hernia and varicose veins. Special units are established in many hospitals.... day-case surgery

De Clérambault Syndrome

see erotomania. [G. G. de Clérambault (1872–1934), French physician]... de clérambault syndrome

Deep Brain Stimulation

(DBS) a surgical treatment involving the implantation of a medical device that sends electrical impulses to specific parts of the brain. DBS in selected brain regions can provide benefits for treatment-resistant movement disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease, tremor, and *dystonia.... deep brain stimulation

Delayed Suture

(delayed primary closure) a technique used in the closure of contaminated wounds and wounds associated with tissue necrosis, such as those produced by missile injuries. The wound is partially closed after it has been cleaned sufficiently to allow adequate healing.... delayed suture

Denys–drash Syndrome

a rare disorder consisting of the triad of *nephroblastoma (Wilms’ tumour), congenital nephropathy, and intersex disorders, resulting from mutations in the Wilm’s tumour suppressor gene (WT1). Incomplete forms exist; congenital nephropathy, with diffuse mesangial sclerosis, is the constant feature with either Wilms’ tumour or intersex disorders, usually in the form of male *pseudohermaphroditism. [P. Denys (20th century), French physician; A. Drash (20th century), British physician]... denys–drash syndrome

Department Of Health And Human Services

(HHS) the major US government agency providing health care. The department was created in 1953 and assumed its current name in 1980. HHS administers more than 300 health and health-related programmes and services, including *Medicare and *Medicaid. Other activities include research, immunization services, and providing financial assistance for low-income families. Almost a quarter of federal spending occurs through HHS.... department of health and human services

Department Of Health And Social Care

(DHSC) (in Britain) a department of central government that supports the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care in meeting his or her obligations, which include the *National Health Service, the promotion and protection of the health of the nation, and social care, including some oversight of personal social services provided by local authorities. The department is staffed by civil servants, including some health professionals. Following the reforms of the Health and Social Care Act 2012, the Department no longer has direct control of the NHS, which has passed to *NHS England. The name of the department was expanded from ‘Department of Health’ in 2018. Equivalent departments support the ministers responsible for health services in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

DHSC section of the website: provides information on a wide range of public health issues... department of health and social care

Dexamethasone Suppression Tests

(DSTs) tests based on the principle that appropriate doses of *dexamethasone can suppress the output of cortisol from the adrenal glands in the normal state and that this ability is reduced or lost in *Cushing’s syndrome. In the overnight DST 1 mg of dexamethasone is administered at midnight and the serum cortisol level is measured at 9.00 am the next morning. Failure to suppress cortisol output may indicate Cushing’s syndrome but also occurs in patients with obesity and depressive illness. In the low-dose DST (0.5 mg dexamethasone every 6 hours for 48 hours), cortisol suppression occurs in patients with obesity and depression but not in those with Cushing’s syndrome. In the high-dose DST (2 mg dexamethasone every 6 hours for 48 hours), cortisol is suppressed in patients with Cushing’s disease (in which excess amounts of ACTH are secreted by the pituitary gland) but not in those with Cushing’s syndrome due to other causes. Although the low- and high-dose tests are unreliable, all three tests should be performed to aid the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome.... dexamethasone suppression tests

Diabetic Hand Syndrome

the combination of features, often found in the hands of long-standing diabetic subjects, consisting of *Dupuytren’s contractures, knuckle pads, *carpal tunnel syndrome, *cheiroarthropathy, and sclerosing *tenosynovitis.... diabetic hand syndrome

Diabetic Holiday Foot Syndrome

a condition in which patients with diabetic sensory polyneuropathy (see diabetic neuropathy) suffer significant trauma to their insensate feet through holiday activities. These may include walking on hot flagstones or sand and wearing ill-fitting shoes. The condition may be prevented with prior education and advice and by maintaining safe footcare practices.... diabetic holiday foot syndrome

Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders

see DSM.... diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders

Didmoad Syndrome

see Wolfram syndrome.... didmoad syndrome

Differences Of Sexual Development

(DSDs) see intersex.... differences of sexual development

Di George Syndrome

a hereditary condition resulting in an inability to fight infections (immunodeficiency) associated with absence of the parathyroid gland and the thymus, abnormalities of the heart, and low calcium levels. Affected children are prone to *Candida infections and often present with *failure to thrive. The condition has also been named CATCH-22: Cardiac abnormalities, Abnormal facies, T-cell deficiency (from absent thymus), Cleft palate, Hypocalcaemia, chromosome 22 (in which the defect lies). [A. M. di George (1921–2009), US paediatrician]... di george syndrome

Digital Spot Imaging

(DSI) the production of static images using an *image intensifier, usually during a fluoroscopic examination. The images can be stored digitally (see digitization) and either transferred to photographic film or viewed on a TV monitor.... digital spot imaging

Dimethyl Sulfoxide

(DMSO) a drug that is instilled (in solution) into the bladder for the relief of symptoms of *interstitial cystitis.... dimethyl sulfoxide

Discontinuation Syndrome

symptoms that arise from the sudden cessation of certain centrally acting drugs, such as antidepressants, beta blockers, and antihypertensives. Experiences include a rebound effect in which the original symptoms return but are temporarily worse than before, flulike symptoms and headaches, nausea, and giddiness that is usually short-lived and stops within 36 hours. This syndrome is not a sign of addiction and it does not indicate dependency.... discontinuation syndrome

Diffuse Oesophageal Spasm

a disorder affecting the gullet (oesophagus) in which uncoordinated, sometimes simultaneous, oesophageal contractions precipitate difficulty in swallowing (*dysphagia), regurgitation of food, and chest pain. The cause is unclear. Diagnosis is suggested by characteristic appearances during a *barium swallow (corkscrew oesophagus) and confirmed by oesophageal manometry. Medical treatment comprises the use of calcium-channel blockers, nitrates, and sildenafil; endoscopic treatment may include infiltration of *botulinum toxin in specific oesophageal segments and, infrequently, endoscopic dilatation. Surgical myotomy is reserved for extreme cases.... diffuse oesophageal spasm

Digital Subtraction

a radiological technique that enhances visualization of blood vessels (see angiography). A digitized image is taken before the contrast medium (a ‘mask’) is injected, and this is subtracted by computer from the images taken after contrast injection. Only the blood vessels remain on the image. The technique enables blood-vessel anatomy and blood supply to an organ to be demonstrated more clearly. The quality of the image is very dependent on the patient remaining still, since movement causes severe loss of image (movement *artifact). The technique can also be used in nuclear medicine using two different tracers to look for parathyroid gland tumours.... digital subtraction

Disembarkment Syndrome

see mal de debarquement.... disembarkment syndrome

Disorders Of Sexual Development

(DSDs) see intersex.... disorders of sexual development

Disorganized Schizophrenia

see hebephrenia.... disorganized schizophrenia

Domiciliary Services

(in Britain) health and social services that are available in the home and are distinguished from hospital-based services. They include the services of such personnel as community nurses employed by care trusts (see district nurse; community midwife; health visitor) and social workers and care assistants employed by social service departments of local authorities. The term community services is applied to these services.... domiciliary services

Double J Stents

see stent.... double j stents

Draw-sheet

n. a sheet placed beneath a patient in bed that, when one portion has been soiled or becomes uncomfortably wrinkled, may be pulled under the patient so that another portion may be used. The bed does not have to be remade, and the patient does not have to leave bed.... draw-sheet

Drug-eluting Stent

see stent.... drug-eluting stent

Duane’s Syndrome

an abnormality of the eye muscles leading most commonly to restricted abduction (outward movement of the eye away from the midline) of one eye. On attempted adduction (inward movement of the eye towards the midline) of that same eye there is retraction of the eye into the orbit and narrowing of the opening between the eyelids. [A. Duane (1858–1926), US ophthalmologist]... duane’s syndrome

Ductal Carcinoma In Situ

(DCIS) the earliest stage of breast cancer, detectable by mammography, which is confined to the lactiferous (milk) ducts of the breast. See carcinoma in situ.... ductal carcinoma in situ

Dukes’ Staging

a widely accepted histological classification of the extent of tumours of the colon and rectum, which is useful for prognosis. There have been modifications to the original classification. [Sir C. Dukes (1890–1977), British pathologist]... dukes’ staging

Dynamic Splintage

a technique that retains the essentials of splinting but allows some controlled movement of the restrained body part.... dynamic splintage

Dysmnesic Syndrome

a disorder of memory in which new information is not learned but old material is well remembered. See Korsakoff’s syndrome.... dysmnesic syndrome

Eagle–barrett Syndrome

see prune belly syndrome.... eagle–barrett syndrome

Early Warning System

(EWS) a system to detect deteriorating patients on the ward. Certain physical parameters are accorded scores: the higher the scores for individual patients, the greater the deterioration in their condition. Parameters scored include blood pressure, respiratory rate, pulse rate, blood oxygen saturation, and level of consciousness. Adjustments can be made for increased age.... early warning system

Edwards’ Syndrome

a condition resulting from a genetic abnormality in which an extra chromosome is present – there are three no. 18 chromosomes instead of the usual two. Affected babies, who rarely survive, have a characteristic abnormally shaped head, low birth weight, prominent heels (‘rocker-bottom feet’), heart abnormalities, and severe learning disabilities. Prenatal screening (by *nuchal translucency scanning) and diagnosis (by *amniocentesis or *chorionic villus sampling) are possible. [J. H. Edwards (1928–2007), British geneticist]... edwards’ syndrome

Ekbom’s Syndrome

1. see restless legs syndrome. 2. see delusional infestation. [K. A. Ekbom (1907–77), Swedish neurologist]... ekbom’s syndrome

Ehlers–danlos Syndrome

any one of a rare group of inherited (autosomal *dominant or autosomal *recessive) disorders of the connective tissue involving abnormal or deficient *collagen, the protein that gives the body tissues strength. There are several types of differing severity. The skin of affected individuals is very elastic but also very fragile: it bruises easily and scars poorly, the scars often being paper-thin. The joints of those affected tend to be very mobile (double-jointed) and dislocate easily. In some types the uterus or bowel can rupture or the valves in the heart can be weaker than normal. [E. L. Ehlers (1863–1937), Danish dermatologist; H. A. Danlos (1844–1912), French dermatologist]... ehlers–danlos syndrome

Electrophysiological Study

(EPS) an assessment of the electrical system of the heart by means of thin preshaped wires passed into the heart via the femoral vein. An *electrocardiogram is recorded from various points within the heart, and the reaction of the heart to timed electrical stimuli is observed. The information obtained guides treatment of arrhythmia, particularly *radiofrequency ablation.... electrophysiological study

Employment And Support Allowance

(in Britain) an allowance payable to people under state retirement age who are unable to work because of illness or disability. Entitlement depends on either an adequate record of National Insurance contributions or satisfying income-related criteria. An assessment-phase allowance is paid during the first 13 weeks of a claim, and eligible claimants are paid the main-phase rate following a work capability assessment. The part of this allowance based on income is currently being replaced by a component of *universal credit; the part based on National Insurance contributions will remain in place.... employment and support allowance

Empty Nose Syndrome

an *iatrogenic condition that can follow surgery to widen the internal nasal cavity, particularly *turbinectomy. It is characterized by a sensation of dryness, and although the nasal cavity has been enlarged there is often a paradoxical feeling of nasal obstruction.... empty nose syndrome

Empty Sella Syndrome

a congenital malformation of the bony structure (the *sella turcica) that houses the pituitary gland such that the space is largely filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which squashes the usually spherical gland into a flattened shape against the floor of the sella. It is usually associated with enlargement of the sella, which can be seen on lateral X-ray. Only 10% of cases of this condition have defective pituitary function.... empty sella syndrome

Endemic Syphilis

see bejel.... endemic syphilis

Endodermal Sinus Tumour

a rare tumour of fetal remnants of the ovaries or testes. In women it is an aggressive malignant ovarian tumour that develops in adolescence and may secrete alpha-fetoprotein and human chorionic gonadotrophin, which can be used as *tumour markers. It is treated by oophorectomy with adjuvant chemotherapy.... endodermal sinus tumour

Endoscopic Sinus Surgery

(ESS) surgery of the *paranasal sinuses using endoscopes. Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) clears inflamed tissue from routes of sinus drainage and aeration to allow the other sinuses to return to normal.... endoscopic sinus surgery

End-stage Renal Failure

(ESRF, CKD 5) the most advanced stage of kidney failure, which is reached when the *glomerular filtration rate (GFR) falls to 15 ml/min (normal GFR = 100 ml/min).... end-stage renal failure

Enoxaparin Sodium

see low-molecular-weight heparin.... enoxaparin sodium

Episodic Cranial Sensory Shock

see exploding head syndrome.... episodic cranial sensory shock

Epworth Sleepiness Scale

a questionnaire to assess the likelihood of falling asleep. It is used to investigate sleep disorders, including *obstructive sleep apnoea.... epworth sleepiness scale

Euthyroid Sick Syndrome

(sick euthyroid syndrome) a syndrome characterized by alteration in the thyroid function tests in which the level of triiodothyronine is markedly reduced, thyroxine is slightly reduced, and thyroid-stimulating hormone is reduced or normal. This syndrome is commonly seen in nonthyroidal illness, due to altered metabolism and transport of the thyroid hormones, but can be mistaken for secondary *hypothyroidism.... euthyroid sick syndrome

Exploding Head Syndrome

(EHS, episodic cranial sensory shock) an auditory *hallucination, characterized by the perception of a sudden loud noise in the head or ears, that is experienced during a transition between sleep stages. The cause is not currently known.... exploding head syndrome

Felty’s Syndrome

a disorder characterized by enlargement of the spleen (*splenomegaly), rheumatoid arthritis, and a decrease in the number of neutrophils in the blood (see neutropenia). [A. R. Felty (1895–1964), US physician]... felty’s syndrome

Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery

(FGCS) surgery to alter the size or shape of the *vulva and/or vagina when these are a cause of significant distress or sexual dysfunction. FGCS includes labioplasty (reduction or alteration of the labia), clitoral hood reduction (excision of excess skin in the fold surrounding the clitoris), and hymenoplasty (partial or complete reconstruction of the hymen).... female genital cosmetic surgery

Ferric Sulphate

an iron salt used in solution to stop bleeding, for example in pulpotomy of primary teeth.... ferric sulphate

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

(FASD, fetal alcohol syndrome, FAS) a condition of newborn babies that results from the toxic effects on the fetus of maternal alcohol abuse. Babies have a low birth weight and growth is retarded. They have a small head (*microcephaly), low-set ears, eye, nose, lip, and nail abnormalities, and disturbances of behaviour and intellect. The greater the alcohol abuse, the more severe the fetal manifestations.... fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

Fetal Scalp Electrode

an electrical wire set into a sharp spiral metal tip and encased in a plastic sheath. It is attached to the fetal scalp for direct measurement of fetal heart rate by electrical activity.... fetal scalp electrode

Figo Staging

a classification drawn up by the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics to define the extent of the spread of gynaecological cancers.... figo staging

First-rank Symptom

see Schneiderian first- and second-rank symptoms.... first-rank symptom

Fissure Sealant

(in dentistry) a plastic coating that is bonded to the enamel surface of premolar and molar teeth to seal the fissures, in order to prevent dental caries. Composite resins, unfilled resins, and glass ionomer cements have been used as fissure sealants.... fissure sealant

Fitz-hugh–curtis Syndrome

a condition in which infection due to *pelvic inflammatory disease spreads to the right upper quadrant of the *abdomen. Adhesions form between the liver and the anterior abdominal wall causing *perihepatitis, with pain and liver function abnormalities. [T. Fitz-Hugh and A. H. Curtis (20th century), US physicians]... fitz-hugh–curtis syndrome

Floppy Baby Syndrome

see amyotonia congenita.... floppy baby syndrome

Fluorescein Sodium

a water-soluble orange dye that glows with a brilliant green colour when blue light is shone on it. A dilute solution is used to detect defects in the surface of the cornea, since it stains areas where the *epithelium is not intact. In retinal *angiography it is injected into a vein and its circulation through the blood vessels of the retina is viewed and photographed by a special camera.... fluorescein sodium

Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization

see fish.... fluorescence in situ hybridization

Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis

(FSGS) a condition in which there is scarring in some (focal) glomeruli that affects only part (segmental) of the glomerular capillary tuft. Primary FSGS overlaps with *minimal change nephropathy and typically presents with the *nephrotic syndrome. Secondary FSGS has a wide range of causes, from viral infections, including HIV, to haemodynamic changes associated with reduced renal mass, hypertension, and obesity, and is usually associated with less severe proteinuria.... focal segmental glomerulosclerosis

Fordyce Spots

visible sebaceous glands present in most individuals. They are 1–3-mm painless papules that may be noticed on the scrotum, shaft of the penis, labia, and inner surface and border of the lips. They become more visible from puberty onwards and are easier to see when the skin is stretched. Completely harmless, they are not sexually transmitted or infectious and do not require any treatment. [J. A. Fordyce (1858–1925), US dermatologist]... fordyce spots

Four-layer System

a continuous compression bandage consisting of four layers that are applied and left in situ for up to seven days to treat venous leg ulcers, increasing the chance of healing by up to 30%. Thorough assessment of the patient’s status must be undertaken before the application.... four-layer system

Framingham Risk Score

an assessment tool that predicts a ten-year risk of developing cardiovascular disease based on gender, age, total and HDL cholesterol, blood pressure, and smoking, thereby enabling preventative treatment. It does not incorporate the presence of diabetes or familial history of cardiovascular disease into the scoring.... framingham risk score

Fröhlich’s Syndrome

a disorder of the *hypothalamus (part of the brain) affecting males: the boy is overweight with sexual development absent and disturbances of sleep and appetite. Medical name: dystrophia adiposogenitalis. [A. Fröhlich (1871–1953), Austrian neurologist]... fröhlich’s syndrome

Froin’s Syndrome

a condition in which the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) displays a combination of yellow colour and high protein content. It is characteristic of a block to the spinal circulation of CSF often caused by a tumour. [G. Froin (1874–1932), French physician]... froin’s syndrome

Fuchs’ Spots

pigmented lesions in the macular area of the retina that are seen in severely myopic (short-sighted) individuals. They are breaks in *Bruch’s membrane allowing choroidal *neovascularization and can result in reduced vision. [E. Fuchs]... fuchs’ spots

Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery

(FESS) see endoscopic sinus surgery.... functional endoscopic sinus surgery

Functional Seizure

see non-epileptic seizure.... functional seizure

Gardner–diamond Syndrome

(painful bruising syndrome, psychogenic purpura) a rare disorder, characterized by unexplained, recurrent, and painful bruising, typically arising after physical and/or psycho-emotional stress. Classically, ecchymoses spontaneously appear and are associated with a prodrome of warmth and pain at the sites. The condition, which is seen primarily in young to middle-aged women, is induced by trauma and associated with *personality disorders. Research into the syndrome is sparse but recent publications suggest that only a minority of patients experience a serious reduction in their quality of life, that the condition seems to be dermal rather than systematic in most patients, and that it seems to be associated with ongoing stress. [L. K. Diamond (1902–1999), US paediatrician; F. H. Gardner (1919–2013), US haematologist]... gardner–diamond syndrome

Gardner’s Syndrome

a variant form of familial adenomatous *polyposis in which polyps in the colon are associated with fibromas, *sebaceous cysts, and *osteomas (benign tumours), especially of the skull and jaw. [E. J. Gardner (1909–89), US physician]... gardner’s syndrome

Gastric Bypass Surgery

any of several procedures of *bariatric surgery that allow food to bypass parts of the gut in order to reduce absorption of nutrients and calories. Such operations often lead to greater weight loss than restrictive procedures, such as *gastric banding and *stomach stapling, but there are significant long-term complications relating to chronic malabsorption and patients must remain under long-term specialist follow-up.... gastric bypass surgery

Gastric Stapling

see stomach stapling.... gastric stapling

Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumour

(GIST) a rare type of sarcoma arising from the gastrointestinal tract (usually the stomach), characterized by the presence of the receptor c-kit/CD117 on the surface of the tumour cells, which stimulates division of these cells. It displays a wide range of malignant behaviour. Specific treatment is available with *tyrosine kinase inhibitors.... gastrointestinal stromal tumour

General Household Survey

a rolling survey carried out annually (1971–2007) in Great Britain by the *Office for National Statistics. It included questions about the household and questions to be completed by all individuals aged over 16 within the household. It covered a wide variety of topics, such as health, employment, pensions, education, and income. It was succeeded (2007–12) by the general lifestyle survey. See also census.... general household survey

General Practitioner With Special Interest

(GPwSI, GPSI) see general practitioner.... general practitioner with special interest

Genuine Stress Incontinence

see incontinence.... genuine stress incontinence

Gerstmann’s Syndrome

a group of symptoms that represent a partial disintegration of the patient’s recognition of his or her *body image. It consists of an inability to name the individual fingers, misidentification of the right and left sides of the body, and inability to write or make mathematical calculations (see acalculia; agraphia). It is caused by disease in the association area of the dominant (usually left) parietal lobe of the brain. [J. G. Gerstmann (1887–1969), Austrian neurologist]... gerstmann’s syndrome

Gerstmann–straussler–scheinker Syndrome

an autosomal *dominant condition that is caused by a mutation in the *prion protein gene and resembles *Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). Patients present with cerebellar dysfunction (*ataxia and *dysarthria) and later develop dementia. They continue to deteriorate over several years, in contrast with patients with CJD, who deteriorate rapidly over periods of less than 12 months. [J. G. Gerstmann]... gerstmann–straussler–scheinker syndrome

Giemsa’s Stain

a mixture of *methylene blue and *eosin, used for distinguishing different types of white blood cell and for detecting parasitic microorganisms in blood smears. It is one of the *Romanowsky stains. [G. Giemsa (1867–1948), German chemist]... giemsa’s stain

Gilbert’s Syndrome

familial unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia: a condition due to a congenital deficiency of the enzyme UDP glucuronyl transferase in liver cells that is inherited as an autosomal *dominant or autosomal *recessive characteristic. Patients become mildly jaundiced, especially if they fast, overexert themselves, or have concomitant infection. Most patients are diagnosed following investigation of mildly abnormal liver function tests. The condition is lifelong but of little clinical consequence. [N. A. Gilbert (1858–1927), French physician]... gilbert’s syndrome

Gleason Score

a numerical score from two to ten, which is the sum of the two *Gleason grades given to the most common and second most common pattern of prostate cancer seen in the tumour.... gleason score

Glucagon Stimulation Test

a test for *phaeochromocytomas not displaying typically high levels of plasma *catecholamines. An intravenous bolus of *glucagon is administered and the test is positive when there is a threefold increase in plasma catecholamine levels with a consequent rise in blood pressure. The test is now very rarely used due to safer and more sensitive screening tests, combined with modern tumour imaging techniques.... glucagon stimulation test

Gordon’s Syndrome

(pseudohypoaldosteronism type II, chloride shunt syndrome) an autosomal *dominant condition associated with increased chloride absorption in the distal tubule leading to a syndrome of mild volume expansion, hypertension, and metabolic acidosis with otherwise normal renal function. Plasma *renin and *aldosterone are suppressed as a result of the volume expansion. Other features can include short stature, intellectual impairment, muscle weakness, and renal stones.... gordon’s syndrome

Gorlin’s Syndrome

a genetic condition characterized by disorders of the skin, bones, and nervous system, with a markedly increased risk of developing multiple *basal cell carcinomas. [R. J. Gorlin (1923– ), US pathologist]... gorlin’s syndrome

Gott Shunt

a heparin-bonded shunt used to bypass sections of aorta that are being operated on. It is one of several shunts used in operations on the heart and arteries.... gott shunt

Graham Steell Murmur

a soft high-pitched heart *murmur best heard over the second left intercostal space in early *diastole. It is a sign of *pulmonary regurgitation. [Graham Steell (1851–1942), British physician]... graham steell murmur

Grey Scale

(in radiology) a scale representing the possible gradient of densities from black to white for each *pixel in an image. In an *analogue image this gradient is smooth. A *digital image has many discrete steps. The more steps allowed, the closer to representing the true analogue image it comes, although more steps require more computer memory. Images can be manipulated by *windowing. This concept is particularly valuable in *computerized tomography. See Hounsfield unit; digitization.... grey scale

Grey Turner Sign

a bluish bruiselike appearance around the flanks, which is seen in acute *pancreatitis. [G. Grey Turner (1877–1951), British surgeon]... grey turner sign

Ground Substance

the matrix of *connective tissue, in which various cells and fibres are embedded.... ground substance

Group B Streptococcus

(GBS) a Gram-positive bacterium that causes life-threatening infections in newborn infants following vaginal delivery (see Streptococcus; Lancefield classification). 20% of pregnant women are carriers and have no symptoms; however, *vertical transmission of the bacterium from mother to fetus at the time of delivery may lead to neonatal sepsis, characterized by pneumonia, meningitis, and death in some cases. Antibiotic prophylaxis with penicillin during labour is recommended for women with risk factors or who are known to be carriers.... group b streptococcus

Haab’s Striae

splits or tears in *Descemet’s membrane occurring during infancy, commonly as a result of congenital glaucoma. [O. Haab (1850–1931), German ophthalmologist]... haab’s striae

Hamman’s Sign

a crunching sound synchronous with the heartbeat heard with a stethoscope in 45–50% of patients with *pneumomediastinum. [L. V. Hamman (1877–1946), US physician]... hamman’s sign

Hand–foot Syndrome

see palmoplantar erythrodysaesthesia.... hand–foot syndrome

Hand–schüller–christian Disease

see Langerhans cell histiocytosis. [A. Hand (1868–1949), US paediatrician; A. Schüller (1874–1958), Austrian neurologist; H. A. Christian (1876–1951), US physician]... hand–schüller–christian disease

Happy Puppet Syndrome

see Angelman syndrome.... happy puppet syndrome

Harrison’s Sulcus

a depression on both sides of the chest wall of a child between the pectoral muscles and the lower margin of the ribcage. It is caused by exaggerated suction of the diaphragm when breathing in and develops in conditions in which the airways are partially obstructed (e.g. poorly treated asthma) or when the lungs are abnormally congested due to some congenital abnormality of the heart. [E. Harrison (1789–1838), British physician]... harrison’s sulcus

Hartmann’s Solution

a *physiological solution used for infusion into the circulation. In addition to essential ions, it also contains glucose. [A. F. Hartmann (1898–1964), US paediatrician]... hartmann’s solution

Haversian System

one of the cylindrical units of which compact *bone is made. A Haversian canal forms a central tube, around which are alternate layers of bone matrix (lamellae) and lacunae containing bone cells. The lacunae are linked by minute channels (canaliculi).... haversian system

Hazardous Substance

(in occupational health) see COSHH.

HbA1c see glycated haemoglobin.... hazardous substance

Health And Safety Executive

(HSE) (in Britain) a statutory body responsible for health and safety in the workplace (including factories, offices, and farms). See also COSHH.

HSE website: provides guidance on a wide range of health and safety topics... health and safety executive

Health And Social Care Information Centre

(HSCIC) formerly, an executive nondepartmental public body set up in April 2013 to collect, analyse, and publish UK national health data and supply IT systems and services to health-care providers nationwide. It was rebranded as *NHS Digital in August 2016.... health and social care information centre

Health Service Manager

an administrator with special training and skills in management who is concerned with the planning and provision of health services and with managing performance. Some managers enter the profession via the NHS Graduate Management Training Scheme; for others the basic training is in disciplines other than health; however, doctors, nurses, and others may fill such posts, sometimes combining them with professional appointments. See also National Health Service.... health service manager

Health Service Planning

balancing the health and health-care needs of a community, assessed by such indices as mortality, morbidity, and disability, with the resources available to meet these needs in terms of human resources (including ensuring the numbers in training grades meet future requirements) and technical resources, such as hospitals (capital planning), equipment, and medicines. See also clinical audit.... health service planning

Heerfordt’s Syndrome

a rare syndrome in which *sarcoidosis is associated with swelling of the parotid and other salivary glands, uveitis, fever, and paralysis of the facial nerve. It can be treated with steroids but generally resolves spontaneously.... heerfordt’s syndrome

Hegar’s Sign

an indication of pregnancy detectable between the 6th and 12th weeks: used before modern urine tests for pregnancy were available. If the fingers of one hand are inserted into the vagina and those of the other are placed over the pelvic cavity, the lower part of the uterus feels very soft compared with the body of the uterus above and the cervix below. [A. Hegar (1830–1914), German gynaecologist]... hegar’s sign

Helicopter-based Emergency Medical Services

see HEMS.... helicopter-based emergency medical services

Hemifacial Spasm

a type of *dystonia that results in irregular spasms affecting the facial muscles on one side. It is usually due to irritation of the facial nerve by an overlying artery within the skull base. Treatment is with injections of *botulinum toxin.... hemifacial spasm

Henoch–schönlein Purpura

(Schönlein–Henoch purpura, anaphylactoid purpura) a common, and frequently recurrent, form of *purpura found especially (but not exclusively) in young children. It is characterized by red weals and a purple rash on the buttocks and lower legs due to bleeding into the skin from inflamed capillaries, together with arthritis, gastrointestinal symptoms, and (in some cases) nephritis. Glucocorticoids are often used for treatment. [E. H. Henoch (1820–1910), German paediatrician; J. L. Schönlein (1793–1864), German physician]... henoch–schönlein purpura

Hepatorenal Syndrome

impairment of renal function, which can occur in acute or chronic liver disease. The condition is associated with intrarenal vasoconstriction and extrarenal vasodilation and hypotension, and the kidney disease is functional rather than structural in nature. There are two common clinical presentations. An acute form (type 1) is characterized by rapid spontaneous deterioration in renal function against a background of acute liver failure, acute alcoholic hepatitis, or acute decompensation of chronic cirrhotic liver disease. A chronic form (type 2) is characterized by insidious onset and slowly progressive deterioration in renal function. This is most often observed in patients with decompensated cirrhosis and portal hypertension. The prognosis of hepatorenal syndrome is extremely poor, and the best hope of survival is usually with liver transplantation.... hepatorenal syndrome

Hereditary Periodic Fever Syndromes

a group of rare inherited disorders characterized by recurrent attacks of fever and inflammation in the absence of infection. They include familial Mediterranean fever (see polyserositis), tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS), and the cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome (CAPS). Causative gene mutations have been identified.... hereditary periodic fever syndromes

Hoffmann’s Sign

(finger-flexion reflex) an abnormal reflex elicited by flicking the distal phalanx of the patient’s middle finger sharply downwards. Hoffmann’s sign is positive when there is a brisk flexion response in the index finger and thumb. It indicates an upper *motor neuron response due to a disorder at or above the cervical (neck) level of the spinal cord. [J. Hoffmann (1857–1919), German neurologist]... hoffmann’s sign

Holmes-adie Syndrome

see Adie’s syndrome.... holmes-adie syndrome

Homans’ Sign

a test for deep vein thrombosis of the calf. With the patient lying supine, the examiner squeezes the calf firmly and dorsiflexes the foot; the test is positive if deep-seated pain is felt in the calf. [J. Homans (1877–1954), US physician]... homans’ sign

Hospital Episode Statistics

(HES) (in England) a database containing data on all admissions to NHS hospitals and admissions of NHS patients treated elsewhere. See record linkage.... hospital episode statistics

Hospital Social Worker

a social worker employed to assist hospital patients with social problems that may arise through illness. See also social services.... hospital social worker

Hourglass Stomach

a deformity of the stomach in which the ‘waist’ is constricted by fibrosis caused by a chronic peptic ulcer, producing an upper and a lower cavity separated by a narrow channel.... hourglass stomach

House–brackmann Facial Nerve Grading System

(House–Brackmann score, House–Brackmann scale, House–Brackmann facial weakness scale) a six-point grading system for patients with *Bell’s palsy or other forms of facial nerve palsy. Grade I is normal function; grade VI is a total palsy. [J. W. House and D. E. Brackmann (21st century), US otorhinolarygologists]... house–brackmann facial nerve grading system

Hudson–stähli Line

a linear horizontal yellowish line seen in the deep epithelium of ageing corneas. [A. C. Hudson (1875–1962), British ophthalmologist; J. Stähli (20th century), Swiss ophthalmologist]... hudson–stähli line

Hughes Syndrome

see antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. [G. Hughes (21st century), British physician]... hughes syndrome

Human Chorionic Somatomammotrophin

see human placental lactogen.... human chorionic somatomammotrophin

Human Leucocyte Antigen System

see HLA system.... human leucocyte antigen system

Hunter’s Syndrome

a hereditary disorder caused by deficiency of an enzyme that results in the accumulation of protein–carbohydrate complexes and fats in the cells of the body (see mucopolysaccharidosis). This leads to learning disability, enlargement of the liver and spleen, and prominent coarse facial features (gargoylism). The disease is *sex-linked, being restricted to males, although females can be *carriers. Medical name: mucopolysaccharidosis type II. [C. H. Hunter (1872–1955), US physician]... hunter’s syndrome

Hyper-igm Syndrome

an inherited immunodeficiency syndrome characterized by normal or high IgM levels with absence of IgA, IgG, and IgE (see immunoglobulin). Patients are susceptible to bacterial and opportunistic infections. Some cases are due to a mutation in the gene encoding the CD40 ligand, which is synthesized by *helper T cells and is involved in activation of B cells to produce circulating antibodies.... hyper-igm syndrome

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State

(HHS) a state of extreme hyperglycaemia seen in type 2 diabetes accompanied by dehydration that can be severe, typically triggered by illness in a patient with type 2 diabetes or a patient with previously unknown type 2 diabetes. It was previously known as hyperosmolar non-ketotic hyperglycaemia (HONK). Emergency hospital treatment is required to control blood glucose levels and to treat the dehydration and the underlying precipitating cause. There is a significant mortality, especially in the elderly and patients with other disorders (e.g. vascular disease). While insulin is required as part of the initial emergency treatment, the patient often does not need insulin in the longer term, when well.... hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state

Hyperviscosity Syndrome

a collection of symptoms resulting from an increase in the viscosity of blood. These symptoms include epistaxis (nosebleed), blurred vision, dizziness, headaches, drowsiness, confusion, and breathlessness. Hyperviscosity of the blood occurs in conditions such as polycythaemia, plasma-cell myeloma, leukaemia, and Waldenström’s macroglobulinaemia.... hyperviscosity syndrome

Image-guided Surgery

see computer-assisted surgery.... image-guided surgery

Income Support

an income-related benefit payable to those whose income and savings do not exceed a specified maximum level and who do not work full-time. It is currently being replaced by *universal credit.... income support

Induction Loop System

(loop system) a device for helping people with some types of *hearing aid or *cochlear implant to hear more effectively in certain situations. Electrical signals from a television, sound system, or microphone are passed through an amplifier to a wire that is positioned in a loop encompassing the desired listening area. This creates an electromagnetic field that can be picked up by a coil within the hearing aid or cochlear implant. Induction loops are installed in such places as public buildings, lecture theatres, classrooms, and churches. See also assistive listening device.... induction loop system

Injury Scoring System

(injury severity scale, ISS) a system used, particularly in *triage, for grading the severity of an injury. See also abbreviated injury scale.... injury scoring system

International Prostate Symptom Score

(IPSS) a self-administered questionnaire, completed by men with *lower urinary tract symptoms, which consists of seven questions based on the extent of symptoms and a single quality-of-life question. It gives a numerical score, on a scale of 0 to 35, to indicate the severity of the patient’s symptoms. A score of 0–7 indicates mild symptoms, 8–19 moderate symptoms, and 20–35 severe symptoms. The quality-of-life question is scored from 0–6.... international prostate symptom score

Insulin Stress Test

an important but potentially dangerous test of anterior pituitary function involving the deliberate induction of a hypoglycaemic episode with injected insulin and the subsequent measurement of plasma cortisol and growth hormone at regular intervals over the next three hours. The stress of the hypoglycaemia should induce a rise in the levels of these hormones unless the anterior pituitary or the adrenal glands are diseased. The test can induce epileptic seizures or angina in those with a predisposition and should not be performed in susceptible individuals. It is often combined with the thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) test and the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) test in what is known as the triple test (or dynamic pituitary function test).... insulin stress test

Interstitial-cell-stimulating Hormone

see luteinizing hormone.... interstitial-cell-stimulating hormone

Intrauterine System

see IUS.... intrauterine system

Irish Sign Language

(ISL) see sign language.... irish sign language

Iron-storage Disease

see haemochromatosis.... iron-storage disease

Jacquemier’s Sign

a bluish or purplish coloration of the vagina: a possible indication of pregnancy. [J. M. Jacquemier (1806–79), French obstetrician]... jacquemier’s sign

Juvenile-onset Spondylarthropathy

see juvenile idiopathic arthritis.... juvenile-onset spondylarthropathy

Kallmann’s Syndrome

a familial condition that is the most common form of isolated *gonadotrophin deficiency; it is combined with underdevelopment of the olfactory lobes, causing *anosmia. The syndrome is caused by a gene *deletion on the short arm of the X chromosome. Patients often present with delayed puberty. There is an association with *ichthyosis, learning disabilities, obesity, renal and skeletal abnormalities, and undescended testes, but these features are very variable. [F. J. Kallmann (1897–1965), US geneticist]... kallmann’s syndrome

Kartagener’s Syndrome

a hereditary condition in which the heart and other internal organs lie on the opposite side of the body to the norm (i.e. the heart lies on the right; see dextrocardia); it is associated with chronic sinusitis and bronchiectasis. [M. Kartagener (1897–1975), German physician]... kartagener’s syndrome

Kehr’s Sign

pain in the left shoulder caused by irritation of the undersurface of the diaphragm by blood leaking from a ruptured spleen. The pain impulses are referred along the *phrenic nerve. [H. Kehr (1862–1913), German surgeon]... kehr’s sign

Kernig’s Sign

a symptom of *meningitis in which the hamstring muscles in the legs are so stiff that the patient is unable to extend his legs at the knee when the thighs are held at a right angle to the body. [V. Kernig (1840–1917), Russian physician]... kernig’s sign

King–kopetzky Syndrome

see obscure auditory dysfunction.... king–kopetzky syndrome

Kleine–levin Syndrome

a rare episodic disorder characterized by periods (usually of a few days or weeks), in which sufferers eat enormously, sleep for most of the day and night, and may become more dependent or aggressive than normal. Between episodes they are usually quite unaffected. The disorder almost always resolves spontaneously. [W. Kleine (20th century), German neuropsychiatrist; M. Levin (20th century), US neurologist]... kleine–levin syndrome

Kobberling–dunnigan Syndrome

see lipodystrophy.... kobberling–dunnigan syndrome

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

an organic disorder affecting the brain that results in a memory defect in which new information fails to be learnt although events from the past are still recalled; *disorientation in time and place; and a tendency to unintentionally invent material to fill memory blanks (see confabulation). The commonest cause of the condition is untreated *Wernicke’s encephalopathy in the context of alcoholism. Large doses of thiamine are given as treatment. The condition often becomes chronic. [S. S. Korsakoff (1854–1900), Russian neurologist]... korsakoff’s syndrome

Kostmann’s Syndrome

(severe congenital neutropenia) a hereditary (autosomal *recessive) disorder characterized by severe *neutropenia. This results in frequent bacterial infections, and death often occurs before the age of six months.... kostmann’s syndrome

Krukenberg’s Spindle

a vertical linear deposit of brown pigment on the inner surface of the cornea (corneal endothelium), appearing in cases of pigment dispersion syndrome. [F. E. Krukenberg (1871–1946), German pathologist]... krukenberg’s spindle

Lambda Sign

(twin-peak sign) an ultrasound diagnosis of dichorionicity at 10–14 weeks gestation: a peak of placental tissue protrudes into the base of the intertwin membrane. See chorionicity.... lambda sign

Lambdoidal Suture

see suture.... lambdoidal suture

Laryngeal Stroboscopy

a method of studying the movements of the *vocal folds of the *larynx by using stroboscopic light (controlled intermittent flashes) to slow or freeze the movement.... laryngeal stroboscopy

Late-onset Schizophrenia

a mental disorder characterized by systematic *delusions and commonly auditory *hallucinations, but without any other marked symptoms of *mental illness; it was formerly known as paraphrenia. The only loss of contact with reality is in areas affected by the delusions and hallucinations. It is typically seen in the elderly and can also occur in people with severe hearing impediments. Some people develop other symptoms of *schizophrenia over time but in many the personality remains intact over years. *Antipsychotic medication is often useful in treating the illness.... late-onset schizophrenia

Lateral Parapharyngeal Space

see parapharyngeal space.... lateral parapharyngeal space

Laurence–moon–biedl Syndrome

an autosomal *recessive condition characterized by obesity, short stature, learning disabilities, *retinitis pigmentosa, *hypogonadism, and delayed puberty. [J. Z. Laurence (1830–74), British ophthalmologist; R. C. Moon (1844–1914), US ophthalmologist; A. Biedl (1869–1933), Austrian physician]... laurence–moon–biedl syndrome

Leigh Syndrome

a rare metabolic disorder that affects movement and development. Affected children are initially normal but lose coordination and balance as the disease progresses. There is no known cure at present. See also mitochondrial disorders. [D. Leigh (1915–98), British psychiatrist]... leigh syndrome

Lemon Sign

see banana and lemon signs.... lemon sign

Leriche’s Syndrome

a condition in males characterized by absence of penile erection combined with absence of pulses in the femoral arteries and wasting of the buttock muscles. It is caused by occlusion of the abdominal aorta and iliac arteries. [R. Leriche (1879–1956), French surgeon]... leriche’s syndrome

Letterer–siwe Disease

see Langerhans cell histiocytosis. [E. Letterer (20th century) and S. A. Siwe (1897–1966), German physicians]... letterer–siwe disease

Levothyroxine Sodium

see thyroxine.... levothyroxine sodium

Lhermitte’s Sign

a tingling shocklike sensation passing down the arms or trunk when the neck is flexed. It is a nonspecific indication of disease in the cervical (neck) region of the spinal cord. Causes include multiple sclerosis, cervical *spondylosis, and deficiency of vitamin B12. [J. Lhermitte (1877–1959), French neurologist]... lhermitte’s sign

Lichen Sclerosus

a chronic skin disease affecting the anogenital area (and rarely other sites), especially the vulva in women and foreskin in men. It is characterized by sheets of thin ivory-white skin and may be caused by chronic irritation by urine. There is a risk of *squamous cell carcinoma. In women, the condition causes intense itching, and atrophy of the labia minora often occurs. Potent topical corticosteroids are helpful for women. In men, normal penile architecture is progressively lost and a constricting band around the foreskin may appear (causing sexual dysfunction and sometimes *paraphimosis) or sometimes narrowing of the urethral meatus may occur. This sometimes necessitates circumcision.... lichen sclerosus

Lichen Simplex Chronicus

(neurodermatitis) thickened eczematous skin that develops at the site of constant rubbing in susceptible individuals. Common sites are the nape of the neck in women and the lower legs or scrotum in men. Stress may be a relevant factor.... lichen simplex chronicus

Lipsitz Score

a scoring system used for newborn babies who may be withdrawing from maternal opioids or other (usually nonprescription) drugs. See neonatal abstinence syndrome.... lipsitz score

Löfgren’s Syndrome

an acute form of *sarcoidosis characterized by fever, *erythema nodosum, enlarged lymph nodes near the inner border of the lungs, joint pain or inflammation, often involving the ankles, and *uveitis. Symptoms may resolve spontaneously after a few weeks or may need therapy with NSAIDs or low-dose corticosteroids. Recurrence may occur in a minority of patients. [S. Löfgren (1910–78), Swedish clinician]... löfgren’s syndrome

Longitudinal Study

the collection and analysis of data about a group of participants over a period of time, often some years. Compare cross-sectional study. See also cohort study.... longitudinal study

Long Qt Syndrome

prolongation of the *Q–T interval on the electrocardiogram. It indicates susceptibility to ventricular tachycardia (especially *torsades de pointes), ventricular fibrillation, and sudden death. It may be familial or caused by certain drugs (e.g. sotalol, amiodarone, certain antipsychotic drugs).... long qt syndrome

Long-sightedness

n. see hypermetropia.... long-sightedness

Liddle’s Syndrome

a rare autosomal *dominant condition characterized by hypertension associated with hypokalaemia, metabolic alkalosis, and low levels of plasma *renin and *aldosterone. The hypertension often starts in infancy and is due to excess resorption of sodium and excretion of potassium by the renal tubules. The syndrome is caused by a single genetic mutation on chromosome 16, which results in dysregulation of a sodium channel in the distal convoluted tubule. Treatment is with a low salt diet and a potassium-sparing diuretic that directly blocks the sodium channel, such as amiloride or triamterene. [G. G. Liddle (1921–89), US endocrinologist]... liddle’s syndrome

Long-stretch Bandage

a bandage consisting of padding and/or crepe and material containing elastic fibres that can stretch to up 300% of their original length. It is used in the treatment of venous leg ulcers and may be applied dry or as a cohesive layer. The fibres provide constant pressure and should not be worn overnight or during extended periods of rest.... long-stretch bandage

Loop System

see induction loop system.... loop system

Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms

(LUTS) symptoms occurring during urine storage, voiding, or immediately after. These include *frequency, *urgency, *nocturia, *incontinence, *hesitation, *intermittency, *terminal dribble, *dysuria, and *postmicturition dribble. These symptoms used to be known as prostatism. Sometimes they are due to benign prostatic hyperplasia (see prostate gland), but they may be due to *detrusor overactivity, excessive drinking, diuresis due to poorly controlled diabetes, or a urethral stricture.... lower urinary tract symptoms

Lower Uterine Segment

the lower portion of uterus, lying below the loose fold of peritoneum that lies between the uterus and bladder. This does not form until later in pregnancy and is less contractile than the rest of the uterus. A *Caesarean section is performed through the lower segment.... lower uterine segment

Lowe’s Syndrome

see Dent’s disease.... lowe’s syndrome

Lugol’s Solution

(aqueous iodine oral solution) a solution of 5% iodine and 10% potassium iodide, used in the treatment of thyrotoxicosis in emergencies, such as *thyroid crisis, or when surgery cannot wait for more conventional treatments. For its mode of action it utilizes the abnormal *Wolff–Chaikoff effect, seen in cases of thyroiditis. [J. G. A. Lugol (1786–1851), French physician]... lugol’s solution

Lyell’s Syndrome

see toxic epidermal necrolysis. [A. Lyell (20th century), British dermatologist]... lyell’s syndrome

Lynch Syndrome

see hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer.... lynch syndrome

Macleod’s Syndrome

(Swyer-James syndrome) pulmonary *emphysema affecting only one lung and beginning in childhood or in adolescence; it occurs secondarily to necrotizing bronchitis, probably caused by a virus. [W. M. Macleod (1911–77), British physician]... macleod’s syndrome

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

(MRS) a diagnostic technique that utilizes the phenomenon of *nuclear magnetic resonance to obtain a biochemical profile of tissues by exciting elements other than hydrogen in water and other body components. It is particularly useful for biochemical analysis of tissues in the living body. This technique is used clinically in the brain and prostate.... magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Mal De Debarquement Syndrome

(MdDS, disembarkment syndrome) a form of *vertigo in which sufferers experience a sensation of bobbing, rocking, or swaying after getting off a boat or other form of transport. The condition remains little understood.... mal de debarquement syndrome

Malignant Vasovagal Syndrome

see neurocardiogenic syncope.... malignant vasovagal syndrome

Mallory’s Triple Stain

a histological stain consisting of water-soluble aniline blue or methyl blue, orange G, and oxalic acid. Before the stain is applied the tissue is mordanted, then treated with acid fuchsin and phosphomolybdic acid. Nuclei stain red, muscle red to orange, nervous tissue lilac, collagen dark blue, and mucus and connective tissue become blue. [F. B. Mallory]... mallory’s triple stain

Mallory–weiss Syndrome

trauma of the mucosal lining at the junction of the oesophagus (gullet) and stomach following protracted vomiting and retching. It is associated with *haematemesis and rarely perforation of the oesophagus. [G. K. Mallory (1926– ), US pathologist; S. Weiss (1899–1942), US physician]... mallory–weiss syndrome

Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool

see MUST.... malnutrition universal screening tool

Mandibular Advancement Splint

(MAS) an orthodontic device used to advance the mandible to improve the airway in the pharynx during sleep in the treatment of *obstructive sleep apnoea.... mandibular advancement splint

Maple Syrup Urine Disease

(aminoacidopathy) an inborn defect of amino acid metabolism causing an excess of valine, leucine, isoleucine, and alloisoleucine in the urine, which has an odour like maple syrup. Treatment is dietary; if untreated, the condition leads to learning disabilities and death in infancy.... maple syrup urine disease

Marcus Gunn Jaw-winking Syndrome

a congenital condition characterized by drooping (*ptosis) of one eyelid. On opening or moving the mouth, the droopy lid elevates momentarily, resembling a wink. It is believed to be due to an abnormal innervation of the levator muscle by the trigeminal nerve. [R. Marcus Gunn (1850–1909), British ophthalmologist]... marcus gunn jaw-winking syndrome

Matched Pair Study

see case control study.... matched pair study

Mauriceau–smellie–viet Manoeuvre

(MSV manoeuvre) a technique used in breech delivery to promote flexion of, and safely deliver, the fetal head.... mauriceau–smellie–viet manoeuvre

Maxillary Sinus

(maxillary antrum) see paranasal sinuses.... maxillary sinus

Mayer–rokitansky–küster–hauser Syndrome

(Rokitansky–Küster–Hauser syndrome, Müllerian agenesis) congenital absence of the uterus and upper part of the vagina due to failure of development of the *Müllerian duct. It may be associated with skeletal, renal, and auditory abnormalities, but usually presents with amenorrhoea in a patient with otherwise normal secondary sexual characteristics. There is a multidisciplinary approach to treatment, with psychological support, counselling, discussion of creation of a ‘neovagina’ with gradual use of vaginal dilators, and/or surgical vaginal reconstruction. Surrogacy is the only option for childbearing, although oocyte donation from the mother to a surrogate can be discussed. [K. W. Mayer (1795–1868), German gynaecologist; K. von Rokitansky (1804–78), Austrian pathologist; H. Küster and G. A. Hauser (20th century), German gynaecologists]... mayer–rokitansky–küster–hauser syndrome

Mccune–albright Syndrome

polyostotic *fibrous dysplasia of long bones coupled with *café au lait spots and precocious puberty, occurring in both males and females. [D. J. McCune (1902–76), US paediatrician; F. Albright (1900–69), US physician]... mccune–albright syndrome

Meigs Syndrome

the rare combination of a benign ovarian *fibroma with *ascites and a right-sided pleural effusion. [J. V. Meigs (1892–1963), US gynaecologist]... meigs syndrome

Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone

(MSH) a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. In humans it stimulates production and dispersal of melanin in the melanocytes. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (?-MSH), which is released by neurons in the hypothalamus, suppresses appetite and regulates energy balance. It also stimulates sexual activity and is involved in regulation of heart rate and blood pressure.... melanocyte-stimulating hormone

Melkersson–rosenthal Syndrome

a rare disorder characterized by the occurrence together of facial paralysis, enlargement of the glottis, and swollen lips, which is due to lymphatic *stasis and the consequent build-up of protein in the facial tissues. [E. Melkersson (1898–1932), Swedish physician; C. Rosenthal (20th century), German neurologist]... melkersson–rosenthal syndrome

Mental State Examination

(MSE) a full psychiatric examination of signs and symptoms, which takes place during a psychiatric interview and should apply only to signs and symptoms elicited at that time; it should not take into account historical information. The examination is usually divided into the following subheadings: appearance and behaviour, speech, mood, *affect, thought and perception, *insight, and orientation. Usually it also includes a *risk assessment.... mental state examination

Metabolic Syndrome

(insulin resistance syndrome, syndrome X) a very common condition in which impaired glucose tolerance, impaired fasting glucose, or type 2 diabetes (see glucose tolerance test) is combined with central obesity (increased fat within the abdomen), raised blood pressure (*hypertension), and *hyperlipidaemia. It is associated with a risk of premature vascular disease (heart attack and stroke). The principal underlying cause is *insulin resistance, which is genetically determined.... metabolic syndrome

Methylated Spirits

a mixture consisting mainly of ethyl alcohol with *methyl alcohol and petroleum hydrocarbons. The addition of pyridine gives it an objectionable smell, and the dye methyl violet is added to make it recognizable as unfit to drink. It is used as a solvent, cleaning fluid, and fuel.... methylated spirits

Microsurgical Epididymal Sperm Aspiration

see MESA.... microsurgical epididymal sperm aspiration

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome

(MERS) a viral respiratory infection that was first identified in 2012. Humans seem to be infected most easily by contact with dromedary camels (hence the informal name camel flu), although human-to-human infection also occurs. Symptoms include fever, cough, and shortness of breath. Although the syndrome is often mild, death occurs in about a third of diagnosed cases. Most reported cases have been in the Arabian Peninsula, although there was a major outbreak in South Korea in 2015. At present there is no vaccine or treatment.... middle east respiratory syndrome

Midstream Specimen Of Urine

(MSU) a specimen of urine that is subjected to examination for the presence of microorganisms. In order to obtain a specimen that is free of contamination, the periurethral area is cleansed and the patient is requested to discard the initial flow of urine before collecting the specimen in a sterile container.... midstream specimen of urine

Miller–deiker Syndrome

a chromosomal abnormality resulting in a characteristic facial appearance and the absence of the grooves on the surface of the brain (see lissencephaly). Affected individuals have severe learning disabilities.... miller–deiker syndrome

Minimally Conscious State

(MCS) a disorder of consciousness distinct from *persistent vegetative state (PVS) and locked-in syndrome (see vegetative state). Unlike PVS, patients with MCS have partial preservation of conscious awareness although the level of awareness frequently fluctuates over time.... minimally conscious state

Mini-mental State Examination

(MMSE) a brief 30-point questionnaire that is used to screen for cognitive impairment in the diagnosis of dementia. It is also used to estimate the severity of cognitive impairment and to follow the course of cognitive changes in an individual over time, thus making it an effective way to document response to treatment. It tests functions including arithmetic, memory, and orientation.... mini-mental state examination

Mixed Affective State

a state of disordered mood that combines elements of *mania and *depression; it is a common feature of *bipolar affective disorder. Symptoms include overactivity, flight of ideas, depressed mood, and suicidal *ideation.... mixed affective state

Mohs’ Micrographic Surgery

a surgical technique used for removing primarily high-risk nonmelanoma skin cancers, particularly basal cell carcinoma. The technique allows the surgeon to see beyond the visible tumour as the specimen is removed and the histology checked in stages. At each stage, if the tumour involves the margins, further tissue is resected until they are clear. There is an extremely high cure rate. [F. E. Mohs (1910–2002), US surgeon]... mohs’ micrographic surgery

Molar Solution

a solution in which the number of grams of dissolved substance per litre equals its molecular weight, i.e. a solution of molarity 1 M.

mole1 n. the *SI unit of amount of substance, equal to the amount of substance that contains as many elementary units as there are atoms in 0.012 kilograms of carbon-12. The elementary units, which must be specified, may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, etc., or a specified group of such entities. One mole of a compound has a mass equal to its molecular weight expressed in grams. Symbol: mol.

mole2 n. a nonmalignant collection of pigmented cells in the skin. Moles are rare in infancy, increase in numbers during childhood and especially in adolescence, but decline in numbers in old age. They vary widely in appearance, being flat or raised, smooth or hairy. Changes in the shape, colour, etc., of moles in adult life should be investigated as this may be an early sign of malignant *melanoma. Medical name: pigmented naevus. See also atypical mole syndrome.... molar solution

Mood Stabilizer

a drug used in the treatment of bipolar affective disorder to reduce the severity of manic and depressive episodes. Mood stabilizers include *lithium and antiepileptics. More recently antipsychotics have been marketed as mood stabilizers but evidence about their efficacy for this purpose is scarce and their clinical usefulness needs further evaluation.... mood stabilizer

Muga Scan

(multiple-gated acquisition scan) a technique used in *nuclear medicine for studying the left-ventricular function and wall motion of the heart. The patient’s red cells are labelled with radioactive technetium-99m. A gamma camera, connected to an ECG, collects information over a prolonged period for each phase of heart movement (ECG gating) to form an image of the blood pool within the heart at specific points in the cardiac cycle. Tomographic reconstructions can be made to give cross-sectional images of the heart in different phases of the cardiac cycle, using reconstruction *algorithms comparable to CT scanning (see SPECT scanning).... muga scan

Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome

(MODS, multi-organ failure, multiple organ failure, MOF) a common cause of death following severe injury, overwhelming infection, or immune deficiency states.... multiple organ dysfunction syndrome

Multiple System Atrophy

(MSA) a condition that results from degeneration of cells in the *basal ganglia (resulting in *parkinsonism), the *cerebellum (resulting in *ataxia), the *pyramidal system, and the *autonomic nervous system (resulting in symptoms of autonomic failure, such as postural hypotension).... multiple system atrophy

Murphy’s Sign

a sign of inflammation of the gall bladder (see cholecystitis): continuous pressure over the gall bladder while the patient is taking a deep breath will cause pain at the point of maximum inhalation. [J. B. Murphy (1857–1916), US surgeon]... murphy’s sign

Muscle Spindle

a specialized receptor, sensitive to stretch, that is embedded between and parallel to the fibres of striated muscles. These receptors are important for coordinated muscular movement. See also stretch receptor.... muscle spindle

Myelodysplastic Syndromes

(MDS) a group of diseases in which the production of any one or all types of blood cells by the bone marrow is disrupted. Although myelodysplastic syndromes were previously referred to as preleukaemia, only a minority of patients with myelodysplastic syndromes develop leukaemia.... myelodysplastic syndromes

Myocardial Perfusion Scan

(thallium scan) a method to detect and quantify myocardial *ischaemia. An intravenously injected *radionuclide that is taken up by normal heart muscle can be imaged using a *gamma camera. Areas of scar due to *myocardial infarction emit little or no radioactivity and are seen as ‘cold spots’. Exercise is mimicked by infusing drugs to increase the heart rate in order to provoke cold spots in the diagnosis of ischaemic heart disease.... myocardial perfusion scan

Myocardial Stunning

the temporary loss of function of an area of heart muscle due to transient blockage of a coronary artery. It is typically seen following myocardial infarction that is treated promptly by successful emergency *percutaneous coronary intervention. The stunning may last up to two weeks.... myocardial stunning

Naga Sore

see tropical ulcer.... naga sore

National Clinical Assessment Service

(NCAS) see Practitioner Performance Advice.... national clinical assessment service

National Health Service

(NHS) (in Britain) a comprehensive service offering therapeutic and preventive medical and surgical care, including the prescription and dispensing of medicines, spectacles, and medical and dental appliances. Exchequer funds pay for the services of doctors, nurses, and other professionals, as well as residential costs in NHS hospitals, and meet a substantial part of the cost of the medicines and appliances. Legislation enacted in 1946 was implemented in 1948 and the services were subjected to substantial reorganization in 1974 and again in 1982, 1991, 1999, and in 2013 as a result of the Health and Social Care Act 2012. In England overall responsibility is vested in the Secretary of State for Health. Responsibility for commissioning most services is held by *clinical commissioning groups, consisting of GPs in a local area, and commissioning for primary care services and some specialized services is undertaken by *NHS England. Public health functions are largely delivered by local authorities, though some specialist functions are provided by *Public Health England. The relationship between the Secretary of State for Health and the NHS also changed in 2013. The Secretary of State for Health, via the *Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC), no longer has direct control of the day-to-day operation of the NHS. This has passed to NHS England. However, the DHSC continues to provide strategic leadership for the NHS.

Different arrangements apply in Northern Ireland, Wales, and Scotland.

NHS website: includes much basic medical information together with a guide to local services... national health service

National Patient Safety Agency

(NPSA) formerly, a special health authority that led and coordinated work to improve all aspects of patient safety in England. The NPSA comprised three divisions: the National Reporting and Learning Service, the National Research Ethics Service, and the National Clinical Assessment Service. It closed in 2012, with its key functions transferred to *NHS England. In 2016 the same functions were transferred from NHS England to the newly formed *NHS Improvement.... national patient safety agency

National Service Frameworks

(NSFs) formerly, national standards of care published for a variety of conditions and patient groups (the first were for coronary heart disease and mental health). NSFs were ten-year programmes designed to improve, and reduce variations in, the quality of care by defining long-term strategies for delivery of the standards and by setting specific goals. The NSFs were dropped in the reform of the NHS after 2010 and subsequent establishment of *NHS England.... national service frameworks

National Statistics Socio-economic Classification

(NS-SEC) an occupational classification of the national population that was developed to replace older systems based on social classes and socio-economic groups. The groupings are intended to stratify the population according to different forms of employment: households are classified according to the occupation of the household reference person (the person renting, owning, or otherwise responsible for accommodation). The NS-SEC is used for official surveys and statistics, including the *census. The analytic version of the classification has eight classes and is the version used for most analyses.... national statistics socio-economic classification

Negative Symptoms

(in psychiatry) symptoms of schizophrenia characterized by a deficiency in or absence of some aspect of functioning, such as social withdrawal, loss of initiative, and blunted affect. Compare positive symptoms.... negative symptoms

Neglect Syndrome

see hemispatial neglect.... neglect syndrome

Neonatal Early Warning Score

an assessment tool for newborn babies, consisting of a chart in which a combination of *vital signs, neurological involvement, observation of blue skin and lips, and level of behavioural response indicate the appropriate level of concern. It is colour-coordinated from red to green to enable standardized escalation of concerns about the sick baby.... neonatal early warning score

Neonatal Screening

*screening tests carried out on newborn babies to detect diseases that appear in the neonatal period, such as phenylketonuria (see Guthrie test). If these diseases are detected early enough, treatment may be instigated before any irreversible damage occurs to the baby.... neonatal screening

Nephritic Syndrome

generalized inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidneys resulting in a reduction in *glomerular filtration rate, with mild oedema and hypertension resulting from renal salt and water retention. Urine analysis shows the presence of proteinuria and microscopic haematuria with red cell casts. Common and usually self-limiting causes are *Berger’s nephropathy and poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. Less common but more serious causes of the nephritic syndrome are the vasculitides (see vasculitis) and *Goodpasture’s disease, which, untreated, usually prove fatal.... nephritic syndrome

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

(NAS) symptoms and signs exhibited by a newborn baby (neonate) due to drug withdrawal (see dependence). This results when the fetus has been exposed to addictive drugs through maternal substance abuse or misuse. Symptoms tend to occur in the first few days of life (in the case of methadone, which is a long-acting opioid, symptom onset may be delayed). They include tremors and jerking, high-pitched crying, sneezing, sucking of fists, feeding difficulties, shortened periods of sleep between feeds, rapid breathing, sweating, loose stools, nasal stuffiness, and frequent yawning. Treatment includes swaddling or snugly wrapping in a blanket, as babies with NAS are often difficult to comfort. Other nonpharmacological measures include frequent small feeds using high-calorie formula and intravenous fluids if babies become dehydrated. Drug therapy may be used for seizures and withdrawal symptoms.... neonatal abstinence syndrome

Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis

(NSF, nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy) a rare condition, first reported in 1997, that occurs exclusively in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), who develop large areas of hardened skin with fibrotic nodules and plaques. Flexion contractures with an accompanying limitation of range of motion can also occur. Exposure to gadolinium, used as a contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging, has been identified as a causative factor, but many patients with severe CKD have been exposed to gadolinium without consequence. Linear gadolinium preparations (Omniscan, OptiMARK) appear to carry the highest risk of NSF. There is no cure for the condition.... nephrogenic systemic fibrosis

Nerve Conduction Study

a test done to assess the peripheral nervous system. It involves activating the nerves electronically with electrical pulses and measuring the responses obtained.... nerve conduction study

Nerve Entrapment Syndrome

any syndrome resulting from pressure on a nerve from surrounding structures. Examples include the *carpal tunnel syndrome and *meralgia paraesthetica.... nerve entrapment syndrome

Neural Spine

the spinous process situated on the neural arch of a *vertebra.... neural spine

Neurocardiogenic Syncope

(malignant vasovagal syndrome) recurrent loss of consciousness due to a drop in blood pressure mediated by *vasodilatation, *bradycardia, or a combination of the two. Attacks resemble a simple faint, but can be very disabling because they are much more frequent and severe. Treatment comprises increased fluid and salt intake together with training in postural manoeuvres that may prevent attacks. A variety of drug treatments is available, but these are commonly ineffective. Implantation of a permanent *pacemaker may be required if profound bradycardia is a feature.... neurocardiogenic syncope

Neuroendocrine System

the system of dual control of certain activities of the body by means of both nerves and circulating hormones. The functioning of the autonomic nervous system is particularly closely linked to that of the pituitary and adrenal glands. The system can give rise to neuroendocrine tumours (NETs), which have special structural features and often produce active hormones. See also neurohormone; neurosecretion.... neuroendocrine system

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome

a life-threatening syndrome seen after starting *antipsychotic medication. It is characterized by confusion, muscle rigidity, fever, pallor and sweating, urinary incontinence, and a high level of *creatine kinase. Its symptoms can appear similar to *catatonia. Treatment in a high-dependency unit with high-dose benzodiazepines and immediate cessation of antipsychotic drugs is usually indicated.... neuroleptic malignant syndrome

Nhs Business Services Authority

(NHSBSA) a *special health authority formed in 2006 to provide a range of back office and financial services to NHS organizations, contractors, and patients. These include administering the NHS pension scheme, issuing European Health Insurance Cards to UK residents, and issuing penalty charge notices to patients who falsely claim to be exempt from paying prescription charges. NHSBSA also hosts NHS Prescription Services, which provides pharmacies with reimbursement for items supplied under NHS prescriptions.

NHS Business Services Authority website... nhs business services authority

Nhs E-referral Service

an electronic referral system administered by *NHS Digital. Since 2015 it has been used by NHS England to support referrals from GPs to secondary care. Replacing the earlier choose and book system, it enables patients to choose which hospital they are referred to and then to book a convenient date and time for the appointment.... nhs e-referral service

Nhs Prescription Services Authority

(NHSPSA) see NHS Business Services Authority.... nhs prescription services authority

Night Sweat

copious sweating during sleep. Night sweats may be an early indication of tuberculosis, AIDS, or other disease.... night sweat

Non-small-cell Lung Cancer

(NSCLC) any type of lung cancer other than *small-cell lung cancer. Such cancers include *adenocarcinoma of the lung, large-cell carcinomas, and squamous-cell carcinoma of the lung.... non-small-cell lung cancer

Noonan’s Syndrome

an autosomal *dominant condition of males who have all or some of the physical features of *Turner’s syndrome in females but normal sex chromosomes. It is often associated with a low testosterone level and sometimes with reduced sperm production. Other features include cardiovascular defects and most affected individuals have short stature and mild learning disabilities. [J. Noonan (1928– ), US paediatrician]... noonan’s syndrome

Non-epileptic Seizure

n. an event with symptoms that mimic an epileptic seizure but that does not involve abnormal discharges of cortical neurons that would be captured on an EEG. It can be caused by both physiological and psychological conditions. Physiological causes include syncopes, cataplexy, migraine, narcolepsy, parasomnias, and tics. Psychological non-epileptic seizures, also known as psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, can arise from acute distress or anxiety or in the context of a *somatic symptom. People who suffer from epilepsy may have non-epileptic seizures as well. The main visible difference between a non-epileptic seizure and an epileptic seizure is that the former commonly lasts longer than two minutes and can last up to 30 minutes. Also there is occasional pelvic thrusting, the patient’s eyes and mouth are typically closed, and side-to-side head movements are more common than in epileptic seizures. Crying or talking during the attack is possible. There is no *postictal phase. Other names for non-epileptic seizures include pseudo seizures, functional seizures, and conversion seizures.... non-epileptic seizure

Northern Irish Sign Language

(NISL) see sign language.... northern irish sign language

Novel Substrate

a nutrient that has an additional pharmacological effect when added to feeds, which may improve clinical outcomes after surgery. Novel substrates include the amino acids glutamine, arginine, and ornithine and possibly some fatty acids.... novel substrate

Nuchal Translucency Scanning

(NT scanning) an ultrasound screening test performed during pregnancy at 11 weeks of gestation that measures the maximum thickness of the translucency between the skin and the soft tissue overlying the cervical (neck) region of the spine of the fetus. Increased NT is associated with an increased risk of chromosomal abnormalities and of a wide variety of structural abnormalities (e.g. heart defects). See also ultrasound marker.... nuchal translucency scanning

Nystagmus Block Syndrome

a type of squint (convergent *strabismus) that results from the use of the convergence mechanism to block or dampen down *nystagmus in an attempt to improve visual acuity.... nystagmus block syndrome

Objective Structured Clinical Examination

(OSCE) a type of examination used increasingly in the health sciences (medicine, dentistry, nursing, physiotherapy, pharmacy) to assess clinical skills in examination, communication, medical procedures, and interpretation of results. The examination usually takes the form of a circuit of stations around which each candidate moves after a specified time interval (5–10 minutes) at each station. Stations are a mixture of interactive and noninteractive tasks. Some have an examiner and a simulated patient, either an actor for assessment of communication or history-taking skills or a manikin of a specific part of the body (e.g. to demonstrate how to use an auriscope). Other stations have investigation results with a list of questions that are to be completed on computer-marked examination papers. Each station has a different examiner and the stations are standardized with specific marking criteria, thus enabling fairer comparison with peers.... objective structured clinical examination

Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injury

(OASIS) a spectrum of injuries that encompasses both third- and fourth-degree *perineal tears. Injury to the anal sphincter mechanism during childbirth may arise secondarily to direct disruption of the sphincter muscles and/or traction of the pudendal nerves. Disruption of the anal sphincter muscles is best assessed by anal ultrasound examination. This is usually performed using a high-frequency (10 MHz) endoanal probe. In selected cases with complex injury and/or suspected rectovaginal *fistula, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be employed.... obstetric anal sphincter injury

Obstructive Sleep Apnoea Syndrome

(OSAS) see obstructive sleep apnoea.... obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome

Office For National Statistics

(ONS) (in Britain) an executive agency of the Treasury that was formed in 1996. It is responsible for the compilation and publication of statistics relating to national and local populations, including their social and economic situation and contribution to the economy, and the demographic patterns of births, marriages, and deaths (including the medical cause of death). The ONS organizes a national *census at ten-yearly intervals.

ONS website... office for national statistics

Ogilvie’s Syndrome

see pseudo-obstruction.... ogilvie’s syndrome

Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome

a potentially life-threatening condition classically associated with ovarian stimulation using gonadotrophins in assisted conception procedures, such as in vitro fertilization (see superovulation). It is characterized by gross enlargement of the ovaries resulting in pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, *haemoconcentration, and *ascites. The most severe cases require intensive care due to the high risk of thromboembolism and acute respiratory distress.... ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome

Overactive Bladder Syndrome

see detrusor.... overactive bladder syndrome

Painful Bruising Syndrome

see Gardner–Diamond syndrome.... painful bruising syndrome

Pancoast Syndrome

pain and paralysis involving the lower branches of the brachial plexus due to infiltration by a malignant tumour of the apical region of the lung. *Horner’s syndrome may also be present. [H. K. Pancoast (1875–1939), US radiologist]... pancoast syndrome

Obstructive Sleep Apnoea

(OSA, obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome, OSAS) a serious condition in which airflow from the nose and mouth to the lungs is restricted during sleep, also called sleep apnoea syndrome (SAS). It is defined by the presence of more than five episodes of *apnoea per hour of sleep associated with significant daytime sleepiness. Snoring is a feature of the condition but it is not universal. There are significant medical complications of prolonged OSA, including heart failure and high blood pressure. Patients perform poorly on driving simulators, and driving licence authorities may impose limitations on possession of a driving licence. There are associated conditions in adults, the *hypopnoea syndrome and the upper airways resistance syndrome, with less apnoea but with daytime somnolence and prominent snoring. In children the cause is usually enlargement of the tonsils and adenoids and treatment is by removing these structures. In adults the tonsils may be implicated but there are often other abnormalities of the pharynx, and patients are often obese. Treatment may include weight reduction or nasal *continuous positive airways pressure (nCPAP) devices, *mandibular advancement splints, or noninvasive ventilation. Alternatively *tonsillectomy, *uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, *laser-assisted uvulopalatoplasty, or *tracheostomy may be required.... obstructive sleep apnoea

Occupational Health Service

(OHS) a scheme by which employers provide a mainly preventive health service for employees. Specially trained doctors and nurses advise management on hazardous situations at work. Advice is also given to management to ensure that people with ill health or disability are not prevented from taking up employment and on the potential for rehabilitating employees with prolonged or repeated sickness absence. Instruction may be given to the workforce on simple first aid procedures, and *health promotion programmes may be offered in relation to nutrition, physical activity, and stress. With the approval of the *Health and Safety Executive, the OHS may conduct routine tests on employees working with potentially hazardous substances, such as lead. See also coshh.... occupational health service

Panda Sign

a sign of bilateral periorbital *haematoma associated with injury to the anterior cranial fossa, the front of the skull cavity that supports the frontal lobes of the brain. The name derives from its similarity in appearance to the black eye patches of a panda.... panda sign

Paranasal Sinuses

the air-filled spaces, lined with mucous membrane, within some of the bones of the skull. They open into the nasal cavity, via the meatuses, and are named according to the bone in which they are situated. They comprise the frontal sinuses and the maxillary sinuses (one pair of each), the ethmoid sinuses (consisting of many spaces inside the ethmoid bone), and the two sphenoid sinuses. See illustration.... paranasal sinuses

Paraneoplastic Syndrome

signs or symptoms occurring in a patient with cancer that result from antibodies or *ectopic hormones produced by the cancer and are not due directly to local effects of the cancer cells. Examples are *myasthenia gravis secondary to a tumour of the thymus, a cerebellar syndrome in patients with lung cancer (due to anti-*Purkinje cell antibody), and a peripheral neuropathy in patients with breast cancer. Removal of the cancer usually leads to resolution of the problem.... paraneoplastic syndrome

Parapharyngeal Space

(lateral parapharyngeal space) the region at the side of the *pharynx. Infection in this space can result in a parapharyngeal abscess. It is also a site where tumours can develop.... parapharyngeal space

Parliamentary And Health Service Ombudsman

(in England) an official responsible to Parliament and appointed to protect the interests of patients in relation to administration of and provision of health care by the *National Health Service. He or she can investigate complaints about the NHS when they cannot be resolved locally. In Scotland, and in Wales, this role is undertaken by a Public Services Ombudsman.... parliamentary and health service ombudsman

Patau Syndrome

a chromosome disorder in which there are three no. 13 chromosomes (instead of the usual two), causing abnormal brain development, severe learning disabilities, and defects in the heart, kidney, and scalp. Affected individuals rarely survive. [K. Patau (20th century), US geneticist]... patau syndrome

Patient Advice And Liaison Service

(PALS) (in England) a confidential service provided by each NHS trust to support patients, their families, and carers by giving advice and information in response to questions and concerns about local NHS services. See also advocacy.... patient advice and liaison service

Pendred’s Syndrome

goitre associated with congenital deafness due to deficiency of *peroxidase, an enzyme that is essential for the utilization of iodine. [V. Pendred (1869–1946), British physician]... pendred’s syndrome

Percutaneous Epididymal Sperm Aspiration

see PESA.... percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration

Performance Status

a scoring system used to quantify a patient’s activity level and general wellbeing in order to assess the patient’s suitability for chemotherapy or for taking part in a clinical trial. Commonly used systems include the WHO performance scale, scoring from 0 (fully active, feeling well) to 4 or 5 (very ill or near to death), and the Karnofsky scale, scoring from 0 (very ill) to 100 (feeling well).... performance status

Perfusion Scan

a technique for demonstrating an abnormal blood supply to an organ by injecting a radioactive *tracer or *contrast medium. One of the most common uses, often in conjunction with ventilation scanning (see ventilation-perfusion scanning), is to detect obstruction of pulmonary arteries due to embolism by thrombus (see pulmonary embolism). Particles labelled with radioactive tracer are injected intravenously and become temporarily lodged in the capillaries in the lungs. Areas not being perfused show up as holes on the gamma-camera images. In *magnetic resonance imaging or *computerized tomography, contrast medium is injected and a series of images is obtained. The rate of change of enhancement is an index of the blood supply to the area of interest. This technique can be used to study blood supply to the brain, heart, or kidneys (in particular), to help diagnose arterial strictures or blockages, or tumours in which blood supply may be increased by abnormal vessels.... perfusion scan

Periodic Acid–schiff Reaction

(PAS reaction) a test for the presence of glycoproteins, polysaccharides, certain mucopolysaccharides, glycolipids, and certain fatty acids in tissue sections. The tissue is treated with periodic acid, followed by *Schiff’s reagent. A positive reaction is the development of a red or magenta coloration.... periodic acid–schiff reaction

Perivascular Spaces

see Virchow–Robin spaces.... perivascular spaces

Pet/ct Scanning

an imaging system that allows a PET scan (see positron emission tomography) and a CT scan (see computerized tomography) to be performed very close together, with minimal movement of the patient between scans. This means that the images produced can be co-registered (see co-registration), giving very accurate anatomical localization (from the CT scan) of areas of increased activity (identified on the PET scan). This is very important for determining the site of disease in order to plan treatment.... pet/ct scanning

Peutz–jeghers Syndrome

a hereditary disorder in which the presence of multiple *polyps in the lining of the small intestine (intestinal *polyposis) is associated with pigmented areas (similar to freckles) around the lips, on the inside of the mouth, and on the palms and soles. The polyps can also occur in the colon and stomach. They may bleed, resulting in anaemia, or may cause obstruction of the bowel. Half of the patients develop malignant tumours (not necessarily of the bowel). [J. L. A. Peutz (1886–1957), Dutch physician; H. J. Jeghers (1904–90), US physician]... peutz–jeghers syndrome

Phalen’s Sign

a diagnostic sign for *carpal tunnel syndrome. The patient is asked to hold his or her wrists in full flexion with the dorsal surfaces of both hands pushing against each other with fingers pointing downwards for 30–60 seconds. This manoeuvre increases pressure on the median nerve: tingling and numbness or pain in the thumb, index, middle, and ring fingers suggests carpal tunnel syndrome. See also Tinel’s sign. [G. S. Phalen (1911–98), US orthopaedist]... phalen’s sign

Physiological Saline

see saline.... physiological saline

Physiological Solution

one of a group of solutions used to maintain tissues in a viable state. These solutions contain specific concentrations of substances that are vital for normal tissue function (e.g. sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, magnesium, bicarbonate, and phosphate ions, glucose, and oxygen). An example of such a solution is *Ringer’s solution.... physiological solution

Picture Archiving And Communication System

see PACS.... picture archiving and communication system

Pierre Robin Syndrome

a congenital disease in which affected infants have a very small lower jawbone (mandible) and a cleft palate. They are susceptible to feeding and respiratory problems. [Pierre Robin (1867–1950), French dentist]... pierre robin syndrome

Pig-tail Stents

see stent.... pig-tail stents

Pilonidal Sinus

a short tract leading from an opening in the skin in or near the cleft at the top of the buttocks and containing hairs. The sinus may be recurrently infected, leading to pain and the discharge of pus. Treatment is by surgical opening and cleaning of the sinus.... pilonidal sinus

Poems Syndrome

a syndrome, mostly reported in Japanese males, consisting of polyneuropathy (see peripheral neuropathy), organomegaly, endocrine failure, M protein (immunoglobulins) in the plasma, and skin changes, such as thickening, hirsutism, or excess sweating. Each of the components occurs with varying consistency. The cause is not known but it is not thought to be autoimmune in nature.... poems syndrome

Porfimer Sodium

see photodynamic therapy.... porfimer sodium

Positive Symptoms

(in psychiatry) symptoms of schizophrenia characterized by a distortion of some aspect of functioning, such as delusions, hallucinations, or disordered speech. Compare negative symptoms.... positive symptoms

Possum Scoring

physiological and operative severity score for the enumeration of morbidity and mortality: a tool used by anaesthetists in the perioperative period to determine the risks associated with surgery in an individual patient. This can be used to guide such decisions as the appropriateness of surgery and the requirement for intensive care postoperatively.... possum scoring

Postgastrectomy Syndrome

see dumping syndrome.... postgastrectomy syndrome

Postnasal Space

see nasopharynx.... postnasal space

Postpartum Sepsis

see sepsis.... postpartum sepsis

Post-polio Syndrome

insidious numbness in muscles that develops 15–20 years after an attack of *poliomyelitis; the muscles may or may not have been previously affected. It may be caused by loss of nerve cells that have been under greater strain than normal as a result of the polio; there is no evidence of reactivation of the poliovirus. The syndrome also includes other symptoms, such as fatigue and pain, which may be due to secondary mechanical causes.... post-polio syndrome

Postviral Fatigue Syndrome

see CFS/ME/PVF.... postviral fatigue syndrome

Potter Syndrome

a congenital condition characterized by absence of kidneys, resulting in decreased amniotic fluid (see oligohydramnios) and compression of the fetus. Babies have poorly developed lungs, a characteristic wrinkled and flattened facial appearance, and leg deformities and do not usually survive. [E. L. Potter (20th century), US pathologist]... potter syndrome

Poverty Of Speech

brief hesitant speech using few words (often monosyllables) and lacking spontaneity. It can be observed in patients with schizophrenia, dementia, and depression.... poverty of speech

Prader–willi Syndrome

(Prader–Willi–Labhart syndrome) a congenital condition that is inherited as an autosomal *dominant trait and is due to an abnormality of chromosome 15 (see imprinting). It is marked by pathological overeating and resulting obesity (affected children often subsequently develop type 2 diabetes), lethargy, short stature, a characteristic facial expression, learning disabilities, and underactivity of the testes or ovaries (*hypogonadism) due to lack of pituitary gonadotrophins. It is a cause of delayed puberty. [A. Prader, H. Willi, and A. Labhart (20th century), Swiss paediatricians]... prader–willi syndrome

Prenatal Screening

*screening tests carried out to estimate the risk of chromosomal or other abnormalities being present in a developing fetus. They include blood tests to measure levels of *human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), *PAPP-A, *alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), inhibin (see activin), and *unconjugated oestriol (uE3) (see also triple test) and also ultrasound scanning for the presence of soft markers (see ultrasound marker; nuchal translucency scanning). If the results indicate a high risk of abnormalities being present, a diagnosis may be confirmed by more invasive procedures (see prenatal diagnosis).... prenatal screening

Pressure Sore

(bedsore, decubitus ulcer) an ulcerated area of skin caused by continuous pressure on part of the body: a hazard to be guarded against in all bedridden (especially unconscious) patients. Healing is hindered by the reduced blood supply to the area, and careful nursing is necessary to prevent local gangrene. The patient’s position should be changed frequently (pressure-relieving mattresses are extremely helpful), and the buttocks, heels, elbows, and other regions at risk kept dry and clean.... pressure sore

Primitive Streak

the region of the embryo that proliferates rapidly, producing mesoderm cells that spread outwards between the layers of ectoderm and endoderm.... primitive streak

Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

(Steele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome) a progressive neurological disorder resulting from degeneration of the motor neurons, basal ganglia, and brainstem. Starting in late middle age, it is characterized by a staring facial expression due to impaired ability to move the eyes up and down, progressing to difficulties in swallowing, speech, balance, and movement and general spasticity. The condition enters the differential diagnosis of *parkinsonism, with which it is often confused in its early stages.... progressive supranuclear palsy

Prune Belly Syndrome

(Eagle–Barrett syndrome) a hereditary condition, occurring exclusively in males, characterized by a deficiency of abdominal muscles, complex malformation of the urinary tract, and bilateral undescended testes. The lungs may be underdeveloped. The name derives from the typically wrinkled appearance of the skin over the abdomen.... prune belly syndrome

Pseudoexfoliation Syndrome

the appearance of white dandruff-like deposits on structures in the anterior chamber of the eye, which are especially prominent around the pupil margin and on the anterior lens capsule. It is a sign of zonular weakness and indicates an increased risk of secondary glaucoma.... pseudoexfoliation syndrome

Pseudo Seizure

see non-epileptic seizure.... pseudo seizure

Psoas Sign

an indicator of acute *appendicitis. The appendix lies close to the *iliopsoas muscle: if it is inflamed, any movement that involves the right psoas muscle (such as extension of the right thigh) will be painful in the right lower quadrant.... psoas sign

Psoriasis Area Severity Index

(PASI) a semiobjective severity score for psoriasis, including measurement of surface area affected and the degree of erythema, induration, and scale. It is commonly used in clinical trials and to ration expensive treatments for psoriasis. Severe disease equates to scores over 10 and it is often interpreted with the *dermatology life quality index (DLQI) score.... psoriasis area severity index

Prostate Specific Antigen

(PSA) a protease enzyme produced by the glandular epithelium of the prostate. Its effect is to liquefy the semen within the ejaculate. Overall PSA has a half-life of 2–3 days. Increased quantities are secreted when the gland becomes enlarged or inflamed, and levels of PSA in the blood are significantly elevated in cancer of the prostate. Although there is no clear ‘cut-off’ level for normality, over 4 ng/ml in the blood is associated with a 20% risk of prostate cancer, even in patients with normal-feeling prostates on rectal examination. Age-specific PSA reference ranges are often used. Newer PSA assays can measure free PSA and compare it to the total PSA in the blood. Low free:total PSA ratios indicate a greater risk of prostate cancer and improve the discrimination between cancer and benign disease in men with a PSA in the range 4–10 ng/ml. PSA levels tend to be much higher in advanced prostate cancer and the rate of fall on treatment (e.g. after radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy) is a good prognostic indicator of response.... prostate specific antigen

Public Health Service

(PHS) the oldest and one of the largest US federal health agencies. Founded in 1798 as a system of hospitals for sailors, the PHS is now the major health service operating division of the *Department of Health and Human Services and administers eleven agencies, including the *Food and Drug Administration, the National Institutes of Health, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The agency employs tens of thousands of people with a total annual budget well into the billions.... public health service

Public Health Specialist

a public health practitioner with postgraduate training in public health or with demonstrated competence in key areas of public health practice. These specialists perform the same roles as *public health consultants but do not have medical training.... public health specialist

Public Services Ombudsman

see Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman.... public services ombudsman

Pubovaginal Sling

a band of material inserted directly under the bladder neck as a treatment for women with stress *incontinence. The sling can be constructed from fascia (connective tissue) obtained from the patient or it can be synthetic. Compare tension-free vaginal tape.... pubovaginal sling

Punch-drunk Syndrome

a group of symptoms consisting of progressive *dementia, tremor of the hands, epilepsy, and parkinsonism. It is a consequence of repeated blows to the head that have been severe enough to cause *concussion.... punch-drunk syndrome

Pyramidal System

a collection of nerve fibres in the central nervous system that extend from the *motor cortex in the brain to the spinal cord and are responsible for initiating movement. In the medulla oblongata the fibres form a *pyramid (hence the name), within which they cross from one side of the brain to the opposite side of the spinal cord; this is called the decussation of the pyramids. Damage to the pyramidal system manifests in a specific pattern of weakness in the face, arms, and legs, abnormally brisk reflexes, and an extensor *plantar reflex (Babinski response).... pyramidal system

Radiology Information System

(RIS) a computer database used to keep details of all the patients attending a clinical radiology department. It records patient demographics, imaging procedures done, medications given and dosage, person performing the imaging, and time and place of examination. Radiologist reports interpreting the images will also feature here. The RIS is vital to the functioning of a picture archiving and communications system (see PACS) and the electronic medical record system.... radiology information system

Ramsay Hunt Syndrome

a form of *herpes zoster affecting the facial nerve, associated with facial paralysis and loss of taste. It also produces pain in the ear and other parts supplied by the nerve. [J. R. Hunt (1872–1937), US neurologist]... ramsay hunt syndrome

Random Sample

a subgroup of a total population selected by a random process ensuring that each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. It is sometimes stratified so that separate samples are drawn from each of several layers of the population, usually on the basis of age, sex, and socio-economic group. Selection is sometimes facilitated by identifying, in advance, certain units (e.g. towns or neighbourhoods) that will together represent the whole (a so-called sampling frame).... random sample

Reed–sternberg Cell

a large binucleate cell that is characteristic of *Hodgkin’s disease. [D. Reed Mendenhall (1874–1964), US pathologist; C. Sternberg (1872–1935), Austrian pathologist]... reed–sternberg cell

Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy

see complex regional pain syndrome.... reflex sympathetic dystrophy

Refractive Surgery

any surgical procedure that has as its primary objective the correction of any refractive error. It includes such procedures as clear lens extraction, *LASIK, *LASEK, and photorefractive *keratectomy.... refractive surgery

Regional Specialty

see catchment area.... regional specialty

Reifenstein’s Syndrome

(partial androgen insensitivity syndrome) a congenital resistance to androgen hormones (see androgen insensitivity syndrome) resulting in poor development of the male sexual characteristics, which often becomes more obvious at puberty. Some features of feminization may occur (e.g. breast development). [E. C. Reifenstein (1908–75), US endocrinologist]... reifenstein’s syndrome

Refeeding Syndrome

a potentially fatal condition that may affect severely malnourished patients in response to the reintroduction of a protein- and calorie-rich diet. It is thought to be due to severe fluid and *electrolyte shifts (especially low phosphate, magnesium, and potassium levels in the blood) and related metabolic complications (e.g. raised levels of insulin in the blood). Clinical complications include heart failure, *paraesthesia, muscle weakness, cardiac *arrhythmias, fitting, and death. An assessment to identify at-risk patients before the reinstatement of feeding, regular monitoring, and prompt correction of electrolyte abnormalities helps to prevent this condition.... refeeding syndrome

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

(rTMS) see transcranial magnetic stimulation.... repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation

Respiratory Syncytial Virus

(RSV) a paramyxovirus (see myxovirus) that causes infections of the nose and throat. It is a major cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in young children. In tissue cultures infected with the virus, cells merge together to form a conglomerate (syncytium). RSV is thought to have a role in *sudden infant death syndrome. Vulnerable children can be treated with *ribavirin, but most children just require supportive measures.... respiratory syncytial virus

Reticular Activating System

the system of nerve pathways in the brain concerned with the level of consciousness – from the states of sleep, drowsiness, and relaxation to full alertness and attention. The system integrates information from all of the senses and from the cerebrum and cerebellum and determines the overall activity of the brain and the autonomic nervous system and patterns of behaviour during waking and sleeping.... reticular activating system

Reticuloendothelial System

(RES) a community of cells – *phagocytes – spread throughout the body. It includes *macrophages and *monocytes. The RES is concerned with defence against microbial infection and with the removal of worn-out blood cells from the bloodstream. See also spleen.... reticuloendothelial system

Retroperitoneal Space

the region between the posterior parietal *peritoneum and the front of the *lumbar vertebrae. It contains important structures, including the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, lumbar spinal nerve roots, sympathetic ganglia and nerves, and the abdominal *aorta and its major branches.... retroperitoneal space

Retropharyngeal Space

the region behind the *pharynx and in front of the bones of the neck. Infection in this space can result in a retropharyngeal abscess.... retropharyngeal space

Riedel’s Struma

a rare fibrosing destructive disorder of the thyroid gland that may spread to adjacent tissues and obstruct the airway. It is sometimes associated with fibrosis in other parts of the body, such as the bile duct or *retroperitoneal fibrosis. The treatment is surgical removal. [B. M. C. L. Riedel (1846–1916), German surgeon]... riedel’s struma

Ringer’s Solution

(Ringer’s mixture) a clear colourless *physiological solution of sodium chloride (common salt), potassium chloride, and calcium chloride prepared with recently boiled pure water. The osmotic pressure of the solution is the same as that of blood serum. Ringer’s solution is used for maintaining organs or tissues alive outside the animal or human body for limited periods. Sterile Ringer’s solution may be injected intravenously to treat dehydration. [S. Ringer (1835–1910), British physiologist]... ringer’s solution

Robotic Surgery

a type of laparoscopic surgery in which the operating surgeon controls the instruments via a robot. The surgeon sits at a console away from the patient and controls the robot’s operating arms.... robotic surgery

Rokitansky–küster–hauser Syndrome

see Mayer–Rokitansky–Küster–Hauser syndrome.... rokitansky–küster–hauser syndrome

Romaña’s Sign

an early clinical sign of *Chagas’ disease, appearing some three weeks after infection. There is considerable swelling of the eyelids of one or both eyes. This may be due to the presence of the parasites causing the disease but it may also be an allergic reaction to the repeated bites of their insect carriers. [C. Romaña (20th century), Brazilian physician]... romaña’s sign

Romanowsky Stains

a group of stains used for microscopical examination of blood cells, consisting of variable mixtures of thiazine dyes, such as azure B, with eosin. Romanowsky stains give characteristic staining patterns, on the basis of which blood cells are classified. The group includes the stains of Leishmann, Wright, May-Grünwald, Giemsa, etc. [D. L. Romanowsky (1861–1921), Russian physician]... romanowsky stains

Romberg’s Sign

a finding on examination suggesting a sensory disorder affecting those nerves that transmit information to the brain about the position of the limbs and joints and the tension in the muscles. The patient is asked to stand upright. Romberg’s sign is positive if he maintains his posture when his eyes are open but sways and falls when his eyes are closed. [M. Romberg (1795–1873), German neurologist]... romberg’s sign

Rosving’s Sign

a test used during the assessment of a patient with a possible diagnosis of appendicitis. Pressure is applied to the left iliac fossa. If the test is positive the patient experiences pain in the right iliac fossa. This can be used in conjunction with the history and other clinical signs to guide the clinician as to the likelihood of a diagnosis of appendicitis. [N. T. Rosving (1862–1927), Danish surgeon]... rosving’s sign

Roth Spot

a pale area surrounded by haemorrhage sometimes seen in the retina, with the aid of an *ophthalmoscope, in those who have bacterial endocarditis, septicaemia, or leukaemia. [M. Roth (1839–1915), Swiss physician]... roth spot

Russell–silver Syndrome

(Silver–Russell syndrome) a congenital condition characterized by short stature, a triangular face with a small mandible (lower jaw), and asymmetry of the body. [A. Russell (1918–2003), British paediatrician; H. K. Silver (1918–91), US paediatrician]... russell–silver syndrome

Russian Spring-summer Encephalitis

an influenza-like viral disease that affects the brain and nervous system and occurs in Russia and central Europe. It is transmitted to humans either through the bite of forest-dwelling ticks of the species Ixodes persulcatus or by drinking the milk of infected goats. Infection of the meninges results in paralysis of the limbs and of the muscles of the neck and back. The disease, which is often fatal, can be prevented by vaccination.... russian spring-summer encephalitis

 sabin Vaccine

an oral vaccine against (E954) poliomyelitis, prepared by culture of the virus under special conditions so that it loses its virulence (i.e. it becomes attenuated) but retains its ability to stimulate antibody production. [A. B. Sabin (1906–93), US bacteriologist]...  sabin vaccine

Saccade

n. (pl. saccades) a rapid movement of the eye used to shift gaze from one object to another. It can be done voluntarily or occurs as a reflex triggered by a visual stimulus in the peripheral visual field.... saccade

Sacchar

(saccharo-) combining form denoting sugar.... sacchar

Saccharide

n. a carbohydrate. See also disaccharide; monosaccharide; polysaccharide.... saccharide

Saccule

(sacculus) n. the smaller of the two membranous sacs within the vestibule of the ear: it forms part of the membranous *labyrinth. It is filled with fluid (endolymph) and contains a *macula. This responds to gravity and relays information to the brain about the position of the head.... saccule

Saccus

n. a sac or pouch. The saccus endolymphaticus is the small sac connected to the saccule and utricle of the inner ear by the *endolymphatic duct.... saccus

Sacral Agenesis

(caudal regression syndrome) a severe neural tube defect specific to diabetic pregnancies. The risk may be correlated with the *glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) level.... sacral agenesis

Sacro

combining form denoting the sacrum. Examples: sacrococcygeal (relating to the sacrum and coccyx); sacrodynia (pain in); sacroiliac (relating to the sacrum and ilium).... sacro

Sacrocolpopexy

n. surgical treatment of *vault prolapse, which can be an abdominal or laparoscopic procedure. It involves suspending the prolapsed vaginal vault to the sacral promontory using a synthetic mesh or biological material; however, it is associated with a significant risk of haemorrhage and mesh erosion. Posterior intravaginal slingplasty (or infracoccygeal sacropexy) is a more recent technique in which a neo-uterosacral ligament (which supports the vagina) is formed. This helps to relocate the vaginal apex and restore the normal vaginal axis. The procedure appears to have similar efficacy to those currently in use but with minimal surgical morbidity.... sacrocolpopexy

Sacroplasty

n. surgery using minimally invasive techniques and liquid cement to stabilize fragile sacral fractures, which previously would have been treated with rest and analgesia.... sacroplasty

Sacrospinous Ligament Fixation

a surgical technique to correct vaginal *vault prolapse after hysterectomy. A stitch is made from the apex of the vagina to the sacrospinous ligament (which supports the vagina) approximately 2 cm medial to the ischial spine. The main complication is bleeding and formation of a haematoma.... sacrospinous ligament fixation

Saddle Joint

a form of *diarthrosis (freely movable joint) in which the articulating surfaces of the bones are reciprocally saddle-shaped. It occurs at the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.... saddle joint

Safranin

(safranine) n. a group of water- and alcohol-soluble basic dyes used to stain cell nuclei and as counterstains for Gram-negative bacteria.... safranin

Sagittal Suture

see suture.... sagittal suture

St Mark’s Solution

an electrolyte solution used to prevent dehydration in patients who have a large watery output of faecal fluid from their *stoma, often due to *short bowel syndrome. Originally formulated in St Mark’s hospital in London, the solution consists of 1l water, six heaped 5-ml teaspoons glucose, one level 5-ml teaspoon salt, and half a heaped 2.5-ml teaspoon sodium bicarbonate.... st mark’s solution

Safeguarding

n. measures put in place to protect the health, wellbeing, and human rights of children and vulnerable adults, thereby securing them from harm, abuse, and neglect. In Britain this includes legislation, official guidance, and standards laid down by institutions and professional bodies. With its emphasis on pre-empting harm and actively promoting welfare, safeguarding takes a more holistic approach than child protection, which focuses on protecting individual children identified as suffering or likely to suffer significant harm (see child protection register). Adults in need of safeguarding may have mental-health problems, physical disability, or learning difficulties or may be elderly and frail.... safeguarding

Saint’s Triad

the coexistence of *gallstones, diverticular disease, and hiatus *hernia in a patient. It is important to identify which of these conditions, if any, is causing the symptoms of dyspepsia. [C. F. M. Saint (1886–1973), South African surgeon]... saint’s triad

Salcatonin

n. see calcitonin.... salcatonin

Salicylism

n. poisoning due to an overdose of aspirin or other salicylate-containing compounds. The main symptoms are headache, dizziness, ringing in the ears (tinnitus), disturbances of vision, vomiting, and – in severe cases – delirium and collapse. There is often severe *acidosis.... salicylism

Saline Infusion Sonohysterography

(SIS) see sonohysterography.... saline infusion sonohysterography

Salivary Gland

a gland that produces *saliva. There are three pairs of salivary glands: the *parotid glands, *sublingual glands, and *submandibular glands (see illustration). They are stimulated by reflex action, which can be initiated by the taste, smell, sight, or thought of food.... salivary gland

Salivary Stone

see sialolith.... salivary stone

Salivation

n. the secretion of saliva by the salivary glands of the mouth, increased in response to the chewing action of the jaws or to the thought, taste, smell, or sight of food. A small but regular flow of saliva is maintained to promote cleanliness in the mouth even when food is not being eaten. See also ptyalism.... salivation

Salmonellosis

n. an infestation of the digestive system by bacteria of the genus *Salmonella. See also food poisoning.... salmonellosis

Salping

(salpingo-) combining form denoting 1. the Fallopian tube. 2. the auditory tube (meatus).... salping

Salpingolysis

n. a surgical operation carried out to restore patency to blocked Fallopian tubes; it involves the *division and removal of adhesions around the ovarian ends of the tubes.... salpingolysis

Salpingo-oophoritis

n. inflammation of a Fallopian tube and an ovary.... salpingo-oophoritis

Salpingostomy

n. the operation performed to restore free passage through a blocked Fallopian tube. The blocked portion of the tube is removed surgically and the continuity is then restored. It is performed in women who have been sterilized previously by tubal occlusion (see sterilization) and in others whose Fallopian tubes have become blocked as a result of pelvic infection.... salpingostomy

Salt Depletion

excessive loss of sodium chloride (common salt) from the body. This may result from sweating, persistent vomiting or diarrhoea, or loss of fluid in wounds. The main symptoms are muscular weakness and cramps. Miners and workers in hot climates are particularly at risk, and salt tablets are often taken as a preventive measure.... salt depletion

Salter–harris Classification

(S–H classification) a classification of fractures involving the growth plate of bones (see physis), which is useful for their prognosis and treatment. There are five S–H categories of fracture. [R. Salter and R. I. Harris (20th century), Canadian orthopaedic surgeons]... salter–harris classification

Salvage Procedure

surgical measures to palliate the worst effects of a tumour but with no aim to effect a cure.... salvage procedure

Salvarsan

n. see arsenic.... salvarsan

Salzmann’s Degeneration

a noninflammatory condition of the cornea resulting in yellow-white nodules under the epithelium in the central area. These may cause symptoms if the epithelium over them breaks down or if they are located along the visual axis. [M. Salzmann (1862–1954), German ophthalmologist]... salzmann’s degeneration

Samaritans

n. a British voluntary organization providing a telephone service for the suicidal and despairing. Started in 1953 by the Rev. Chad Varah in the cellars of a London church (St Stephen, Walbrook) with one telephone, it now has over 200 branches throughout the country manned by some 22,000 volunteers. It offers a free, nonprofessional, confidential, and (if required) anonymous service at all hours. Samaritans offer little advice, believing that their clients will be helped to make their own decisions by talking to someone who cares.... samaritans

Sampling Frame

see random sample.... sampling frame

Samter’s Triad

a syndrome characterized by the presence of asthma, nasal *polyps, and hypersensitivity to aspirin. [M. Samter (1908–99), German-born US physician]... samter’s triad

Sanatorium

n. 1. a hospital or institution for the rehabilitation and convalescence of patients of any kind. 2. an institution for patients who have suffered from pulmonary tuberculosis.... sanatorium

Sanctity Of Life

the religious or moral belief that all life – and especially all human life – is intrinsically valuable and so should never be deliberately harmed or destroyed. Many of those who hold such a view will have ethical objections to *euthanasia, *abortion, and *embryo research. The phrase may also be used to denote that the value of life should always be respected, whatever the perceived quality of that life. See also humanity; personhood.... sanctity of life

Sandfly

n. a small hairy fly of the widely distributed genus Phlebotomus. Adult sandflies rarely exceed 3 mm in length and have long slender legs. The blood-sucking females of certain species transmit various diseases, including *leishmaniasis, *sandfly fever, and *bartonellosis.... sandfly

Sandwich Therapy

a combination of treatments in which one type of therapy is ‘sandwiched’ between exposures to another therapy. For example, surgical removal of a tumour may be ‘sandwiched’ between pre- and postoperative courses of chemotherapy. See also combined therapy.... sandwich therapy

Sane

a British charity whose role is to raise the awareness of mental health issues. It also initiates research into serious mental illness and offers telephone support for those with mental health problems and for those caring for them.... sane

Sangui

(sanguino-) combining form denoting blood.... sangui

Sanies

n. a foul-smelling watery discharge from a wound or ulcer, containing serum, blood, and pus.... sanies

Sanitarian

n. see medical assistant.... sanitarian

Saphena

n. see saphenous vein.... saphena

Saphena Varix

an abnormal dilatation of the terminal section of the long *saphenous vein in the groin.... saphena varix

Saphenous Nerve

a large branch of the *femoral nerve that arises in the upper thigh, travels down on the inside of the leg, and supplies the skin from the knee to below the ankle with sensory nerves.... saphenous nerve

Sapr

(sapro-) combining form denoting 1. putrefaction. 2. decaying matter.... sapr

Sapraemia

n. blood poisoning by toxins of saprophytic bacteria (bacteria living on dead or decaying matter). Compare pyaemia; septicaemia; toxaemia.... sapraemia

Saquinavir

n. see protease inhibitor.... saquinavir

Sarc

(sarco-) combining form denoting 1. flesh or fleshy tissue. 2. muscle.... sarc

Sarcocystis

n. a genus of parasitic protozoans (see Sporozoa) that infect birds, reptiles, and herbivorous mammals. S. lindemanni, which occasionally infects humans, forms cylindrical cysts (sarcocysts) in the muscle fibres. In heavy infections these cysts can cause tissue degeneration and therefore provoke muscular pain and weakness. Sarcocysts have, in the few positively diagnosed cases, been located in the heart muscles, arm muscles, and larynx.... sarcocystis

Sarcoid

1. adj. fleshy. 2. n. a fleshy tumour.... sarcoid

Sarcolemma

n. the cell membrane that encloses a muscle cell (muscle fibre).... sarcolemma

Sarcoma Botryoides

the most common tumour of the cervix and vagina in children and adolescents under the age of 16; 90% occur in children under five years. Symptoms are vaginal bleeding and a bloody discharge; in young girls the tumour may protrude from the cervix. It is a highly malignant *rhabdomyosarcoma with the appearance of a bunch of grapes. Treatment is with triple chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy prior to hysterectomy and vaginectomy.... sarcoma botryoides

Sarcomere

n. one of the basic contractile units of which *striated muscle fibres are composed.... sarcomere

Sarcophaga

n. a genus of widely distributed non-bloodsucking flies, the flesh flies. Maggots are normally found in carrion or excrement but occasionally females will deposit their eggs in wounds or ulcers giving off a foul-smelling discharge; the presence of the maggots causes a serious *myiasis. Rarely, maggots may be ingested with food and give rise to an intestinal myiasis.... sarcophaga

Sarcoplasm

(myoplasm) n. the cytoplasm of muscle cells.... sarcoplasm

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

an arrangement of membranous vesicles and tubules found in the cytoplasm of striated muscle fibres. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays an important role in the transmission of nervous excitation to the contractile parts of the fibres.... sarcoplasmic reticulum

Sarcostyle

n. a bundle of muscle fibrils.

SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) an *atypical pneumonia caused by a virus, SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV), and spread by close contact with an infected person, that first appeared in November 2002 in Guangdong province, China. Over the next few months it spread to many countries in Asia, Europe, and North and South America before being contained (the last case in this outbreak occurred in June 2003). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a total of 8098 people worldwide contracted SARS during the 2003 outbreak; 774 of these died. Over the next two years the number of cases declined until the disease itself was declared eradicated by the WHO (in May 2005).... sarcostyle

Sartorius

n. a narrow ribbon-like muscle at the front of the thigh, arising from the anterior superior spine of the ilium and extending to the tibia, just below the knee. The longest muscle in the body, the sartorius flexes the leg on the thigh and the thigh on the abdomen.... sartorius

Saturated Fatty Acid

a *fatty acid in which all the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds and the molecule is unable to accept additional atoms (i.e. it cannot undergo addition reactions with other molecules). These fats occur mainly in animal and dairy products, and a diet high in these foods may contribute to a high serum cholesterol level, which may increase the risk of *coronary artery disease. Compare unsaturated fatty acid.... saturated fatty acid

Saucerization

n. 1. an operation in which tissue is cut away from a wound to form a saucer-like depression. It is carried out to facilitate healing and is commonly used to treat injuries or disorders in which bone is infected. 2. the concave appearance of the upper surface of a vertebra that has been fractured by compression.... saucerization

Saxagliptin

n. see DPP-IV inhibitors.... saxagliptin

Sayre’s Jacket

a plaster of Paris cast shaped to fit around and support the backbone. It is used in cases where the vertebrae have been severely damaged by disease, such as tuberculosis. [L. A. Sayre (1820–1900), US surgeon]... sayre’s jacket

Scala

n. one of the spiral canals of the *cochlea. The scala media (cochlear duct) is the central membranous canal, containing the sensory apparatus of the cochlea; the scala vestibuli and scala tympani are the two bony canals of the cochlea.... scala

Scalenus

n. one of four paired muscles of the neck (scalenus anterior, medius, minimus, and posterior), extending from the cervical (neck) vertebrae to the first and second ribs. They are responsible for raising the first and second ribs in inspiration and for bending the neck forward and to either side.... scalenus

Scalenus Syndrome

(thoracic outlet syndrome) the group of symptoms caused by compression of the subclavian artery and the lower roots of the brachial plexus against the fibrous and bony structures of the outlet of the upper thoracic vertebrae. Loss of sensation, wasting, and vascular symptoms may be found in the affected arm, which may also be painful.... scalenus syndrome

Scaler

n. an instrument for removing calculus from the teeth. It may be a hand instrument (usually sickle or curette) or one energized by rapid ultrasonic vibrations.... scaler

Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope

see ophthalmoscope.... scanning laser ophthalmoscope

Scaphocephaly

n. an abnormally long and narrow skull due to premature closure of the suture between the two parietal bones, along the top of the skull. —scaphocephalic adj.... scaphocephaly

Scapul

(scapulo-) combining form denoting the scapula.... scapul

Scarification

n. the process of making a series of shallow cuts or scratches in the skin to allow a substance to penetrate the body. This was commonly performed during vaccination against smallpox; the vaccine was administered as a droplet left in contact with the scarified area.... scarification

Scarpa’s Triangle

see femoral triangle. [A. Scarpa (1747–1832), Italian anatomist and surgeon]... scarpa’s triangle

Scat

(scato-) combining form denoting faeces.... scat

Scds

see superior canal dehiscence syndrome.... scds

Schatzki Ring

a ringlike constriction in the lower part of the gullet (oesophagus). The cause is unclear. Patients may be asymptomatic or experience episodic difficulty in swallowing. Diagnosis is made at gastroscopy or *barium swallow. Antisecretory agents and endoscopic balloon dilatation are reserved for symptomatic patients. [R. Schatzki (20th century), German-born US physician]... schatzki ring

Scaphoid Fracture

a fracture of the scaphoid bone in the wrist, usually caused by a fall onto the outstretched hand. There is pain and swelling in the *anatomical snuffbox and movements of the wrist and thumb are painful. If the fracture is suspected but not initially visible on X-ray, advanced imaging (a bone scan, CT scan, or MRI) is now increasingly used to confirm the diagnosis without delay. Treatment is with a cast for an undisplaced fracture and by internal fixation for a displaced fracture. Due to the anatomy of its blood supply, healing can take a long time, and a *bone graft and internal fixation may be required for non-*union.... scaphoid fracture

Scheuermann’s Disease

(adolescent kyphosis) a disorder of spinal growth in which a sequence of three or more vertebrae become slightly wedge-shaped. It arises in adolescence and usually occurs in the thoracic spine, causing poor posture, backache, fatigue, and exaggerated *kyphosis. X-ray findings include *Schmorl’s nodes. [H. W. Scheuermann (1877–1960), Danish surgeon]... scheuermann’s disease

Schick Test

a test to determine whether a person is susceptible to diphtheria. A small quantity of diphtheria toxin is injected under the skin; a patch of reddening and swelling shows that the person has no immunity and – if at particular risk – should be immunized. With safer *toxoids, this test is no longer necessary. [B. Schick (1877–1967), US paediatrician]... schick test

Schiff’s Reagent

aqueous *fuchsin solution decolourized with sulphur dioxide. A blue coloration develops in the presence of aldehydes. [H. Schiff (1834–1915), German chemist]... schiff’s reagent

Schilling Test

a test used to assess a patient’s capacity to absorb vitamin B12 from the bowel. Radioactive vitamin B12 is given by mouth and urine collected for 24 hours. A normal individual will excrete at least 10% of the original dose over this period; a patient with *pernicious anaemia will excrete less than 5%. [R. F. Schilling (1919), US physician]... schilling test

Schindylesis

n. a form of *synarthrosis (immovable joint) in which a crest of one bone fits into a groove of another.

schisis combining form denoting a cleft or split.... schindylesis

Schisto

combining form denoting a fissure; split.... schisto

Schistocyte

n. a fragmented red blood cell (erythrocyte).... schistocyte

Schistoglossia

n. fissuring of the tongue. Congenital fissures are transverse, whereas those due to disease (such as syphilis) are usually longitudinal.... schistoglossia

Schistosoma

(Bilharzia) n. a genus of blood *flukes, three species of which are important parasites of humans causing one of the most serious of tropical diseases (see schistosomiasis). S. japonicum is common in the Far East; S. mansoni is widespread in Africa, the West Indies, and South and Central America; and S. haematobium occurs in Africa and the Middle East.... schistosoma

Schiz

(schizo-) combining form denoting a split or division.... schiz

Schizoid Personality

a personality characterized by solitariness, emotional coldness to others, inability to experience pleasure, lack of response to praise and criticism, withdrawal into a fantasy world, excessive introspection, and eccentricity of behaviour. See personality disorder.... schizoid personality

Schizont

n. one of the stages that occurs during the asexual phase of the life cycle of a sporozoan. See schizogony.... schizont

Schizonticide

n. any agent used for killing *schizonts.... schizonticide

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

a personality disorder characterized by cold aloof feelings, eccentricities of behaviour, odd ways of thinking and talking, and occasional short periods of intense illusions, hallucinations, or delusion-like ideas.... schizotypal personality disorder

Schlemm’s Canal

a channel in the eye, at the junction of the cornea and the sclera, through which the aqueous humour drains. [F. Schlemm (1795–1858), German anatomist]... schlemm’s canal

Schmidt’s Syndrome

the autoimmune destruction of a combination of the thyroid, the adrenals, and the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans, causing type 1 *diabetes mellitus. It is often associated with failure of the ovaries (causing an early menopause), the parathyroids, and the parietal cells of the *gastric glands (causing pernicious anaemia). [M. B. Schmidt (1863–1949), German physician]... schmidt’s syndrome

Schmorl’s Nodes

protrusions of the pulpy inner material of an intervertebral disc into the vertebral body, generally found in the thoracic and lumbar spine. [C. G. Schmorl (1861–1932), German pathologist]... schmorl’s nodes

Schnitzler’s Syndrome

a rare disorder characterized by chronic *urticaria, fever, bone or joint pain, and enlarged lymph nodes in the neck. There are increased levels of an antibody, IgM (see immunoglobulin), produced by plasma cells. Treatment with *anakinra is very effective. [L. Schnitzler (20th century), French dermatologist]... schnitzler’s syndrome

Schneiderian First- And Second-rank Symptoms

symptoms of *schizophrenia first classified by German psychiatrist Kurt Schneider (1887–1967) in 1938. First-rank symptoms were considered by Schneider to be particularly indicative of schizophrenia; they include all forms of *thought alienation, *delusional perception, *passivity, and third-person auditory *hallucinations in the form of either a running commentary or voices talking about the patient among themselves. Some schizophrenic patients never exhibit first-rank symptoms or only experience them in some psychotic episodes. They may also occur in *mania. Second-rank symptoms are common symptoms of schizophrenia but also often occur in other forms of mental illness. They include *delusions of reference, paranoid and persecutory *delusions, and second-person auditory hallucinations.... schneiderian first- and second-rank symptoms

Schönlein–henoch Purpura

see Henoch–Schönlein purpura.... schönlein–henoch purpura

School Health Service

(in Britain) a service concerned with promotion of health and wellbeing in schoolchildren, including the early detection of health and social problems and their subsequent treatment and surveillance.... school health service

School Nurse

a member of the *school health service who undertakes health improvement activities, including health education and promotion, developmental screening, and vaccinations. *Health visitors sometimes work in this capacity.... school nurse

Schwann Cells

the cells that lay down the *myelin sheath around the axon of a medullated nerve fibre. Each cell is responsible for one length of axon, around which it twists as it grows, so that concentric layers of membrane envelop the axon. The gap between adjacent Schwann cells forms a *node of Ranvier. [T. Schwann (1810–82), German anatomist and physiologist]... schwann cells

Schwannoma

n. see neurofibroma; vestibular schwannoma.... schwannoma

Schwartz Rounds

a system of regular meetings in which all health-care and related staff come together to discuss the social and emotional aspects of their work. The aim is to increase mutual support and appreciation, with ultimate benefits for the standard of care provided.... schwartz rounds

Scid

see severe combined immune deficiency.... scid

Scintigram

n. a diagram showing the distribution of radioactive *tracer in a part of the body, produced by recording the flashes of light given off by a *scintillator as it is struck by radiation of different intensities. This technique is called scintigraphy. By scanning the body, section by section, a ‘map’ of the radioactivity in various regions is built up, aiding the diagnosis of cancer or other disorders. Such a record is known as a scintiscan. These images are now usually obtained using a *gamma camera.... scintigram

Scintillation Counter

a device to measure and record the fluorescent flashes in a *scintillator exposed to high-energy radiation.... scintillation counter

Scintillator

n. a substance that produces a fluorescent flash when struck by high-energy radiation, such as beta or gamma rays. In medicine the most commonly used scintillator is a crystal of thallium-activated sodium iodide, which forms the basis of a *gamma camera. See also scintigram.... scintillator

Scintiscan

n. see scintigram.... scintiscan

Scissor Leg

a disability in which one leg becomes permanently crossed over the other as a result of spasticity of its *adductor muscles or deformity of the hips. The condition occurs in children with brain damage and in adults after strokes. A *tenotomy or injections with *botulinum toxin may reduce the degree of disability.... scissor leg

Scissura

(scissure) n. a cleft or splitting, such as the splitting of the tip of a hair or the splitting open of tissues when a hernia forms.... scissura

Scler

(sclero-) combining form denoting 1. hardening or thickening. 2. the sclera. 3. sclerosis.... scler

Scleral Buckle

a surgical procedure in which a piece of silicone plastic or sponge is sewn onto the sclera at the site of a retinal tear to push the sclera towards the tear. The buckle holds the retina against the sclera until scarring seals the tear.... scleral buckle

Sclerectomy

n. an operation in which a portion of the sclera (the thick white layer of the eyeball) is removed.... sclerectomy

Sclerotic

1. (sclerotic coat) n. see sclera. 2. adj. affected with *sclerosis.... sclerotic

Sclerotome

n. 1. a surgical knife used in the operation of *sclerotomy. 2. (in embryology) the part of the segmented mesoderm (see somite) in the early embryo that gives rise to all the skeletal tissue of the body. The vertebrae and ribs retain the segmented structure, which is lost in the skull and limbs.... sclerotome

Sclerotomy

n. an operation in which an incision is made in the sclera (white of the eye).... sclerotomy

Scope

combining form denoting an instrument for observing or examining. Example: gastroscope (instrument for examining the stomach).... scope

Scopeguide

n. Trademark. See 3-D magnetic imager.... scopeguide

Scopolamine

n. see hyoscine.... scopolamine

Scoring System

any of various methods in which the application of an agreed numerical scale is used as a means of estimating the degree of a clinical situation, e.g. the severity of an injury, the degree of patient recovery, or the extent of malignancy. Examples include the *Glasgow Coma Scale (or scoring system) and the *injury scoring system.... scoring system

Scoto

combining form denoting darkness.... scoto

Scotometer

n. an instrument used for mapping defects in the visual field. See also perimeter.... scotometer

Scotopic

adj. relating to or describing conditions of poor illumination. For example, scotopic vision is vision in dim light in which the *rods of the retina are involved (see dark adaptation).... scotopic

Scrofuloderma

n. tuberculosis of the skin in which the skin breaks down over suppurating tuberculous glands, with the formation of irregular-shaped ulcers with blue-tinged edges. Treatment is with antituberculous drugs, to which scrofuloderma responds better than *lupus vulgaris, another type of skin tuberculosis.... scrofuloderma

Scrototomy

n. an operation in which the scrotum is surgically explored, usually undertaken to investigate patients with probable obstructive *azoospermia.... scrototomy

Scruple

n. a unit of weight used in pharmacy. 1 scruple = 1.295 g (20 grains). 3 scruples = 1 drachm.... scruple

Scuad

see severe chronic upper airway disease.... scuad

Seasonal Affective Disorder

see SAD.... seasonal affective disorder

Seat-belt Syndrome

thoracic injuries that arise from violent contact with a restraining seat belt in motor vehicle accidents occurring at high speeds.... seat-belt syndrome

Second-rank Symptom

see Schneiderian first- and second-rank symptoms.... second-rank symptom

Secretor

n. a person in whose saliva and other body fluids are found traces of the water-soluble A, B, or O agglutinogens that determine *blood group.... secretor

Section 30 Order

(parental order) a court order made under the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 that enables a married couple to be regarded as the legal parents of a child born to a *surrogate mother commissioned by that couple. Application must be made within six months of the child’s birth and the child’s home must be with the husband and wife at the time of the application.... section 30 order

Segment

n. (in anatomy) a portion of a tissue or organ, usually distinguishable from other portions by lines of demarcation. For example, the uterus consists of upper and lower segments. The anterior segment of the eye is the front portion, including the cornea, anterior chamber, iris, and lens. See also somite.... segment

Seidel Sign

1. a sickle-shaped *scotoma appearing as an upward or downward extension of the blind spot. 2. a test to confirm leakage of the aqueous humour. *Fluorescein sodium dye is instilled and viewed with cobalt blue light; a bright green flow of liquid is seen at the site of the leakage. [E. Seidel (1882–1948), German ophthalmologist]... seidel sign

Seip–beradinelli Syndrome

see lipodystrophy. [M. Seip (20th century), Scandinavian physician; W. Beradinelli (1903–56), Argentinian physician]... seip–beradinelli syndrome

Seldinger Technique

a method for introducing a catheter into a blood vessel or cavity. First, a needle is used to puncture the structure, then a *guidewire is passed through the needle. The needle is removed, and the catheter is introduced over the wire. The technique is used in angiography, cardiac catheterization, cannulation of large veins, and drainage of abscesses and other body cavities. [S. I. Seldinger (1921–98), Swedish radiologist]... seldinger technique

Selective

(o)estrogen receptor modulator... selective

Section 47 Removal

a section of the National Assistance Act 1948 that enables a local authority to arrange for the compulsory removal to a place of care of a person who is unwilling to go voluntarily from his or her own home. Individuals who are suffering from a grave chronic disease, or are physically incapacitated, or are living in insanitary conditions because of old age or infirmity can be removed if they are unable to care for themselves and do not receive care and attention from others. A public health consultant and another registered medical practitioner (usually the patient’s general practitioner) must certify that removal is in the interests of the patient or that it would prevent injury to the health of, or serious nuisance to, other people.... section 47 removal

Selective Internal Radiation Therapy

see radioembolization.... selective internal radiation therapy

Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty

(SLT) see trabeculoplasty.... selective laser trabeculoplasty

Selective Serotonin And Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitor

see SNRI.... selective serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor

Semeiology

n. see symptomatology.... semeiology

Semi

prefix denoting half.... semi

Semicircular Canals

three tubes that form part of the membranous *labyrinth of the ear. They are concerned with balance and each canal registers movement in a different plane. At the base of each canal is a small swelling (an ampulla), which contains a *crista. When the head moves the fluid (endolymph) in the canals presses on the cristae, which register the movement and send nerve impulses to the brain.... semicircular canals

Semilunar Cartilage

one of a pair of crescent-shaped cartilages in the knee joint situated between the femur and tibia.... semilunar cartilage

Semilunar Valve

either of the two valves in the heart situated at the origin of the aorta (see aortic valve) and the pulmonary artery (see pulmonary valve). Each consists of three flaps (cusps), which maintain the flow of blood in one direction.... semilunar valve

Seminal Analysis

analysis of a specimen of semen, which should be obtained after five days of abstinence from coitus, in order to assess male fertility. Normal values are as follows: volume of ejaculate: 2–6.5 ml; liquefaction complete in 30 minutes; sperm concentration: 20–200 million spermatozoa per ml (sperm count refers to the total number of spermatozoa in the ejaculate); motility: 60% moving progressively at 30 minutes to 3 hours; abnormal forms: less than 20%. Analysis of three separate specimens is necessary before confirming the presence of an abnormal result.... seminal analysis

Seminiferous Tubule

any of the long convoluted tubules that make up the bulk of the *testis.... seminiferous tubule

Semipermeable Membrane

a membrane that allows the passage of some molecules but not others. Cell membranes (see cell) are semipermeable. Semipermeable membranes are used clinically in *haemodialysis for patients with kidney failure.... semipermeable membrane

Semiprone

adj. describing the position of a patient lying face downwards, but with one or both knees flexed to one side so that the body is not lying completely flat. Compare prone; supine.... semiprone

Semont Liberatory Manoeuvre

a series of head and body movements used to move microscopic debris from the posterior *semicircular canal in the inner ear. It is used in the treatment of *benign paroxysmal positional vertigo.... semont liberatory manoeuvre

Senescence

n. the process of ageing, which is often marked by a decrease in physical and mental abilities. —senescent adj.... senescence

Sense

n. one of the faculties by which the qualities of the external environment are appreciated – sight, hearing, smell, taste, or touch.... sense

Sense Organ

a collection of specialized cells (*receptors), connected to the nervous system, that is capable of responding to a particular stimulus from either outside or inside the body. Sense organs can detect light (the eyes), heat, pain, and touch (the skin), smell (the nose), and taste (the taste buds).... sense organ

Sensibility

n. the ability to be affected by, and respond to, changes in the surroundings (see stimulus). Sensibility is a characteristic of cells of the nervous system.... sensibility

Sensitive

adj. possessing the ability to respond to a *stimulus. The cells of the retina, for example, are sensitive to the stimulus of light and respond by sending nerve impulses to the brain. Other *receptors are sensitive to different specific stimuli, such as pressure or the presence of chemical substances.... sensitive

Sensory Nerve

a nerve that carries information inwards, from an outlying part of the body towards the central nervous system. Different sensory nerves convey information about temperature, pain, touch, taste, etc., to the brain. Compare motor nerve.... sensory nerve

Sentinel Lymph Node

the first lymph node to show evidence of metastasis (spread) of a malignant tumour (e.g. breast cancer) via the lymphatic system. Absence of cancer cells in the sentinel node indicates that more distal lymph nodes will also be free of metastasis. In breast cancer, the change in practice to perform axillary lymph node dissection only if the sentinel node contains metastatic tumour has reduced the risk of arm lymphoedema. Similarly, in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas, the sentinel lymph node procedure is used as an alternative to neck dissection.... sentinel lymph node

Sept

(septi-) combining form denoting 1. seven. 2. (septo-) a septum, especially the nasal septum. 3. sepsis.... sept

Septate Uterus

see arcuate uterus.... septate uterus

Septic

adj. relating to or affected with *sepsis.... septic

Septostomy

n. the creation of an opening in a dividing wall or membrane. For example, this procedure may be performed in cases of *twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome. Using a fine needle, a small hole is made in the membrane dividing the twins to allow amniotic fluid to flow from one twin to the other, thus equalizing the amount of fluid between them.... septostomy

Septrin

n. see co-trimoxazole.... septrin

Sequestrectomy

n. surgical removal of a *sequestrum.... sequestrectomy

Serine

n. see amino acid.... serine

Serm

see selective (o)estrogen receptor modulator.... serm

Seroconvert

vb. to produce specific antibodies in response to the presence of an antigen (e.g. a vaccine or a virus). In HIV-positive patients seroconversion occurs within about two weeks of the initial infection. It is marked by a sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, fever, aches and pains, and fatigue. See AIDS.... seroconvert

Serofibrinous

adj. describing an exudate of serum that contains a high proportion of the protein fibrin.... serofibrinous

Sero-negative Arthritis

an arthritis in which rheumatoid factor or anticitrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA) are not present in the serum. See also spondyloarthropathy.... sero-negative arthritis

Seropus

n. a mixture of serum and pus, which forms, for example, in infected blisters.... seropus

Serosa

n. see serous membrane.... serosa

Serositis

n. inflammation of a *serous membrane, such as the lining of the thoracic cavity (pleura). See polyserositis.... serositis

Serotherapy

n. the use of serum containing known antibodies (see antiserum) to treat a patient with an infection or to confer temporary passive *immunity upon a person at special risk. The use of antisera prepared in animals carries its own risks (for example, a patient may become hypersensitive to horse protein); the risk is reduced if the serum is taken from an immune human being.... serotherapy

Serratus

n. any of several muscles arising from or inserted by a series of processes that resemble the teeth of a saw. An example is the serratus anterior, a muscle situated between the ribs and shoulder blade in the upper and lateral parts of the thorax. It is the chief muscle responsible for pushing and punching movements.... serratus

Sertoli Cells

cells found in the walls of the seminiferous tubules of the *testis. Compared with the germ cells they appear large and pale. They anchor and probably nourish the developing germ cells, especially the *spermatids, which become partly embedded within them. A Sertoli-cell tumour is a rare testicular tumour causing *feminization. [E. Sertoli (1842–1910), Italian histologist]... sertoli cells

Serum Hepatitis

see hepatitis.... serum hepatitis

Sesamoid Bone

an oval nodule of bone that lies within a tendon and slides over another bony surface. The patella (kneecap) and certain bones in the hand and foot are sesamoid bones.... sesamoid bone

Sestamibi Parathyroid Scan

(in *nuclear medicine) a scan that can help to localize the site of a parathyroid adenoma before surgical removal, to treat primary *hyperparathyroidism. The tracer is technetium-99m-labelled sestamibi (a small protein), which is selectively absorbed by overactive parathyroid glands.... sestamibi parathyroid scan

Serous Membrane

(serosa) a smooth transparent membrane, consisting of *mesothelium and underlying elastic fibrous connective tissue, lining certain large cavities of the body. The *peritoneum of the abdomen, *pleura of the chest, and *pericardium of the heart are all serous membranes. Each consists of two portions: the parietal portion lines the walls of the cavity, and the visceral portion covers the organs concerned. The two are continuous, forming a closed sac with the organs essentially outside the sac. The inner surface of the sac is moistened by a thin fluid derived from blood serum, which allows frictionless movement of organs within their cavities. Compare mucous membrane.... serous membrane

Seton

n. a form of treatment in which a thread is passed through a *fistula and tied in a loop. The seton acts as a wick to drain off pus and can be tightened to open the track. This method can be used to treat high anal fistulas because it has a reduced risk of causing incontinence.... seton

Severe Chronic Upper Airway Disease

(SCUAD) severe *rhinitis and *rhinosinusitis that has not been fully controlled by optimal pharmacological treatment.... severe chronic upper airway disease

Severe Combined Immune Deficiency

(SCID) a rare disorder that usually manifests itself within the first three months of life by severe bacterial, fungal, and viral infection and *failure to thrive. It is due to reduced numbers of T and B *lymphocytes – white blood cells necessary for fighting infection. Some cases are caused by *adenosine deaminase deficiency. The only treatment currently available is a bone-marrow transplant, but *gene therapy offers hope for the future.... severe combined immune deficiency

Sever’s Disease

*apophysitis caused by pulling at the point of insertion of the Achilles tendon into the calcaneus (heel bone), causing heel pain. [J. W. Sever (20th century), US orthopaedic surgeon]... sever’s disease

Sevoflurane

n. a rapid-acting general *anaesthetic used for inducing and maintaining anaesthesia during surgery.... sevoflurane

Sexarche

n. the age when a person first engages in sexual intercourse.... sexarche

Sexology

n. the study of sexual matters, including anatomy, physiology, behaviour, and techniques.... sexology

Sexually Transmitted Disease

(STD) any disease transmitted by sexual intercourse, formerly known as venereal disease. STDs include *AIDS, *syphilis, *gonorrhoea, some *Chlamydia infections, genital *herpes, and *soft sore. The medical specialty concerned with STDs is genitourinary medicine.... sexually transmitted disease

Sglt-2 Inhibitors

a class of *oral hypoglycaemic drugs for use in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2) plays the largest role in glucose reabsorption in the kidney. Inhibition of SGLT-2 leads to an increase in the loss of glucose in the urine, a reduction in blood glucose levels, and a modest degree of weight loss over time due to the increased calorie loss. Two drugs in this class are currently licensed for use in the UK: dapagliflozin (Forxiga) and canagliflozin (Invokana).

SGOT (serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase) see aspartate aminotransferase.

SGPT (serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase) see alanine aminotransferase.... sglt-2 inhibitors

Shaking Palsy

an archaic name for Parkinson’s disease (see parkinsonism).... shaking palsy

Shaping

n. a technique of *behaviour modification used in the teaching of complex skills or in encouraging rare forms of behaviour. At first the therapist rewards actions that are similar to the desired behaviour; thereafter the therapist rewards successively closer approximations, until eventually only the desired behaviour is rewarded and thereby learned.... shaping

Shared Delusion

see folie à deux.... shared delusion

Sheath

n. 1. (in anatomy) the layer of connective tissue that envelops structures such as nerves, arteries, tendons, and muscles. 2. a *condom.... sheath

Sheehan’s Syndrome

a condition in which *amenorrhoea and infertility follow a major haemorrhage in pregnancy. It is caused by necrosis (death) of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland as a direct result of the haemorrhage reducing the blood supply to the gland. Compare Asherman syndrome. [H. L. Sheehan (20th century), British pathologist]... sheehan’s syndrome

Sheridan–gardiner Test

a test for detecting visual impairment in children who are too young to be able to read the *Snellen chart. A series of cards, each marked with a single letter of a specific size, are held up at a distance of 6 metres from the child being tested. The child is provided with an identification card containing a selection of letters and is asked to point to the letter that is the same as the one on the card in the distance. The test is suitable for children between the ages of two and seven.... sheridan–gardiner test

Short Bowel Syndrome

intestinal failure that occurs when the small bowel is shortened by surgery or trauma, resulting in reduced absorption of nutrients. Some bowel adaptation does occur, but if under 200 cm of small bowel remain it is likely patients will need long-term *total parenteral nutrition.... short bowel syndrome

Short-sightedness

n. see myopia.... short-sightedness

Short-stretch Bandage

a bandage that exerts low resting pressure. It is inelastic but can stretch by up to 60% of its original length and is used in the treatment of *lymphoedema and venous leg ulcers.... short-stretch bandage

Shoulder Dystocia

a difficult birth (see dystocia) in which the anterior or, less commonly, the posterior fetal shoulder impacts on the maternal symphysis or sacral promontory. It is an obstetric emergency and is diagnosed when the shoulders fail to deliver after the fetal head and when gentle downward traction has failed. Additional obstetric manoeuvres (e.g. *McRobert’s manoeuvre) are required to release the shoulders from below the pubic symphysis. It occurs in approximately 1% of vaginal births. There are well-recognized risk factors, such as maternal diabetes and obesity and fetal *macrosomia. There can be a high *perinatal mortality rate and morbidity associated with the condition; the most common fetal injuries are to the brachial plexus, causing an *Erb’s palsy or *Klumpke’s paralysis. Maternal morbidity is also increased, particularly *postpartum haemorrhage.... shoulder dystocia

Shoulder Girdle

(pectoral girdle) the bony structure to which the bones of the upper limbs are attached. It consists of the right and left *scapulas (shoulder blades) and clavicles (collar bones).... shoulder girdle

Shunt Nephritis

nephritis associated with infected indwelling shunts. The infection is usually with staphylococci (S. epidermidis) and patients present with anorexia, malaise, arthralgia, and low-grade fever. Purpura, anaemia, and hepatosplenomegaly may be found and urine analysis shows heavy proteinuria, often with a *nephrotic syndrome and haematuria. Treatment usually involves removal of the infected shunt as well as antibiotics.... shunt nephritis

Sial

(sialo-) combining form denoting 1. saliva. 2. a salivary gland.... sial

Sialadenitis

n. inflammation of a salivary gland.... sialadenitis

Sialagogue

n. a drug that promotes the secretion of saliva. *Parasympathomimetic drugs have this action.... sialagogue

Sialendoscopy

n. examination of the inside of the ducts of the salivary glands by means of a small fibreoptic endoscope. It is used in the diagnosis and treatment of *sialoliths (salivary gland stones).... sialendoscopy

Sialic Acid

an amino sugar. Sialic acid is a component of some *glycoproteins, *gangliosides, and bacterial cell walls.... sialic acid

Sialography

n. a technique for X-ray examination of the salivary glands. A series of X-ray images is taken after introducing contrast medium through a cannula into the ducts of the *parotid or *submandibular glands in the mouth. It enables the presence of degenerative disease or stones blocking the ducts to be detected.... sialography

Sialolith

n. a stone (calculus) in a salivary gland or duct, most often the duct of the submandibular gland. The flow of saliva is obstructed, causing swelling and intense pain. Treatment is primarily by surgery to remove the stone or the whole gland but in a few cases *lithotripsy is used.... sialolith

Sibilant

adj. whistling or hissing. The term is applied to certain high-pitched abnormal sounds heard through a stethoscope.... sibilant

Sickle-cell Nephropathy

progressive renal disease developing in 5–8% of patients with *sickle-cell disease. Infarcts in the cortex can occur with sickle-cell crises and present with pain and haematuria. Acute or more insidious damage to the medulla will lead to a urinary concentrating defect and later to papillary necrosis and/or fibrosis. Occlusion of vessels within the glomerular capillary tuft leads to a secondary form of *focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and can present with the *nephrotic syndrome.... sickle-cell nephropathy

Sideroblast

n. a red blood cell precursor (see erythroblast) in which iron-containing granules can be demonstrated by suitable staining techniques. Sideroblasts may be seen in normal individuals and are absent in iron deficiency. A certain type of anaemia (sideroblastic anaemia) is characterized by the presence of abnormal ringed sideroblasts. —sideroblastic adj.... sideroblast

Siderocyte

n. a red blood cell in which granules of iron-containing protein (Pappenheimer bodies) can be demonstrated by suitable staining techniques. These granules are normally removed by the spleen and siderocytes are characteristically seen when the spleen is absent.... siderocyte

Sideropenia

n. iron deficiency. This may result from dietary inadequacy; increased requirement of iron by the body, as in pregnancy or childhood; or increased loss of iron from the body, usually due to chronic bleeding. The most important manifestation of iron deficiency is *anaemia, which is readily corrected by iron therapy.... sideropenia

Sickle-cell Disease

(drepanocytosis) a hereditary blood disease that mainly affects people of African ancestry but also occurs in the Mediterranean region and reaches high frequencies in parts of Saudi Arabia and India. It occurs when the sickle-cell gene has been inherited from both parents and is characterized by the production of an abnormal type of *haemoglobin – sickle-cell haemoglobin (Hbs) – which precipitates in the red cells when the blood is deprived of oxygen, forming crystals that distort the cells into the characteristic sickle shape: this process is known as sickling. An excess of sickle cells in the circulation results in blockage of small blood vessels, producing episodes of severe pain (a sickle-cell crisis). Sickle cells are rapidly removed from the circulation, leading to anaemia and jaundice. There is no satisfactory treatment; the highest mortality is in childhood but some patients may live to an age of 60–70 years.

The carrier condition (sickle-cell trait) occurs when the defective gene is inherited from only one parent. It generally causes no symptoms but confers some protection from malaria, which accounts for the high frequency of the gene in malarious areas. If a general anaesthetic is to be given to a patient with this condition, the anaesthetist should be alerted.... sickle-cell disease

Siemens

n. the *SI unit of electrical conductance, equal to the conductance between two points on a conductor when a potential difference of 1 volt between these points causes a current of 1 ampere to flow between them. Symbol: S.... siemens

Sigmoid

combining form denoting the sigmoid colon. Example: sigmoidotomy (incision into).... sigmoid

Sigmoid Colectomy

(sigmoidectomy) surgical removal of the sigmoid colon using either an open approach (see laparotomy) or *laparoscopy. It is performed for tumours, severe *diverticular disease, or for an abnormally long sigmoid colon that has become twisted (see volvulus).... sigmoid colectomy

Sigmoidoscope

n. see sigmoidoscopy.... sigmoidoscope

Significance

n. (in statistics) the degree to which an observed relationship between two test groups is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. An initial assumption is made that there is no meaningful difference between the groups or conditions under investigation (the null hypothesis). This can be tested using various statistical procedures, and a calculation that there is a probability of less than 5% (P value <0.05) is usually considered sufficient to reject the null hypothesis: the observed difference is statistically significant. Some tests are parametric, based on the assumption that observations will be distributed in a normal or Gaussian *distribution, where 95% of observations lie within two *standard deviations of the mean (Student’s t test to compare means). Nonparametric tests (Mann–Whitney U tests) make no assumptions about distribution patterns. See also standard error of the mean.... significance

Sign Language

(signed language) a form of communication that uses movements of the hands and other parts of the body together with facial expressions instead of sound. There are many different forms of sign language throughout the world. British Sign Language (BSL) is the form most commonly used in Great Britain. In Northern Ireland, Northern Irish Sign Language (NISL), BSL, and Irish Sign Language (ISL; the most common form in Ireland) are all used.... sign language

Sign Of Dance

(Dance’s sign, signe de Dance) a feeling of emptiness on palpation of the right lower quadrant of the abdomen, which is thought to be characteristic of *intussusception. [J. B. H. Dance (1797–1832), French physician]... sign of dance

Silver Nitrate

a salt of silver with *astringent, *caustic, and *disinfectant properties. It is used to destroy warts and umbilical granulomas.... silver nitrate

Silver–russell Syndrome

see Russell–Silver syndrome.... silver–russell syndrome

Simeticone

(activated dimeticone) n. a silicone-based material with antifoaming properties, used in the treatment of infantile colic and also incorporated into antacid remedies.... simeticone

Sims’s Position

the left-sided knees-up position commonly assumed by patients undergoing examinations of the anus and rectum or vagina. [J. M. Sims (1813–83), US gynaecologist]... sims’s position

Simulator

n. an X-ray device used in radiotherapy to localize accurately the exact position of the radiation fields before treatment begins.... simulator

Simulium

n. see black fly.... simulium

Simultanagnosia

n. impairment of the ability to perceive or focus on more than one element of a complex visual stimulus at a time, resulting in inability to understand the overall meaning of a situation or scene. This may result from trauma or a stroke at the junction of the occipital and parietal lobes.... simultanagnosia

Sinemet

n. see levodopa.... sinemet

Singer’s Nodule

a pearly white nodule that may develop on the vocal folds of people who use their voice excessively or in those with poor vocal technique.... singer’s nodule

Single-payer System

a type of health-care system in which there is only one purchaser of health-care services, usually the government. The NHS is a single-payer system.... single-payer system

Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography

see SPECT scanning.... single photon emission computed tomography

Singular Nerve

a small subdivision of the *vestibular nerve that carries information from the posterior *semicircular canal to the brain. Singular neurectomy is a surgical procedure to divide the singular nerve, occasionally used in the treatment of *benign paroxysmal positional vertigo.... singular nerve

Singultus

n. see hiccup.... singultus

Sinistr

(sinistro-) combining form denoting left or the left side.... sinistr

Sino

(sinu-) combining form denoting 1. a sinus. 2. the sinus venosus.... sino

Sinuplasty

n. see balloon sinuplasty.... sinuplasty

Sinus Arrhythmia

a normal variation in the heart rate, which accelerates slightly on inspiration and slows on expiration. It is common in young fit individuals.... sinus arrhythmia

Sinus Rhythm

a normal heart rhythm, usually as recorded on an electrocardiogram. The *sinoatrial node, located in the right atrium, normally functions as the natural pacemaker for the heart.... sinus rhythm

Sinus Venosus

a chamber of the embryonic heart that receives blood from several veins. In the adult heart it becomes part of the right atrium.... sinus venosus

Siphonage

n. the transfer of liquid from one container to another by means of a bent tube. The procedure is used in gastric *lavage, when the stomach is filled with water through a funnel and rubber tube, and the tube is then bent downwards to act as a siphon and empty the stomach of its contents.... siphonage

Siphunculina

n. a genus of flies. S. funicola, the eye fly of India, feeds on the secretions of the tear glands and in landing on or near the eyes contributes to the spread of *conjunctivitis.... siphunculina

Sipple’s Syndrome

see MENS. [J. H. Sipple (1930– ), US physician]... sipple’s syndrome

Sirenomelia

(mermaid syndrome, symmelia, sympodia) n. a rare and fatal developmental abnormality in which the legs are fused, the kidneys fail to develop, and the sacrum, bladder, and rectum are absent.... sirenomelia

Sirolimus

(rapamycin) n. an immunosuppressant drug used to prevent rejection in kidney transplantation. Sirolimus was first discovered as a product of the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in a soil sample from Rapa Nui (the Polynesian name for Easter Island), hence the alternative name. It blocks the activation of B and T lymphocytes by *interleukin 2 (IL-2).... sirolimus

Sirt

selective internal radiation therapy: see radioembolization.... sirt

Sister Mary Joseph Nodule

a metastatic tumour nodule in the umbilicus that originates from a tumour in the pelvis or abdomen, particularly ovarian and stomach cancer. [Sister Mary Joseph Dempsey (1856–1939), US nurse]... sister mary joseph nodule

Sitagliptin

n. see DPP-IV inhibitors.... sitagliptin

Sito

combining form denoting food.... sito

Sitz Bath

a hip bath in which the person is seated so that water or saline solution soaks only the hips and buttocks. Sitz baths are used to treat haemorrhoids and anal fissures (among other conditions).... sitz bath

Skatole

(methyl indole) n. a derivative of the amino acid tryptophan, excreted in the urine and faeces.... skatole

Skew Deviation

a neurological condition of the eyes in which one eye turns down while the other turns up. It is seen in disorders of the *cerebellum or *brainstem.... skew deviation

Skia

combining form denoting shadow.... skia

Skier’s Thumb

(gamekeeper’s thumb) an injury to the ulnar collateral ligament of the thumb, caused by forced abduction across the metacarpophalangeal joint, at the base of the thumb. Treatment is by splintage or, in the case of severe injuries, by surgical repair of the torn ligament ends.... skier’s thumb

Ski-stick Injury

a penetrating injury by a ski stick.... ski-stick injury

Sleep Apnoea Syndrome

(SAS) see obstructive sleep apnoea.... sleep apnoea syndrome

Sleep Disordered Breathing

(SDB) abnormal patterns of respiration seen during sleep. *Obstructive sleep apnoea is the most common SDB; other types include central *sleep apnoea, such as *Cheyne–Stokes respiration.... sleep disordered breathing

Sleep-walking

n. see somnambulism.... sleep-walking

Sling Procedure

any of a group of surgical procedures for treating stress incontinence in women. See colposuspension; pubovaginal sling; tension-free vaginal tape.... sling procedure

Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis

a condition that occurs when the upper (capital) epiphysis of the femur slips in relation to the rest of the femur. It most commonly affects older teenage boys who are overweight. The main symptoms are pain in the hip or knee and limping gait. It can be diagnosed on X-ray. Treatment usually involves surgery to stabilize the epiphysis.... slipped capital femoral epiphysis

Slippery Slope Argument

the claim that a relatively innocuous or small first step will result in seriously harmful or otherwise undesirable consequences that will be difficult, if not impossible, to prevent. When or whether such slippery slopes exist is much argued over in medical ethics, especially in debates about *euthanasia. See also consequentialism.... slippery slope argument

Small-bowel Enema

(enteroclysis) a radiological technique for examining the jejunum and ileum by passing a tube through the nose, oesophagus, and stomach into the small bowel and directly injecting *barium sulphate. Images are captured in real time as the contrast moves through the small bowel. It produces highly detailed images of the small bowel, making it particularly useful for investigating coeliac disease and Crohn’s disease, as well as strictures, tumours, and obstructions. It can be combined with X-ray imaging, CT, or MRI.... small-bowel enema

Small-bowel Meal

(barium follow-through) a technique for examining the small bowel, often used when small-bowel enema is not tolerated. The patient swallows dilute *barium sulphate suspension and then a series of abdominal radiographs are taken. A complete examination occurs when contrast reaches the first part of the large bowel (caecum). This technique is particularly useful for investigating small-bowel *Crohn’s disease.... small-bowel meal

Small-cell Lung Cancer

(SCLC) a type of bronchial carcinoma characterized by small cells (or oat cells), small round or oval cells with darkly staining nuclei and scanty indistinct cytoplasm. Small-cell carcinoma is usually related to smoking and accounts for about one-quarter of bronchial carcinomas; it carries a poor prognosis due to early distant spread, typically to bones, liver, and brain. Treatment is primarily with chemotherapy and radiotherapy and paraneoplastic symptoms (see paraneoplastic syndrome) from *ectopic hormone production are common. Compare non-small-cell lung cancer.... small-cell lung cancer

Small For Gestational Age

(SGA) describing a fetus or baby that has failed to reach the size or birth weight expected for its gestational age. This may be because the fetus or baby is constitutionally small or it may be due to *intrauterine growth restriction in the fetus. In the latter case, the perinatal outcome is less favourable.... small for gestational age

Smear Layer

a layer of microcrystalline and organic particle debris that remains on the hard tissues of the teeth whenever they are cut. It may be important in assisting or preventing the penetration of bacteria into the dentinal tubules. The success of root canal treatment depends on the complete removal of the smear layer with a *chelating agent such as EDTA, but its presence may be useful in restorative dentistry.... smear layer

Smith’s Fracture

a fracture just above the wrist, across the distal (far) end of the radius, resulting in volar (forward) displacement of the hand and wrist below the fracture. It is the reverse of *Colles’ fracture. [R. W. Smith (1807–73), Irish surgeon]... smith’s fracture

Snare

n. an instrument consisting of a wire loop designed to remove polyps, tumours, and other projections of tissue, particularly those occurring in body cavities (see illustration). The loop is used to encircle the base of the tumour and is then pulled tight. See also diathermy.... snare

Sneeze

1. n. an involuntary violent reflex expulsion of air through the nose and mouth provoked by irritation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity. 2. vb. to produce a sneeze.... sneeze

Social Anxiety Disorder

an extreme fear of humiliating or embarrassing oneself in social situations (e.g. dating, parties, eating with other people, asking questions, etc.). Symptoms include shaking, blushing, gastrointestinal disturbances, sweating, and other signs of anxiety; people with social anxiety disorder may avoid social situations. Treatment includes cognitive behavioural therapy, occupational therapy, and medication (e.g. antidepressants, anxiolytics, or beta blockers).... social anxiety disorder

Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth

colonization of the small intestine with excessive concentrations of bacteria. Patients experience nausea, bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and symptoms of *malabsorption. Diagnosis is made by identifying bacteria in cultures of small bowel aspirates obtained during endoscopy or by glucose hydrogen breath testing, in which a high concentration of hydrogen in the breath after swallowing glucose indicates bacterial overgrowth. Risk factors include previous abdominal surgery, motility disorders (such as systemic sclerosis), anatomical disruption (such as diverticula, strictures, adhesions, or fistulae), diabetes mellitus, coeliac disease, and Crohn’s disease. Management involves treatment of the underlying condition, nutritional support, and cyclical antibiotics.... small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

Social Class

see National Statistics Socio-economic Classification.... social class

Social Marketing

the application of marketing techniques to achieve behaviour change for a social benefit, for example reduction in *health inequalities.... social marketing

Social Worker

see social services.... social worker

Socio-economic Group

see National Statistics Socio-economic Classification.... socio-economic group

Socket

n. (in anatomy) a hollow or depression into which another part fits, such as the cavity in the alveolar bone of the jaws into which the root of a tooth fits. See also dry socket.... socket

Sodium Channel

see ion channel.... sodium channel

Sodium Fluoride

a salt of sodium used to prevent tooth decay. Taken in excess by mouth, it may cause digestive upsets and large doses may cause fluorine poisoning. See also fluoridation.... sodium fluoride

Sodium Fusidate

an antibiotic used to treat penicillin-resistant infections caused by *Staphylococcus, including osteomyelitis. Common side-effects are nausea and vomiting. See also fusidic acid.... sodium fusidate

Sodium Hydroxide

(caustic soda) a powerful alkali in widespread use as a cleaning agent. It attacks the skin, causing severe chemical burns that are best treated by washing the area with large quantities of water. When swallowed it causes burning of the mouth and throat, which should be treated by giving water, milk, or other fluid to dilute the stomach contents and by gastric lavage.... sodium hydroxide

Sodium Nitrite

a sodium salt used, with sodium thiosulphate, to treat cyanide poisoning. Both drugs may cause headache and flushing.... sodium nitrite

Sodokosis

n. see rat-bite fever.... sodokosis

Soft Sore

(chancroid) a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi, resulting in enlargement and ulceration of lymph nodes in the groin. Treatment with sulphonamides is effective.... soft sore

Solarium

n. a room in which patients are exposed to either sunlight or artificial sunlight (a blend of visible light and infrared and ultraviolet radiation directed from special lamps).... solarium

Soleus

n. a broad flat muscle in the calf of the leg, beneath the *gastrocnemius muscle. The soleus flexes the foot, so that the toes point downwards.... soleus

Solifenacin

n. an *antimuscarinic drug administered to relieve urinary frequency, urgency, and incontinence due to overactivity of the *detrusor muscle of the bladder. It has few side-effects.... solifenacin

Solitary Rectal Ulcer Syndrome

an uncommon anorectal condition that produces symptoms of anal pain, rectal bleeding, straining during defecation, and obstructed defecation (dyssynergic defecation). *Proctoscopy reveals one or more benign rectal lesions, which are thought to be due to abnormal straining during defecation leading to prolapse of the distal anterior rectal wall and internal anal *intussusception.... solitary rectal ulcer syndrome

Somat

combining form denoting 1. the body. 2. somatic.... somat

Somatoform Disorders

a group of disorders in which there is a history of repeated physical complaints with no physical basis. They include *somatic symptom disorder and illness anxiety disorder (see hypochondria).... somatoform disorders

Somatomedin

n. a protein hormone, produced by the liver in response to stimulation by growth hormone, that stimulates protein synthesis and promotes growth. It is biochemically similar to *insulin and has some actions similar to insulin; it is therefore sometimes said to have insulin-like activity (ILA) or is referred to as insulin-like growth factor (IGF).... somatomedin

Somatic Symptom Disorder

in DSM-5, a psychiatric disorder characterized by one or more chronic somatic symptoms about which patients are excessively concerned, preoccupied, or fearful, formerly called somatization disorder. These fears and behaviours cause significant distress and dysfunction, and although patients may make frequent use of health-care services, they are rarely reassured and often feel their medical care has been inadequate. The disorder can disrupt personal and family relationships and lead to unnecessary medical and surgical treatment. It is sometimes treated with *cognitive behavioural therapy, *psychotherapy, and/or *antidepressants.... somatic symptom disorder

Somatopleure

n. the body wall of the early embryo, which consists of a simple layer of ectoderm lined with mesoderm. The amnion is a continuation of this structure outside the embryo. Compare splanchnopleure.... somatopleure

Somatostatinoma

n. a rare tumour of the *islets of Langerhans that produces excessive amounts of somatostatin. It is an example of an *apudoma. In severe cases it can cause the somatostatinoma syndrome, consisting of diabetes, gall-bladder disease, and *steatorrhoea due to malabsorption.... somatostatinoma

Somatotrophin

n. see growth hormone.... somatotrophin

Somite

n. any of the paired segmented divisions of *mesoderm that develop along the length of the early embryo. The somites differentiate into voluntary muscle, bones, connective tissue, and the deeper layers of the skin (see dermatome; myotome; sclerotome).... somite

Somnolism

n. a hypnotic trance. See hypnosis.... somnolism

Somnoplasty

n. see palatoplasty.... somnoplasty

Somogyi Effect

see dawn phenomenon. [M. Somogyi (1883–1971), US biochemist]... somogyi effect

Sonography

n. see ultrasonography.... sonography

Sonohysterography

n. an examination of the uterus and Fallopian tubes using ultrasound rather than X-rays (as in *hysterosalphingography). In saline infusion sonohysterography (SIS) evaluation of the endometrial cavity is augmented by the use of saline, which distends the uterine cavity separating the two layers of endometrium and creating a contrast. This can help identify intracavitary lesions (e.g. submucous *fibroids) and determine the amount of cavity distortion.... sonohysterography

Sonoplacentography

n. see placentography.... sonoplacentography

Sorafenib

n. a drug used in the management of advanced renal cell carcinoma and resistant thyroid cancer. It is an inhibitor of multiple kinases (see protein kinase; tyrosine kinase inhibitor), preventing the mediation of cell growth and proliferation, and blocks *vascular endothelial growth factor receptors on tumour cells, preventing new vessel formation. Side-effects include rash, diarrhoea, and hypertension.... sorafenib

Sorbitol

n. a sugar (carbohydrate) alcohol with a sweet taste, used as a substitute for cane sugar in foods suitable for diabetics since it is absorbed slowly from the intestine. Excess consumption can cause osmotic diarrhoea.... sorbitol

Sordes

pl. n. the brownish encrustations that form around the mouth and teeth of patients suffering from fevers.... sordes

Sotos Syndrome

(cerebral gigantism) a rare inherited disorder resulting in excessive physical growth during the first 2–3 years of life. It presents in childhood with a characteristic facial appearance, a disproportionately large head, large hands and feet, abnormally widely spaced eyes (ocular *hypertelorism), developmental delay, and tall stature for age. Children with Sotos syndrome tend to be large at birth and taller and heavier, stabilizing after about five years to achieve normal adult height. Most cases occur sporadically, although familial cases have been reported. [J. F. Sotos (1927– ), U.S. paediatrician]... sotos syndrome

Souffle

n. a soft blowing sound heard through the stethoscope, usually produced by blood flowing in vessels.... souffle

Southern Blot Analysis

a technique for identifying a specific form of DNA in cells. The DNA is extracted from the cells and restriction enzymes used to cut it into small fragments. The fragments are separated and a gene *probe known to match the DNA fragment being sought is used. Compare Northern blot analysis; Western blot analysis. [E. M. Southern (1938– ), US biologist]... southern blot analysis

Southey’s Tubes

fine-calibre tubes for insertion into subcutaneous tissue to drain excess fluid. They are rarely used in practice today. [R. Southey (1835–99), British physician]... southey’s tubes

Space Maintainer

a custom-made orthodontic appliance that maintains an existing space in the dentition to allow a permanent tooth to erupt into the space. It may be removable or cemented into place.... space maintainer

Spacer

n. a plastic container with a mouthpiece at one end and a hole for an aerosol inhaler at the other. The dose from the inhaler is sprayed into the spacer, from which it can be inhaled without needing to coordinate breathing. It is particularly useful for babies and small children who do not have this coordination. Paediatric spacers also have a small mask that fits onto the mouthpiece of the spacer and is placed over the child’s nose and mouth. Spacers help to deliver a greater proportion of the dose to the airways while reducing the proportion absorbed into the body (which is the usual cause of unwanted side-effects)... spacer

Sparganosis

n. a disease caused by the migration of certain tapeworm larvae (see sparganum) in the tissues beneath the skin, between the muscles, and occasionally in the viscera and brain. The larvae, which normally develop in frogs and reptiles, are transferred to humans who eat the uncooked flesh of these animals or drink water contaminated with minute crustaceans infected with the tapeworm larvae. The larvae cause inflammation, swelling, and fibrosis of the tissues. Treatment of the condition, common in the Far East, involves surgical removal of the larvae.... sparganosis

Sparganum

n. the larvae of certain tapeworms, including species of *Diphyllobothrium and Spirometra, which may infect humans (see sparganosis). They are actually *plerocercoids, but the generic name Sparganum is sometimes given to them since they fail to develop into adults and definite classification of the species is not possible from the larvae alone.... sparganum

Spasmo

combining form denoting spasm.... spasmo

Spasmodic

adj. occurring in spasms or resembling a spasm.... spasmodic

Spasmus Nutans

a combination of symptoms including a slow nodding movement of the head, *nystagmus (involuntary movements of the eyes), and spasm of the neck muscles. It affects infants and it normally disappears within a year or two.... spasmus nutans

Spatulation

n. the technique of widening the orifice of an anatomical tube prior to joining it up, which makes the join more secure and less prone to narrowing.... spatulation

Special Educational Needs

(SEN) the requirements of children who have difficulties in learning or in accessing education. Children with SEN can be supported via mainstream schools or may attend a *special school. Children identified as having SEN that cannot be met by a mainstream school should be assessed by their local authority, which may issue a statement of special educational needs. This statement describes the child and the additional help needed.... special educational needs

Special Health Authority

a type of NHS trust that provides services across the NHS in England, rather than in a single defined geographical area. There are four special health authorities, which exist as arms-length bodies of the Department of Health and Social Care, independent of government: *NHS Blood and Transplant, *NHS Business Services Authority, *NHS Resolution and *NHS Counter Fraud Authority.... special health authority

Special Hospitals

(secure hospitals) hospitals for the care of mentally ill patients who are also dangerous and must therefore be kept securely. The level of security can be low, medium, or high. Most (but not all) patients are there compulsorily under a hospital order made by a court according to the *Mental Health Act 1983.... special hospitals

Special School

(in Britain) an education establishment for children with *special educational needs. The identification and assessment of those needing to attend a special school may occur long before school age. Special schools exist for children with different types of need, including physical disability and hearing impairment. Special education for children with severe disabilities may start as early as two years.... special school

Specialty Registrar

(in a hospital) see consultant.... specialty registrar

Specific

1. n. a medicine that has properties especially useful for the treatment of a particular disease. 2. adj. (of a disease) caused by a particular microorganism that causes no other disease. 3. adj. of or relating to a species.... specific

Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomography

(Fourier domain OCT) a noncontact noninvasive imaging technique that can reveal layers of the retina by looking at the interference patterns of reflected laser light. Automated software is able to outline the retinal nerve-fibre layer with great precision, which is relevant in glaucoma.... spectral domain optical coherence tomography

Spectrograph

n. an instrument (a *spectrometer or *spectroscope) that produces a photographic record (spectrogram) of the intensity and wavelength of electromagnetic radiations.... spectrograph

Spectrometer

n. any instrument for measuring the intensity and wavelengths of visible or invisible electromagnetic radiations. See also spectroscope.... spectrometer

Spectrophotometer

n. an instrument (a spectrometer) for measuring the intensity of the wavelengths of the components of light (visible or ultraviolet).... spectrophotometer

Spectroscope

n. an instrument used to split up light or other radiation into components of different wavelengths. The simplest spectroscope uses a prism, which splits white light into the rainbow colours of the visible spectrum.... spectroscope

Spect Scanning

(single photon emission computing tomography) (in nuclear medicine) a *cross-sectional imaging technique for observing an organ or part of the body using a *gamma camera; images are produced after injecting a radioactive *tracer. The camera is rotated around the patient being scanned. Using a computer reconstruction *algorithm similar to that of a *computerized tomography scanner, multiple ‘slices’ are made through the area of interest. SPECT scanning is used particularly in cardiac nuclear medicine imaging (see MUGA scan). It differs from PET scanning in that radioactive decay gives off only a single gamma ray.... spect scanning

Specular Reflection

(in *ultrasonics) the reflection of sound waves from the surface of an internal structure, which can be used to produce a picture of the surface as a sonogram (see ultrasonography). A specular reflection contrasts with vaguer diffuse echoes produced by minor differences in tissue density.... specular reflection

Speech And Language Therapy

the treatment of patients who have problems with communication or eating or drinking because of congenital causes, accidents, or illness (e.g. stroke). Speech and language therapists are *allied health professionals who have special training in this field.... speech and language therapy

Spell

n. the time a patient spends in one hospital or treatment centre, from admission to discharge or transfer to another such. This may consist of one or more *finished consultant episodes. See also continuous patient pathway.... spell

Spermat

(spermato-) combining form denoting 1. sperm. 2. organs or ducts associated with sperm.... spermat

Spermatic Artery

either of two arteries that originate from the abdominal aorta and travel downwards to supply the testes.... spermatic artery

Spermatid

n. a small cell produced as an intermediate stage in the formation of spermatozoa. Spermatids become embedded in *Sertoli cells in the testis. They are transformed into spermatozoa by the process of spermiogenesis (see spermatogenesis).... spermatid

Spermatocyte

n. a cell produced as an intermediate stage in the formation of spermatozoa (see spermatogenesis). Spermatocytes develop from spermatogonia in the walls of the seminiferous tubules of the testis; they are known as either primary or secondary spermatocytes according to whether they are undergoing the first or second division of meiosis.... spermatocyte

Spermatogonium

n. (pl. spermatogonia) a cell produced at an early stage in the formation of spermatozoa (see spermatogenesis). Spermatogonia first appear in the testis of the fetus but do not multiply significantly until after puberty. They act as stem cells in the walls of the seminiferous tubules, dividing continuously by mitosis and giving rise to *spermatocytes.... spermatogonium

Spermaturia

n. the presence of spermatozoa in the urine. Spermatozoa are occasionally seen on microscopic examination of the urine and their presence is not abnormal. If present in large numbers, the urine becomes cloudy, usually towards the end of micturition. Abnormal ejaculation into the bladder on orgasm (retrograde ejaculation) may occur after *prostatectomy or other surgical procedures or in neurological conditions that destroy the ability of the bladder neck to close on ejaculation.... spermaturia

Sperm Bank

a facility that collects, freezes, and stores human sperm for future use in *artificial insemination (see cryopreservation). Sperm is donated by men who relinquish legal rights to any future child, and donors’ identities are generally unknown to recipients. In some cases, men store their sperm for their own future use if they are to undergo a medical treatment that might leave them sterile.... sperm bank

Sperm Count

see seminal analysis.... sperm count

Spermiogenesis

n. the process by which spermatids become mature spermatozoa within the seminiferous tubules of the testis. See spermatogenesis.... spermiogenesis

Spheno

combining form denoting the sphenoid bone. Examples: sphenomaxillary (relating to the sphenoid and maxillary bones); sphenopalatine (relating to the sphenoid bone and palate).... spheno

Sphenoid Bone

a bone forming the base of the cranium behind the eyes. It consists of a body, containing air spaces continuous with the nasal cavity (see paranasal sinuses); two wings that form part of the orbits; and two pterygoid processes projecting down from the point where the two wings join the body. See skull.... sphenoid bone

Sphenopalatine Artery Ligation

(SPA) a surgical procedure to identify and occlude the sphenopalatine artery in the nose using endoscopic surgery. It is used in the treatment of severe epistaxis (nosebleed).... sphenopalatine artery ligation

Spherocyte

n. an abnormal form of red blood cell (*erythrocyte) that is spherical rather than disc-shaped. In blood films spherocytes appear smaller and stain more densely than normal red cells. They are characteristically seen in some forms of haemolytic anaemia. Spherocytes tend to be removed from the blood as they pass through the spleen. See also spherocytosis.... spherocyte

Spherocytosis

n. the presence in the blood of abnormally shaped red cells (*spherocytes). Spherocytosis may occur as a hereditary disorder (hereditary spherocytosis) or in certain haemolytic *anaemias.... spherocytosis

Sphincterectomy

n. 1. the surgical removal of any sphincter muscle. 2. the complete division of a sphincter.... sphincterectomy

Sphingolipid

n. a *phospholipid that contains sphingosine. Sphingolipids are found in large amounts in brain and nerve tissue.... sphingolipid

Sphingosine

n. a lipid alcohol that is a constituent of sphingolipids and cerebrosides.... sphingosine

Sphygmo

combining form denoting the pulse.... sphygmo

Sphygmocardiograph

n. an apparatus for producing a continuous record of both the heartbeat and the subsequent pulse in one of the blood vessels. The recording can be shown on a moving tape or on an electronic screen.... sphygmocardiograph

Sphygmophone

n. a device to record the heartbeat or pulse in the form of amplified sound waves played through a loudspeaker or earphones.... sphygmophone

Sphygmoscope

n. a device for showing the heartbeat or pulse as a visible signal, especially a continuous wave signal on a cathode-ray tube.... sphygmoscope

Spigelian Hernia

a hernia through the spigelian fascia, a sheath of fibrous tissue that runs along the outside edge of the *rectus abdominis muscle.... spigelian hernia

Spina Bifida Occulta

a defect in the bony arch of the spine that (unlike spina bifida) has a normal skin covering; there may be an overlying hairy patch. The condition is usually an incidental finding on X-ray and it is not associated with neurological involvement.... spina bifida occulta

Spinal Accessory Nerve

see accessory nerve.... spinal accessory nerve

Spinal Muscular Atrophy

(SMA) a hereditary condition in which cells of the spinal cord die and the muscles in the arms and legs become progressively weaker. Eventually the respiratory muscles are affected and death usually results from respiratory infection. Most affected individuals are wheelchair-bound by the age of 20 and few survive beyond the age of 30. The gene responsible has been located: in affected children it is inherited as a double *recessive. There are three forms of the disease, based on severity of the symptoms and the age at which they appear. Type 1 (infantile spinal muscular atrophy) is the most acute and aggressive form of the condition (see Werdnig–Hoffmann disease). Type 2 develops between the ages of 6 months and 2 years and type 3 (Kugelberg–Welander disease), the least severe form, appears between 2 and 17 years of age.... spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal Shock

a state of *shock accompanied by temporary paralysis of the lower extremities that results from injury to the spine and is often associated with *ileus. If the spinal cord is transected, permanent motor paralysis persists below the level of spinal-cord division.... spinal shock

Spindle

n. a collection of fibres seen in a cell when it is dividing. The fibres radiate from the two ends (poles) and meet at the centre (the equator) giving a structure shaped like two cones placed base to base. It plays an important part in chromosome movement in *mitosis and *meiosis and is also involved in division of the cytoplasm.... spindle

Spino

combining form denoting 1. the spine. 2. the spinal cord.... spino

Spinocerebellar Degeneration

any of a group of inherited disorders of the cerebellum and corticospinal tracts in the brain. They are characterized by *spasticity of the limbs and cerebellar *ataxia.... spinocerebellar degeneration

Spiral Bandage

a bandage wound round a part of the body, overlapping the previous section at each turn.... spiral bandage

Spiral Ct Scanning

(helical CT scanning) a development of conventional *computerized tomography (CT) scanning in which the X-ray tube rotates continuously around the patient as he or she passes through the scanner. This allows the acquisition of images throughout a specified volume of tissue much more quickly. Since these images are digitally acquired (see digitization), *post-processing can produce images in numerous planes, without further exposure of the patient to ionizing radiation. See also multidetector computerized tomography.... spiral ct scanning

Spiral Organ

see organ of Corti.... spiral organ

Spiro

combining form denoting 1. spiral. 2. respiration.... spiro

Spirograph

n. an instrument for recording breathing movements. The record (a tracing) obtained is called a spirogram. —spirography n.... spirograph

Spitz–holter Valve

a one-way valve used to drain cerebrospinal fluid in order to control *hydrocephalus. The device is inserted into the ventricles of the brain and passes via a subcutaneous tunnel to drain into either the right atrium or the peritoneum.... spitz–holter valve

Splanch

(splanchno-) combining form denoting the viscera.... splanch

Splanchnic Nerves

the series of nerves in the sympathetic system that are distributed to the blood vessels and viscera, passing forwards and downwards from the chain of sympathetic ganglia near the spinal cord to enter the abdomen and branch profusely.... splanchnic nerves

Splanchnocranium

n. the part of the skull that is derived from the *pharyngeal arches, i.e. the mandible (lower jaw).... splanchnocranium

Splanchnopleure

n. the wall of the embryonic gut, which consists of a layer of endoderm with a layer of mesoderm outside it. The yolk sac is a continuation of this structure. Compare somatopleure.... splanchnopleure

Splen

(spleno-) combining form denoting the spleen. Example: splenorenal (relating to the spleen and kidney).... splen

Splenium

n. the thickest part of the *corpus callosum, rounded and protruding backwards over the thalami, the pineal gland, and the midbrain.... splenium

Splenorenal Anastomosis

a method of treating *portal hypertension by joining the splenic vein to the left renal vein. Compare portacaval anastomosis.... splenorenal anastomosis

Splenunculus

n. a small sphere of splenic tissue occurring at a site other than the spleen. Splenunculi are present in many people.... splenunculus

Split-skin Graft

(SSG, Thiersch’s graft) a type of skin graft in which thin partial thicknesses of skin are used to cover and heal a wound. They are removed from one site on the body, cut into narrow strips or sheets, and placed onto the wound area to be healed.... split-skin graft

Splitting

n. a *defence mechanism by which people deal with an emotional conflict by viewing some people as all good and others as all bad: they fail to integrate themselves or other people into complex but coherent images. It is common in people with an *emotionally unstable personality disorder.... splitting

Spondyl

(spondylo-) combining form denoting a vertebra or the spine.... spondyl

Spondyloarthropathy

any *sero-negative arthritis that is characterized by the presence of the tissue-type antigen HLA-B27 (see HLA system) and the absence of rheumatoid factor. Spondyloarthropathies include ankylosing *spondylitis, *reactive arthritis, and *psoriatic arthritis.... spondyloarthropathy

Spondylosyndesis

n. surgical fusion of the intervertebral joints of the backbone.... spondylosyndesis

Spongioblast

n. a type of cell that forms in the early stages of development of the nervous system, giving rise to *astrocytes and *oligodendrocytes.... spongioblast

Spontaneous

adj. arising without apparent cause or outside aid. The term is applied in medicine to certain conditions, such as pathological fractures, that arise in the absence of outside injury; also to recovery from a disease without the aid of specific treatment.... spontaneous

Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension

see intracranial hypotension headache.... spontaneous intracranial hypotension

Sporicide

n. an agent that kills spores (e.g. bacterial spores). Some disinfectants that liberate chlorine are sporicides, but most other germicides are ineffective since spores are very resistant to chemical action. —sporicidal adj.... sporicide

Sporocyst

n. the second-stage larva of a parasitic *fluke, found within the tissues of a freshwater snail. A sporocyst develops from a first stage larva (see miracidium) and gives rise either to the next larval stage (see redia) or daughter sporocysts. The latter develop directly into the final larval stage (see cercaria) without the intermediate redia stage.... sporocyst

Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis

(SBP) the presence of infection in the abdominal cavity without an obvious cause (see peritonitis). SBP occurs in patients with liver disease (and occasionally in those with nephrotic syndrome) due to *portal hypertension. This leads to the build-up of large volumes of peritoneal fluid (*ascites) in which infection takes hold and propagates. Patients experience fever, nausea, abdominal pain, further accumulation of ascites, and they may develop *hepatic encephalopathy with rapid deterioration. Diagnosis is made by *paracentesis culture of the ascitic fluid to confirm the presence of bacteria. Treatment includes antibiotics.... spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

Sporogony

n. the formation of *sporozoites during the life cycle of a sporozoan. The contents of the zygote, formed by the fusion of sex cells, divide repeatedly and eventually release a number of sporozoites. Compare schizogony.... sporogony

Sporozoite

n. one of the many cells formed as a result of *sporogony during the life cycle of a sporozoan. In *Plasmodium sporozoites are formed by repeated divisions of the contents of the *oocyst inside the body of the mosquito. The released sporozoites ultimately pass into the insect’s salivary glands and await transmission to a human host at the next blood meal.... sporozoite

Sports Injury

any injury related to the practice of a sport, often resulting from the overuse and stretching of muscles, tendons, and ligaments.... sports injury

Sprengel’s Deformity

a congenital abnormality of the scapula (shoulder blade), which is small and positioned high in the shoulder. It is caused by failure of the normal development and descent of this bone. [O. G. K. Sprengel (1852–1915), German surgeon]... sprengel’s deformity

Spud

n. a blunt needle used for removing foreign bodies embedded in the cornea of the eye.... spud

Spur

n. a sharp projection, especially one of bone.... spur

Squalene

n. an unsaturated hydrocarbon (a terpene), synthesized in the body, from which *cholesterol is derived.... squalene

Squama

n. (pl. squamae) 1. a thin plate of bone. 2. a scale, such as any of the scales from the cornified layer of the *epidermis.... squama

Squamo

combining form denoting 1. the squamous portion of the temporal bone. 2. squamous epithelium.... squamo

Squamous Bone

see temporal bone.... squamous bone

Squamous Epithelium

see epithelium.... squamous epithelium

Sspe

see subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.

SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) any one of a group of *antidepressant drugs that exert their action by blocking the reabsorption of the neurotransmitter *serotonin by the nerve endings in the brain. Their effect is to prolong the action of serotonin in the brain. As well as depression, SSRIs are used to treat anxiety, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and phobias. The group includes *citalopram, escitalopram, *fluoxetine, *fluvoxamine, *paroxetine, and *sertraline. Nausea, indigestion, abdominal pain, and other gastrointestinal disturbances are the most common side-effects.... sspe

Stadium

n. (pl. stadia) a stage in the course of a disease; for example, the stadium invasionis is the period between exposure to infection and the onset of symptoms.... stadium

Stagnant Loop Syndrome

see blind loop syndrome.... stagnant loop syndrome

Standardized Mortality Ratio

(SMR) the ratio of observed mortality rate to expected mortality rate (calculated using indirect standardization), expressed as an integer where 100 represents agreement between observed and expected rates. See standardized rates.... standardized mortality ratio

Stapedial Reflex

reflex contraction of the stapedius muscle in the middle ear, attached to the *stapes bone, in response to loud sounds. This protects the cochlea from noise damage by limiting the amount of sound that is transmitted via the stapes. The reflex can be measured using a *tympanometer.... stapedial reflex

Staphylectomy

n. see uvulectomy.... staphylectomy

Staphyloma

n. abnormal bulging of the cornea or sclera (white) of the eye. Anterior staphyloma is a bulging scar in the cornea to which a part of the iris is attached. It is usually the site of a healed corneal ulcer that has penetrated right through the cornea; the iris blocks the hole and prevents the further leakage of fluid from the front chamber of the eye. In ciliary staphyloma the sclera bulges over the ciliary body as a result of high pressure inside the eyeball. A bulging of the sclera at the back of the eye (posterior staphyloma) occurs in some severe cases of short-sightedness.... staphyloma

Stain

1. n. a dye used to colour tissues and other specimens for microscopical examination. In an acid stain the colour is carried by an acid radical and the stain is taken up by parts of the specimen having a basic (alkaline) reaction. In a basic stain the colour, carried by a basic radical, is attracted to parts of the specimen having an acidic reaction. Neutral stains have neither acidic nor basic affinities. A contrast stain is used to give colour to parts of a tissue not affected by a previously applied stain. A differential stain allows different elements in a specimen to be distinguished by staining them in different colours. 2. vb. to treat a specimen for microscopical study with a stain.... stain

Standardized Rates

rates used to summarize the *morbidity or *mortality experience of a population. Age-specific rates and population structures from a study population and a reference or *standard population are used to produce a weighted average. Standardized rates can be used to compare the health experience of populations with different structures. Direct standardization requires application of age-specific rates from a study population to a reference population structure (e.g. the European standard population) to produce a (directly) standardized rate. Indirect standardization requires application of age-specific rates from a standard population (e.g. England and Wales) to a study population structure to produce an expected morbidity or mortality rate. Compare crude rate.... standardized rates

Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome

(Ritter’s disease) a potentially serious condition of young infants (and occasionally seen in adults) in which the skin becomes reddened and tender and then peels off, giving the appearance of a scald. The area of skin loss may be quite extensive and is usually centred on the armpits and groin. The underlying cause is an infection by certain bacteria of the genus *Staphylococcus. It is contagious and may occur in clusters. Treatment is by antibiotics (usually intravenous), but careful nursing is essential to prevent skin damage. Admission to hospital is mandatory for small children.... staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome

Staphylorrhaphy

(palatorrhaphy, uraniscorrhaphy) n. surgical suture of a cleft palate.... staphylorrhaphy

Staple

n. (in surgery) a piece of metal used to join up pieces of tissue. Staples can be used as an alternative to *sutures for an *anastomosis or to bring together the skin edges of an incision; stapling machines have been produced for this purpose. See also endostapler.... staple

Starling’s Law

a law stating that, within certain limits, a muscle (including the heart muscle) responds to increased stretching at rest by an increased force of contraction when stimulated. [E. H. Starling (1866–1927), British physiologist]... starling’s law

Startle Reflex

see Moro reflex.... startle reflex

Statementing

n. the provision by a local authority of a statement of *special educational needs for children attending school who have mental or physical disabilities severe enough to require extra help at school.... statementing

Statement Of Fitness For Work

a medical certificate that replaced forms Med 3 and Med 5 in April 2010 (see Appendix 8).... statement of fitness for work

Static Reflex

the reflex maintenance of muscular tone for posture.... static reflex

Statin

n. any one of a class of drugs that inhibit the action of an enzyme involved in the liver’s production of cholesterol (see HMG CoA reductase). Statins can lower the levels of *low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) by 25–45% and are used mainly to treat hypercholesterolaemia but also to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease in susceptible patients. Muscle inflammation and breakdown (see rhabdomyolysis) is a rare but serious side-effect of statins. The class includes *atorvastatin, fluvastatin, *pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and *simvastatin.... statin

Status Lymphaticus

enlargement of the thymus gland and other parts of the lymphatic system, formerly believed to be a predisposing cause to sudden death in infancy and childhood associated with hypersensitivity to drugs or vaccines.... status lymphaticus

Statutory Sick Pay

benefit payable to employees who are unable to work because of illness.... statutory sick pay

Steapsin

n. see lipase.... steapsin

Stearic Acid

see fatty acid.... stearic acid

Steat

(steato-) combining form denoting fat; fatty tissue.... steat

Steatopygia

n. the accumulation of large quantities of fat in the buttocks.... steatopygia

Steatosis

n. infiltration of *hepatocytes with fat. This may occur in alcoholism, obesity, metabolic syndrome, pregnancy, malnutrition, viral hepatitis, or certain drugs (such as oestrogens or steroids).... steatosis

Steele–richardson–olszewski Syndrome

see progressive supranuclear palsy. [J. C. Steele and J. C. Richardson (20th century), Canadian neurologists; J. Olszewski (1913–64), Polish-born Canadian neuropathologist]... steele–richardson–olszewski syndrome

Stellate Fracture

a star-shaped fracture of the kneecap caused by a direct blow. The bone may be either split or severely shattered; if the fragments are displaced, the bone may need to be surgically repaired or rarely removed (patellectomy).... stellate fracture

Stellate Ganglion

a star-shaped collection of sympathetic nerve cell bodies in the root of the neck, from which sympathetic nerve fibres are distributed to the face and neck and to the blood vessels and organs of the thorax.... stellate ganglion

Stellwag’s Sign

apparent widening of the distance between the upper and lower eyelids (the palpebral fissure) due to retraction of the upper lid and protrusion of the eyeball. It is a sign of exophthalmic *goitre. [C. Stellwag von Carion (1823–1904), Austrian ophthalmologist]... stellwag’s sign

Stemi

S–T elevation *myocardial infarction.... stemi

Stemmer’s Sign

inability to lift and pinch the skin of the base of the second toe, which is characteristic of lymphoedema. [R. Stemmer (1925–2000), French phlebologist]... stemmer’s sign

Steno

combining form denoting 1. narrow. Example: stenocephaly (narrowness of the head). 2. constricted.... steno

Stenopaeic

adj. (in ophthalmology) describing an optical device consisting of an opaque disc punctured with a fine slit or hole (or holes), which is placed in front of the eye in the same position as glasses and enables sharper vision in cases of gross long- or short-sightedness or astigmatism. It sharpens the image formed on the retina because it confines the light reaching the eye to one or more fine beams, which pass through the centre of the lens undeviated by refractive error. The same principle is used in the pin-hole camera.... stenopaeic

Stenostomia

(stenostomy) n. the abnormal narrowing of an opening, such as the opening of the bile duct.... stenostomia

Stensen’s Duct

the long secretory duct of the *parotid salivary gland. [N. Stensen (1838–86), Danish physician]... stensen’s duct

Stepping Reflex

a primitive reflex in newborn babies that should disappear by the age of two months. If the baby is held in a ‘walking’ position with the feet touching the ground, the feet move in a ‘stepping’ manner. Persistence of this reflex beyond two months is suggestive of *cerebral palsy.... stepping reflex

Sterco

combining form denoting faeces.... sterco

Stercobilin

n. a brownish-red pigment formed during the metabolism of the *bile pigments biliverdin and bilirubin, which are derived from haemoglobin. Stercobilin is subsequently excreted in the urine or faeces.... stercobilin

Stercolith

n. a solid mass of dried compressed faeces.... stercolith

Stereoisomers

pl. n. compounds having the same molecular formula but different three-dimensional arrangements of their atoms. The atomic structures of stereoisomers are mirror images of each other.... stereoisomers

Stereopsis

n. see stereoscopic vision.... stereopsis

Stereoscopic Vision

(stereopsis) perception of the shape, depth, and distance of an object as a result of having *binocular vision. The brain receives two distinct images from the eyes, which it interprets as a single three-dimensional image.... stereoscopic vision

Stereotactic Localization

the accurate localization, with the help of scans, of structures within the body by using three-dimensional measurements. It enables the accurate positioning within the body of radiotherapy beams or sources for the treatment of tumours and of localizing wires for the biopsy of small tumours. See also stereotaxy; cyberknife; gamma knife.... stereotactic localization

Stereotaxy

(stereotactic surgery) n. a surgical procedure in which a deep-seated area in the brain is operated upon after its position has been established very accurately by three-dimensional measurements using CT or MRI. The operation may be performed using an electrical current or by heat, cold, or mechanical techniques. See also leucotomy.... stereotaxy

Stereotypy

n. the constant repetition of a complex action, which is carried out in the same way each time. It is seen in *catatonia and *autism; sometimes it is an isolated symptom in people with *learning disability. It is more common in patients who live in institutions where they are bored and unstimulated and can sometimes cause physical injury to the patient.... stereotypy

Sterile

adj. 1. (of a living organism) barren; unable to reproduce its kind (see sterility). 2. (of inanimate objects) completely free from bacteria, fungi, viruses, or other microorganisms that could cause infection.... sterile

Stern

(sterno-) combining form denoting the sternum. Example: sternocostal (relating to the sternum and ribs).... stern

Sternberg–reed Cell

see Reed–Sternberg cell.... sternberg–reed cell

Sternebra

n. (pl. sternebrae) one of the four parts that fuse during development to form the body of the sternum.... sternebra

Sternocleidomastoid Muscle

see sternomastoid muscle.... sternocleidomastoid muscle

Sternohyoid

n. a muscle in the neck, arising from the sternum and inserted into the hyoid bone. It depresses the hyoid bone.... sternohyoid

Sternomastoid Muscle

(sternocleidomastoid muscle) a long muscle in the neck, extending from the mastoid process to the sternum and clavicle. It serves to rotate the neck and flex the head.... sternomastoid muscle

Sternomastoid Tumour

a small painless nonmalignant swelling in the lower half of the *sternomastoid muscle, appearing a few days after birth. It occurs when the neck of the fetus is in an abnormal position in the uterus, which interferes with the blood supply to the affected muscle, and it is most common after breech births. The tumour may cause a slight tilt of the head towards the tumour and turning of the face to the other side. This can be corrected by physiotherapy aimed at increasing all movements of the body, but without stretching the neck.... sternomastoid tumour

Sternotomy

n. surgical division of the breastbone (sternum), performed to allow access to the heart and its major vessels.... sternotomy

Steroid Card

a card that must be carried by patients taking long-term corticosteroid medication, particularly if high doses are used. The card states that in an emergency treatment with steroids must not be suddenly stopped since this may precipitate an *Addisonian crisis.... steroid card

Sterol

n. one of a group of *steroid alcohols. The most important sterols are *cholesterol and *ergosterol.... sterol

Steth

(stetho-) combining form denoting the chest.... steth

Stevia

n. a sugar substitute that is 200 to 300 times sweeter than table sugar. Extracted from Stevia rebaudiana, it is used as a low-calorie sweetener.... stevia

Sthenia

n. a state of normal or greater than normal strength. Compare asthenia. —sthenic adj.... sthenia

Stimulator

n. any apparatus designed to stimulate nerves and muscles for a variety of purposes. It can be used to stimulate particular areas of the brain or to block pain (as in *transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation).... stimulator

Stippling

n. a spotted or speckled appearance, such as is seen in the retina in certain eye diseases or in abnormal red blood cells stained with basic dyes.... stippling

Stirrup

n. (in anatomy) see stapes.... stirrup

Stock Culture

see culture.... stock culture

Stomach Stapling

(gastric stapling, vertical banded gastroplasty) restrictive *bariatric surgery in which staples are inserted into the wall of the stomach to form a small pouch, which restricts the amount of food that can be eaten. At the same time a gastric band is applied to limit the size of the opening between the pouch and the rest of the stomach.... stomach stapling

Stomat

(stomato-) combining form denoting the mouth.... stomat

Stomatology

(oral medicine) n. the medical specialty concerned with the structures, functions, and diseases of the mouth. It represents the point at which medicine meets dentistry.... stomatology

Stomodeum

n. the site of the embryonic mouth, marked by a depression lined with ectoderm from which the teeth develop. The membrane separating it from the foregut breaks down by the end of the first month of pregnancy. Compare proctodeum.... stomodeum

Stomy

(-ostomy) combining form denoting a surgical opening into an organ or part. Example: colostomy (into the colon).... stomy

Stop-bang

n. a questionnaire used to predict patients who have *obstructive sleep apnoea. The name is an acronym of snoring, tiredness, observed apnoeas, high blood pressure, BMI, age, neck size, and gender.... stop-bang

Stop Needle

a surgical needle with a shank that has a protruding collar to stop it when the needle has been pushed a prescribed distance into the tissue. A stop needle has the eye at the tip.... stop needle

Strain Gauge

a sensitive instrument for measuring tension and alterations in pressure. It is extensively used in medical instruments.... strain gauge

Strangulated

adj. describing a part of the body whose blood supply has been interrupted by compression of a blood vessel, as may occur in a loop of intestine trapped in a *hernia.... strangulated

Strassman Procedure

an operation to correct a double uterus (see uterus didelphys). It has now largely been replaced by hysteroscopic techniques. [P. F. Strassman (1866–1938), German obstetrician and gynaecologist]... strassman procedure

Strategic Health Authority

(SHA) formerly a statutory organization in England that was responsible for strategic leadership, building capacity, organizational development, and performance management in the local National Health Service. SHAs were abolished by the Health and Social Care Act 2012; their responsibilities passed to *NHS England, *clinical commissioning groups, and *Public Health England.... strategic health authority

Stratum

n. a layer of tissue or cells, such as any of the layers of the *epidermis of the skin (the stratum corneum is the outermost layer).... stratum

Strawberry Mark

(strawberry naevus) see naevus.... strawberry mark

Streak

n. (in anatomy) a line, furrow, or narrow band. See also primitive streak.... streak

Streptobacillus

n. a genus of Gram-negative aerobic nonmotile rodlike bacteria that tend to form filaments. The single species, S. moniliformis, is a normal inhabitant of the respiratory tract of rats but causes *rat-bite fever in humans.... streptobacillus

Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome

a bacterial disease characterized by fever, shock, and multiple organ failure. It is similar to the *toxic shock syndrome caused by staphylococci, but in these cases the infecting organisms are *Streptococcus Type A bacteria. See also necrotizing fasciitis.... streptococcal toxic shock syndrome

Streptodornase

n. an enzyme produced by some haemolytic bacteria of the genus Streptococcus that is capable of liquefying pus. See also streptokinase.... streptodornase

Streptolysin

n. an *exotoxin that is produced by strains of Streptococcus bacteria and destroys red blood cells.... streptolysin

Streptomyces

n. a genus of aerobic mouldlike bacteria. Most species live in the soil, but some are parasites of animals, humans, and plants; in humans they cause *Madura foot. They are important medically as a source of such antibiotics as *streptomycin, *neomycin, *dactinomycin, and *chloramphenicol.... streptomyces

Stress Incontinence

see incontinence.... stress incontinence

Stress Test

an investigation to seek evidence of cardiac *ischaemia. The heart is stressed by exercise or by the administration of an intravenous drug that increases heart rate (i.e. mimicked exercise). Ischaemia may then be detected by electrocardiography (stress ECG or exercise ECG), *echocardiography (showing the development of impaired function in areas of heart muscle that are ischaemic), *myocardial perfusion scan, or cardiac MRI.... stress test

Stress Ulcers

gastric or duodenal ulcers that can be associated with physiological stress from severe head injury (Cushing’s ulcers) or major burns (Curling’s ulcers).... stress ulcers

Stretch Receptor

a cell or group of cells found between muscle fibres that responds to stretching of the muscle by transmitting impulses to the central nervous system through the sensory nerves. Stretch receptors are part of the *proprioceptor system necessary for the performance of coordinated muscular activity.... stretch receptor

Stretch Reflex

(myotatic reflex) the reflex contraction of a muscle in response to its being stretched.... stretch reflex

Stricturoplasty

n. an operation in which a stricture (usually in the small intestine) is widened by cutting it longitudinally and suturing transversely.... stricturoplasty

Stroke Volume

the amount of blood ejected from each ventricle on each contraction, which can be affected by medication, exercise, decreases in the volume of circulating blood, or heart anomalies. In a healthy adult, stroke volume is estimated at 70 ml.... stroke volume

Striated Muscle

a tissue comprising the bulk of the body’s musculature. It is also known as skeletal muscle, because it is attached to the skeleton and is responsible for the movement of bones, and voluntary muscle, because it is under voluntary control. Striated muscle is composed of parallel bundles of multinucleate fibres (each containing many myofibrils), which reveal cross-banding when viewed under the microscope. This effect is caused by the alternation of actin and myosin protein filaments within each myofibril (see illustration). According to the ‘sliding filament’ theory, when muscle contraction takes place, the two sets of filaments slide past each other, so reducing the length of each unit (sarcomere) of the myofibril. The sliding is caused by a series of cyclic reactions, requiring ATP, resulting in a change in orientation of projections on the myosin filaments; each projection is first attached to an actin filament but contracts and releases it to become reattached at a different site.... striated muscle

Struma

n. (pl. strumae) a swelling of the thyroid gland (see goitre). See also Riedel’s struma.... struma

Struma Ovarii

a *teratoma of the ovary containing thyroid tissue that becomes overactive and causes thyrotoxicosis. It is diagnosed by radioiodine scanning showing a high uptake in the pelvis; the treatment is surgical removal of the affected ovary.... struma ovarii

S–t Segment

the segment on an *electrocardiogram that represents the interval between the end of ventricular *depolarization (QRS complex) and the beginning of ventricular *repolarization (T wave). The S–T segment is usually depressed by *ischaemia of the heart muscle but raised in the initial phase of myocardial infarction. It is therefore very useful for diagnosis in patients presenting with chest pain.... s–t segment

Student’s T Test

see significance. [Pseudonym of W. S. Gosset (1876–1937), British statistician]... student’s t test

Studer Pouch

see cystectomy.... studer pouch

Stupe

n. any piece of material, such as a wad of cottonwool, soaked in hot water (with or without medication) and used to apply a poultice.... stupe

Sturge–weber Syndrome

see angioma. [W. A. Sturge (1850–1919) and F. P. Weber (1863–1962), British physicians]... sturge–weber syndrome

Stycar Tests

Standard Tests for Young Children and Retardates: tests to detect visual problems in children between the ages of six months and five years. They consist of a series of standardized balls, toys, or letters. The tests were developed by the paediatrician Mary Sheridan.... stycar tests

Stylet

n. see stilet.... stylet

Stylo

combining form denoting the styloid process of the temporal bone. Example: stylomastoid (relating to the styloid and mastoid processes).... stylo

Styloglossus

n. a muscle that extends from the tongue to the styloid process of the temporal bone. It serves to draw the tongue upwards and backwards.... styloglossus

Stylohyoid

n. a muscle that extends from the styloid process of the temporal bone to the hyoid bone. It serves to draw the hyoid bone backwards and upwards.... stylohyoid

Styloid Process

1. a long slender downward-pointing spine projecting from the lower surface of the *temporal bone of the skull. It provides attachment for muscles and ligaments of the tongue and hyoid bone. 2. any of various other spiny projections; occurring, for example, at the lower ends of the ulna and radius.... styloid process

Stylus

n. 1. a pencil-shaped instrument, commonly used for applying external medication; for example, to apply silver nitrate to warts. 2. see stilet.... stylus

Subaponeurotic Haemorrhage

bleeding under the *aponeurosis of the scalp resulting from trauma to blood vessels crossing the space from the skull to the overlying scalp. It results from delivery by forceps or vacuum extraction. It is very uncommon but can be fatal. See also cephalhaematoma; chignon.... subaponeurotic haemorrhage

Subclavian Artery

either of two arteries supplying blood to the neck and arms. The right subclavian artery branches from the innominate artery; the left subclavian arises directly from the aortic arch.... subclavian artery

Subgingival

adj. situated, performed, or occurring under the gums (gingivae), especially in the crevice between the gums and the basal part of the crowns of the teeth.... subgingival

Subglottis

n. that part of the *larynx that lies below the vocal folds.... subglottis

Subintimal

adj. underlying the inner layer (*intima) of a blood vessel: commonly used in vascular and interventional radiology. When a blood vessel is occluded with atheroma, a channel is created in the subintimal plane with a wire and the vessel is opened up by *angioplasty and/or *stent insertion.... subintimal

Subliminal

adj. subconscious: beneath the threshold of conscious perception.... subliminal

Sublingual Gland

one of a pair of *salivary glands situated in the lower part of the mouth, one on either side of the tongue. The sublingual glands are the smallest salivary glands; each gland has about 20 ducts, most of which open into the mouth directly above the gland.... sublingual gland

Submandibular Gland

(submaxillary gland) one of a pair of *salivary glands situated below the parotid glands. Their ducts (Wharton’s ducts) open in two papillae under the tongue, on either side of the frenulum.... submandibular gland

Submaxillary Gland

see submandibular gland.... submaxillary gland

Submentovertical

(SMV) adj. denoting an X-ray view of the base of the skull.... submentovertical

Substance Misuse

the nonclinical, or recreational, use of pharmacologically active substances such that continued use results in adverse physiological or psychological effects (see dependence). Substances commonly misused include alcohol (see alcoholism), *amphetamines, *cannabis, *cocaine, *Ecstasy, *heroin, *lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and organic solvents (by inhalation), but also many prescribed medications, such as co-codamol, quetiapine, or pregabalin.... substance misuse

Substituted Judgment

a decision made by someone on behalf of a patient lacking capacity that is judged to reflect what the patient would have wanted had he or she had the mental capacity to decide for him- or herself. This judgment is best made by someone close to the patient who has a good knowledge of the patient’s beliefs, opinions, and character, provided that there are no potentially conflicting and partial interests at play. See also power of attorney; proxy decision.... substituted judgment

Substitution

n. 1. (in psychoanalysis) the replacement of one idea by another: a form of *defence mechanism. 2. (symptom substitution) (in psychology) the supposed process whereby removing one psychological symptom leads to another symptom appearing if the basic psychological cause has not been removed. It is controversial whether this happens. 3. the replacement of one addictive and dangerous drug with another that is better controlled and easier to manage, with the aim of harm reduction.... substitution

Substitution Therapy

provision of a less harmful alternative to a drug or remedy that a patient has been receiving. It is used when the patient has become addicted to a drug or is placing too much reliance upon a particular remedy. An example is the replacement of heroin in an opioid-dependent patient with methadone.... substitution therapy

Subsultus

n. abnormal twitching or tremor of muscles, such as may occur in feverish conditions.... subsultus

Subtertian Fever

a form of *malaria resulting from repeated infection by Plasmodium falciparum and characterized by continuous fever.... subtertian fever

Subthalamic Nucleus

a collection of grey matter, shaped like a biconvex lens, lying beneath the *thalamus and close to the *corpus striatum, to which it is connected by nerve tracts. It has connections with the cerebral cortex and several other nuclei nearby. Stimulation of this nucleus is now being used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.... subthalamic nucleus

Subtotal

adj. almost complete or partial: applied, for example, to surgical procedures (e.g. subtotal *thyroidectomy) or to occlusion (usually of an artery).... subtotal

Subzonal Insemination

(Suzi) a method of assisting conception in cases of infertility caused by the inability of the spermatozoa to penetrate the barriers surrounding the ovum. Using *in vitro fertilization techniques, a small number of spermatozoa (no more than six) are injected through the *zona pellucida into the perivitelline space (which surrounds the egg membrane). If fertilization subsequently occurs, the blastocyst is implanted in the mother’s uterus.... subzonal insemination

Succus

n. any juice or secretion of animal or plant origin.... succus

Sucrase

n. an enzyme, secreted by glands in the small intestine, that catalyses the hydrolysis of sucrose into its components (glucose and fructose).... sucrase

Sudan Stains

a group of azo compounds used for staining fats. The group includes Sudan I, Sudan II, Sudan III, Sudan IV, and Sudan black.... sudan stains

Sudden Unexpected Death In Epilepsy

(SUDEP) the sudden unexpected nontraumatic death of a person with *epilepsy, with or without evidence of a seizure and with no obvious cause found at post mortem.... sudden unexpected death in epilepsy

Sudek’s Atrophy

see complex regional pain syndrome. [P. H. M. Sudek (1866–1938), German surgeon]... sudek’s atrophy

Sudor

n. see sweat.... sudor

Suffusion

n. the spreading of a flush across the skin surface, caused by changes in the local blood supply.... suffusion

Suggestion

n. (in psychology) 1. the process of changing people’s beliefs, attitudes, or emotions by telling them that they will change. 2. a thought or idea imparted to someone in a hypnotic state.... suggestion

Sulpha Drug

see sulphonamide.... sulpha drug

Sulphonamide

(sulpha drug) n. one of a group of drugs, derived from sulphanilamide (a red dye), that prevent the growth of bacteria (i.e. they are bacteriostatic). Sulphonamides are effective against a variety of infections and were formerly widely used; because many of them are rapidly excreted and very soluble in the urine, they were particularly useful in treating infections of the urinary tract.

A variety of side-effects may occur with sulphonamide treatment, including nausea, vomiting, headache, and loss of appetite; more severe effects include *cyanosis, blood disorders, skin rashes, and fever. Because of increasing bacterial resistance to sulphonamides, and with the development of more effective less toxic antibiotics, the clinical use of these drugs has declined. Those still used include *sulfadiazine, *sulfasalazine, and sulfamethoxazole (combined with trimethoprim in *co-trimoxazole).... sulphonamide

Sulphone

n. one of a group of drugs closely related to the *sulphonamides in structure and therapeutic actions. Sulphones possess powerful activity against the bacteria that cause leprosy and tuberculosis. The best known sulphone is *dapsone.... sulphone

Sulphonylurea

n. one of a group of *oral hypoglycaemic drugs, derived from a *sulphonamide, that are used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus; they act by stimulating the islet cells in the pancreas to produce more insulin. The group includes *glibenclamide, *gliclazide, and *tolbutamide. Side-effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea, are usually mild.... sulphonylurea

Sulphuric Acid

a powerful corrosive acid, H2SO4, widely used in industry. Swallowing the acid causes severe burning of the mouth and throat and difficulty in breathing, speaking, and swallowing. The patient should drink large quantities of milk or water or white of egg; gastric lavage should not be delayed. Skin or eye contact should be treated by flooding the area with water.... sulphuric acid

Sunitinib

n. an inhibitor of multiple kinases (see protein kinase; tyrosine kinase inhibitor) that blocks the action of *vascular endothelial growth factor. It is used for the treatment of advanced *renal cell carcinoma and of *gastrointestinal stromal tumour after disease progression or on intolerance to *imatinib. Its most common side-effects include fatigue, asthenia, gastrointestinal disturbances, hypertension, and bleeding.... sunitinib

Superciliary

adj. of or relating to the eyebrows (supercilia).... superciliary

Supererogation

n. (in ethics) action that goes above and beyond what is morally necessary or required by duty. The extent to which an action must exceed that which is expected or required in order to be considered supererogatory is both debatable and debated. —supererogatory adj.... supererogation

Superfecundation

n. the fertilization of two or more ova of the same age by spermatozoa from different males. See superfetation.... superfecundation

Superfetation

n. the fertilization of a second ovum some time after the start of pregnancy, resulting in two fetuses of different maturity in the same uterus.... superfetation

Superior

adj. (in anatomy) situated uppermost in the body in relation to another structure or surface.... superior

Superior Canal Dehiscence Syndrome

(SCDS) a rare condition characterized by sound- or pressure-induced vertigo (see Tullio phenomenon), hearing loss, *autophony, and a sense of fullness in the affected ear. It is associated with absence of the bone that normally lies over the superior *semicircular canal. Diagnosis involves computerized tomography and *vestibular evoked myogenic potential testing. Treatment involves surgery to repair the bony defect.... superior canal dehiscence syndrome

Superovulation

(controlled ovarian stimulation) n. stimulation of the ovary to produce more follicles with oocytes. Usually induced by gonadotrophin preparations (e.g. *human menopausal gonadotrophin, *human chorionic gonadotrophin), it is performed in *in vitro fertilization and other procedures of assisted conception in order to improve the pregnancy rates. See also ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome.... superovulation

Supinator

n. a muscle of the forearm that extends from the elbow to the shaft of the radius. It supinates the forearm and hand.... supinator

Supine Hypotension

see aortocaval compression.... supine hypotension

Supportive

adj. (of treatment) aimed at reinforcing the patient’s own defence mechanisms in overcoming a disease or disorder.... supportive

Suppressor Gene

a gene that prevents the expression of another (non-allelic) gene.... suppressor gene

Suppressor T Cell

a type of T *lymphocyte that prevents an immune response by B cells or other T cells to an antigen.... suppressor t cell

Supragingival

adj. situated or occurring above the *gingiva; the term is used mainly in reference to the location of calculus, plaque, or caries.... supragingival

Supraglottis

n. that part of the *larynx that lies above the vocal folds and includes the *epiglottis.... supraglottis

Supraorbital

adj. of or relating to the area above the eye orbit.... supraorbital

Supraorbital Reflex

the closing of the eyelids when the supraorbital nerve is struck, due to contraction of the muscle surrounding the orbit (orbicularis oculi muscle).... supraorbital reflex

Suprapubic Catheter

a catheter passed through the abdominal wall above the pubis, usually into a very enlarged bladder with urinary retention. Usually, suprapubic *catheterization is performed only if it is not possible to perform urethral catheterization.... suprapubic catheter

Supraregional Specialty

see catchment area.... supraregional specialty

Supravital Staining

the application of a *stain to living tissue, particularly blood cells, removed from the body.... supravital staining

Sure Start Children’s Centre

see children’s centre.... sure start children’s centre

Surgeon

n. a qualified medical practitioner who specializes in surgery. See Doctor.... surgeon

Surgical Emphysema

see emphysema.... surgical emphysema

Surgical Navigation

see computer-assisted surgery.... surgical navigation

Surgical Neck

the constriction of the shaft of the *humerus, below the head. It is frequently the point at which fracture of the humerus occurs.... surgical neck

Surrogate Decision

see proxy decision.... surrogate decision

Surrogate Mother

a woman who becomes pregnant (by artificial insemination or embryo insertion) following an arrangement made with another party (usually a couple unable themselves to have children) in which she agrees to give the child she carries to that party when it is born. Surrogacy arrangements are made on the understanding that no payment is involved between either parties although reasonable expenses can be paid. See also section 30 order.

Details of surrogacy at the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority website... surrogate mother

Suspensory Bandage

a bandage arranged to support a hanging part of the body. Examples include a sling used to hold an injured lower jaw in position and a bandage used to support the scrotum in various conditions of the male genital organs.... suspensory bandage

Suspensory Ligament

a ligament that serves to support or suspend an organ in position. For example, the suspensory ligament of the lens is a fibrous structure attached to the ciliary processes (see ciliary body) by means of which the lens of the eye is held in position.... suspensory ligament

Sustentaculum

n. any anatomical structure that supports another structure. —sustentacular adj.... sustentaculum

Sutent

n. see sunitinib.... sutent

Suxamethonium

n. a depolarizing *muscle relaxant. It is administered by intravenous injection to produce rapid muscle relaxation for a brief period during surgery carried out under general anaesthesia.... suxamethonium

Suzi

n. see subzonal insemination.... suzi

Sweat Gland

a simple coiled tubular *exocrine gland that lies in the dermis of the *skin. A long duct carries its secretion (*sweat) to the surface of the skin. Sweat glands occur over most of the surface of the body; they are particularly abundant in the armpits, on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands, and on the forehead.... sweat gland

Swine Influenza

a disease of domesticated pigs, first seen in humans in early 2009, caused by H1N1, a strain of *influenza A virus. Very contagious, the World Health Organization has now declared it to be a pandemic strain in humans. Swine influenza is currently believed not to be as virulent as *avian influenza and it seems to be less severe than the virulent 1918 pandemic, with which it shares antigenic features.... swine influenza

Sycosis

n. inflammation of the hair follicles caused by infection with Staphylococcus aureus; it commonly affects the beard area (sycosis barbae) of men in their thirties or forties. The infection usually spreads unless treated by applying antibiotic ointments or giving antibiotics by mouth.... sycosis

Symbicort

n. see budesonide.... symbicort

Symbiosis

n. an intimate and obligatory association between two different species of organism (symbionts) in which there is mutual aid and benefit. Compare commensal; mutualism; parasite.... symbiosis

Symblepharon

n. a condition in which the eyelid adheres to the eyeball. It is usually the result of chemical (especially alkali) burns to the conjunctiva lining the eyelid and eyeball.... symblepharon

Symbolism

n. (in psychology) the process of representing an object or an idea by something else. Typically an abstract idea is represented by a simpler and more tangible image. Psychoanalytic theorists hold that conscious ideas frequently act as symbols for unconscious thoughts and that this is particularly evident in dreaming, in *free association, and in the formation of psychological symptoms. According to this theory, a symptom might be a symbolic representation of an unconscious idea. —symbolic adj.... symbolism

Symmelia

n. see sirenomelia.... symmelia

Symmetry

n. (in anatomy) correspondence of form on either side of a plane or axis. Human bodies are symmetrical around the *sagittal plane.... symmetry

Sympathin

n. the name given by early physiologists to the substances released from sympathetic nerve endings, now known to be a mixture of *adrenaline and *noradrenaline.... sympathin

Sympathoblast

n. one of the small cells formed in the early development of nerve tissue that eventually become the neurons of the sympathetic nervous system.... sympathoblast

Sympatholytic

adj. opposing the effects of the sympathetic nervous system. *Guanethidine blocks the transmission of impulses along adrenergic nerves; it is used to treat high blood pressure. *Alpha blockers and *beta blockers are other kinds of sympatholytic drugs.... sympatholytic

Sympathy

n. (in physiology) a reciprocal influence exercised by different parts of the body on one another.... sympathy

Symphysiotomy

n. the operation of cutting through the front of the pelvis at the pubic *symphysis in order to enlarge the diameter of the pelvis and aid delivery of a fetus whose head is too large to pass through the pelvic opening. This procedure is now rarely employed.... symphysiotomy

Symphysis–fundal Height

(SFH) see fundal height.... symphysis–fundal height

Symphysis Pubis Dysfunction

(SPD) pain in the region of the pelvic girdle, most commonly over the pubic bone in the front or in the lower back and usually caused by excessive movement of the symphysis pubis and other pelvic joints. This is common during pregnancy, hence the condition is also called pregnancy-related pelvic girdle pain (PPGP). Treatment is usually with physiotherapy.... symphysis pubis dysfunction

Sympodia

n. see sirenomelia.... sympodia

Symptomatology

(semeiology) n. 1. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of symptoms of disease. 2. the symptoms of a disease, collectively.... symptomatology

Synacthen Tests

tests used to assess the ability of the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol. Serum cortisol is measured before and then 30 minutes (or 5 hours) after an intramuscular injection of 250 ?g (or 1 mg) tetracosactide (Synacthen), an analogue of *ACTH. The adrenal glands are considered to be inadequate if there is a low baseline concentration of cortisol or the rise is less than a certain predefined amount.... synacthen tests

Synalgia

n. see referred pain.... synalgia

Synarthrosis

n. an immovable joint in which the bones are united by fibrous tissue. Examples are the cranial *sutures. See also gomphosis; schindylesis.... synarthrosis

Synchilia

(syncheilia) n. congenital fusion of the lips.... synchilia

Synchondrosis

n. a slightly movable joint (see amphiarthrosis) in which the surfaces of the bones are separated by hyaline cartilage, as occurs between the ribs and sternum. This cartilage may become ossified in later development, as between the *epiphyses and shaft of a long bone.... synchondrosis

Synchronized Cardioversion

see cardioversion.... synchronized cardioversion

Synchysis Scintillans

(asteroid hyalosis) tiny refractile crystals of cholesterol suspended in the vitreous humour of the eye. They usually cause no symptoms.... synchysis scintillans

Syncytiotrophoblast

n. see trophoblast.... syncytiotrophoblast

Syncytium

n. (pl. syncytia) a mass of *protoplasm containing several nuclei. Muscle fibres are syncytia. —syncytial adj.... syncytium

Syndesm

(syndesmo-) combining form denoting connective tissue, particularly ligaments.... syndesm

Syndesmology

n. the branch of anatomy dealing with joints and their components.... syndesmology

Syndesmophyte

n. a bony outgrowth within a ligament, usually within the ligaments of the intervertebral joints, seen in the sero-negative spondyloarthropathies; for example, ankylosing *spondylitis, *reactive arthritis, and *psoriatic arthritis. Fusion of syndesmophytes across the joints between vertebrae contributes to rigidity of the spine, seen in advanced cases of these diseases.... syndesmophyte

Syndesmosis

n. an immovable joint in which the bones are separated by connective tissue. An example is the articulation between the bases of the tibia and fibula (see illustration).... syndesmosis

Syndrome Of Inappropriate Secretion Of Antidiuretic Hormone

(SIADH) a condition of inappropriately high plasma levels of ADH (see vasopressin) with associated water retention, dilutional *hyponatraemia, and the production of highly concentrated urine. Renal, adrenal, thyroid, and hepatic function are normal, as is the volume of circulating blood (euvolaemia). It is caused by a variety of pathological conditions, usually intrathoracic and intracerebral, and also by a number of drugs, including antidepressants, chemotherapy agents, and some of the older antidiabetic agents. The treatment involves fluid restriction, treatment (or removal) of the underlying cause (or drug), and, in severe cases, administration of *demeclocycline to reduce the effects of ADH on the kidney. Very rarely, hypertonic saline is given.... syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone

Syndrome X

see metabolic syndrome.... syndrome x

Synechia

n. (pl. synechiae) 1. an adhesion between the iris and another part of the eye. An anterior synechia is between the iris and the endothelium of the cornea or the part of the sclera that normally hides the extreme outer edge of the iris from view. A posterior synechia is between the iris and the lens. 2. a small adhesion that forms in the nose after surgery.... synechia

Synechialysis

n. surgical division or separation of *synechiae.... synechialysis

Syneresis

n. 1. contraction of a blood clot. When first formed, a blood clot is a loose meshwork of fibres containing various blood cells. Over a period of time this contracts, producing a firm mass that seals the damaged blood vessels. 2. (in ophthalmology) degenerative shrinkage of the vitreous humour due to ageing, which usually results in a *vitreous detachment.... syneresis

Synergistic Gangrene

gangrene of tissues produced by different bacteria acting together, usually a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic organisms. Particular forms are Meleney’s gangrene (of the abdominal wall) and Fournier’s gangrene (of the scrotal area). Synergistic gangrene has a pronounced tendency to spread along fascial planes, causing *necrotizing fasciitis.... synergistic gangrene

Syngeneic

adj. describing grafted tissue that is genetically identical to the recipient’s tissue, as when the donor and recipient are identical twins.... syngeneic

Synkinesis

n. a phenomenon seen after injury to a nerve: voluntary contraction of certain muscles is accompanied by involuntary contraction of other muscles that are supplied by that nerve.... synkinesis

Synoptophore

n. see amblyoscope.... synoptophore

Synovia

(synovial fluid) n. the thick colourless lubricating fluid that surrounds a joint or a bursa and fills a tendon sheath. It is secreted by the synovial membrane.... synovia

Synovial Joint

see diarthrosis.... synovial joint

Synovioma

n. a benign or malignant tumour of the synovial membrane. Benign synoviomas occur on tendon sheaths; malignant synoviomas (synovial sarcomas) may occur where synovial tissue is not normally found, e.g. in the oesophagus.... synovioma

Syntometrine

n. see ergometrine.... syntometrine

Syphilide

(syphilid) n. the skin rash that appears in the second stage of *syphilis, usually two months to two years after primary infection. Syphilides occur in crops that may last from a few days to several months. They denote a highly infectious stage of the disease.... syphilide

Syring

(syringo-) combining form denoting a tube or long cavity, especially the central canal of the spinal cord.... syring

Syringobulbia

n. see syringomyelia.... syringobulbia

Syringoma

n. multiple benign tumours of the sweat glands, which show as small hard swellings usually on the face (especially around the eyes), neck, or chest. Treatment is difficult.... syringoma

Systemic Circulation

the system of blood vessels that supplies all parts of the body except the lungs. It consists of the aorta and all its branches, carrying oxygenated blood to the tissues, and all the veins draining deoxygenated blood into the vena cava. Compare pulmonary circulation.... systemic circulation

Systemic Inflammatory Response

see shock.... systemic inflammatory response

Systolic Anterior Motion

(SAM) the state of the *mitral valve when it is abnormally pulled forward during ventricular contraction, a characteristic feature of *hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.... systolic anterior motion

Systolic Dysfunction

impairment of heart function due to reduced contraction of the left *ventricle. It is most commonly secondary to *cardiomyopathy or *myocardial infarction and may result in heart failure. Compare diastolic dysfunction.... systolic dysfunction

Takotsubo Syndrome

sudden extensive damage to the left *ventricle that classically occurs following acute emotional shock. The clinical syndrome mimics acute *myocardial infarction, but no coronary artery is occluded and the extent of ventricular damage exceeds that supplied by any single coronary artery. The appearance of the left ventriculogram resembles a Japanese lobster pot, from which the name derives. The cause is unknown, and in most cases spontaneous recovery occurs.... takotsubo syndrome

Thalamic Syndrome

a condition resulting from damage to the thalamus, often by a stroke, that is characterized by severe intractable pain and hypersensitivity in the area of the body served by the damaged brain region. It is extremely resistant to treatment.... thalamic syndrome

Thallium Scan

see myocardial perfusion scan.... thallium scan

Thallium-technetium Isotope Subtraction Imaging

a technique to image the parathyroid glands. Technetium is taken up only by the thyroid gland, but thallium is taken up by both the thyroid and parathyroid glands. *Digital subtraction of the two isotopes leaves an image of the parathyroid glands alone. It is an accurate technique (90%) for the identification of adenomas of the parathyroid glands secreting excess hormone.... thallium-technetium isotope subtraction imaging

Thought-stopping

n. a technique of *behaviour therapy used in the treatment of obsessional thoughts. Attention is voluntarily withdrawn from these thoughts and focused on some other vivid image or engrossing activity.... thought-stopping

Thyroid-stimulating Hormone

(TSH, thyrotrophin) a hormone, synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland under the control of *thyrotrophin-releasing hormone, that stimulates activity of the thyroid gland. Raised levels of TSH are found in primary *hypothyroidism. Normal or low TSH levels in the presence of a low serum thyroxine are found in secondary hypothyroidism and the *euthyroid sick syndrome.... thyroid-stimulating hormone

Thyroid Storm

see thyroid crisis.... thyroid storm

Tinel’s Sign

a method for checking the regeneration of a nerve: usually used in patients with *carpal tunnel syndrome. Direct tapping over the sheath of the nerve elicits a distal tingling sensation (see paraesthesia), which indicates the beginning of regeneration. [J. Tinel (1879–1952), French neurosurgeon]... tinel’s sign

Tinzaparin Sodium

see low-molecular-weight heparin.... tinzaparin sodium

Tonic Tensor Tympani Syndrome

involuntary persistent contraction of the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear, attached to the malleus bone, giving rise to tinnitus, distorted hearing, a sensation of blockage of the ear, or pain.... tonic tensor tympani syndrome

Transcoelomic Spread

a route of tumour *metastasis across a body cavity, such as the pleural, pericardial, or peritoneal cavity. Transcoelomic spread commonly occurs in advanced cancers of the lung, stomach, colon, ovary, and endometrium. It may be associated with the development of a malignant *effusion.... transcoelomic spread

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

(TMS) stimulation of the brain by strong magnetic fields that induce electric currents in the underlying brain tissue. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), consisting of a series of TMS pulses, is used to treat depression. Its clinical utility is controversial, with inconsistent research results regarding its efficacy. Although there have been some small studies regarding its use with other conditions, such as OCD, rTMS is not currently used routinely in the treatment for any illness other than depression.... transcranial magnetic stimulation

Trans-oral Robotic Surgery

(TORS) a form of robot-assisted surgery used for treating difficult-to-access tumours of the pharynx and larynx.... trans-oral robotic surgery

Treacher Collins Syndrome

(Treacher Collins deformity) a hereditary disorder of facial development. It is characterized by underdevelopment of the jaw and zygomatic (cheek) bones and the precursors of the ear fail to develop, which results in a variety of ear and facial malformations. The ear abnormality may cause deafness. [E. Treacher Collins (1862–1919), British ophthalmologist]... treacher collins syndrome

Troisier’s Sign

enlargement of the lymph node at the base of the neck on the left side (Troisier’s node), which indicates metastatic spread from an abdominal malignant growth, usually a carcinoma of the stomach. [C. E. Troisier (1844–1919), French physician]... troisier’s sign

Trousseau’s Sign

spasmodic contractions of muscles, especially the muscles of mastication, in response to nerve stimulation (e.g. by tapping). It is a characteristic sign of hypocalcaemia (see tetany). [A. Trousseau (1801–67), French physician]... trousseau’s sign

T Score

a measure of bone mineral density used to evaluate the degree of bone thinning detected on *DEXA scanning. An individual’s T score is the number of standard deviations above or below the mean reference value for young healthy adults. By convention, a score above –1 is considered normal, a score between –1 and –2.5 indicates osteopenia, and a score below –2.5 indicates *osteoporosis.... t score

T-sign

an ultrasound diagnosis of monochorionicity at 10–14 weeks gestation: the intertwin membrane inserts directly into the placenta, forming a T-sign. See chorionicity.... t-sign

Twin-peak Sign

see lambda sign.... twin-peak sign

Twin-to-twin Transfusion Syndrome

(TTTS) a condition in which communicating vessels in the shared placenta of monochorionic twins (see chorionicity) divert blood to one fetus (the recipient) from the other (the donor), resulting in one fetus with increased blood volume and one anaemic fetus. It complicates 15% of monochorionic twin pregnancies, and a system of ultrasound staging has been developed to assess the severity of the syndrome. TTTS is associated with a high perinatal mortality rate. There is significant morbidity and poor neurodevelopmental outcome in surviving infants due to complications of the disease itself and the high preterm birth rate that invariably accompanies this condition. A range of treatments, including *amnioreduction, *septostomy, and laser ablation of the communicating vessels, have led to an improvement in overall perinatal survival rates.... twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome

Ugh Syndrome

*uveitis associated with *glaucoma and *hyphaema. This is an uncommon inflammatory condition occurring as a complication of intraocular lens *implants.... ugh syndrome

Uk National Screening Committee

(NSC) the body responsible for advising the NHS, the ministers of the UK government, and the three devolved governments in the UK about all aspects of screening. The NSC also has responsibility for overseeing all noncancer screening programmes in the NHS in England and monitoring their quality and effectiveness. It was formed in 1996 and became part of *Public Health England in 2013. See screening test.

National Screening Committee website: contains detailed notes on all screening programmes the committee has considered and the rationale for the decisions the committee has made... uk national screening committee

Umbilical Cord Blood Banked Stem Cells

haemopoietic *stem cells collected from umbilical cord blood donated at birth, which can be stored indefinitely and used if a sibling or any other blood-compatible baby develops an illness (such as leukaemia) that could only be treated by cord-blood stem-cell transplantation. This facility is now available in the UK and the USA.... umbilical cord blood banked stem cells

Urinogenital Sinus

the duct in the embryo that receives the ureter and the Wolffian and Müllerian ducts and opens to the exterior. The innermost portion forms most of the bladder and the remainder forms the urethra with its associated glands. Part of it may also contribute towards the vagina.... urinogenital sinus

Uterosacral Suspension

(vaginal vault suspension) suturing the uterosacral ligament (attaching the cervix to the sacrum) to the apex of the vagina, which is performed vaginally, laparoscopically, or abdominally to prevent or treat *vault prolapse following hysterectomy.... uterosacral suspension

Vascular System

see cardiovascular system.... vascular system

Vasomotor Symptoms

subjective sensations experienced by women around the time of the *menopause, often described as explosions of heat (hot flushes), mostly followed by profuse sweating and sometimes preceded by an undetermined sensation with waking at night. Objective signs are sudden reddening of the skin on the head, neck, and chest and profuse sweating. Physiological changes include peripheral vasodilatation, *tachycardia with normal blood pressure, and raised skin temperature with normal body temperature.... vasomotor symptoms

Vegetative State

the clinical condition of unawareness of the self or the environment. The patient breathes spontaneously and has a stable circulation and sleep/wake cycles. It results from extensive damage to the cerebral cortex and thalamus while the brainstem and hypothalamus remain intact. The commonest causes are traumatic brain injury (e.g. road-traffic accidents) and cardiopulmonary arrest. Conditions that mimic the vegetative state include the psychiatric state of *catatonia and the locked-in syndrome, resulting from damage to the brainstem, in which the patient is conscious but unable to speak or make any movements of the body except for blinking and upward eye movements. See also persistent vegetative state.... vegetative state

Ventilation-perfusion Scanning

(V/Q scanning) a nuclear medicine technique in which two different isotopes are used, one inhaled (usually *xenon-133 or *krypton-81m), to examine lung ventilation, and the other injected into a vein, to examine lung perfusion. In *pulmonary embolism, the area of lung supplied by the blocked artery is not being perfused with blood – which gives a perfusion defect on the film – but has normal ventilation. This technique is highly sensitive for pulmonary embolism.... ventilation-perfusion scanning

Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt

see shunt.... ventriculoperitoneal shunt

Verner–morrison Syndrome

see VIPoma. [J. V. Verner (1927– ), US physician; A. B. Morrison (1922– ), Irish pathologist]... verner–morrison syndrome

Vestibular Schwannoma

a slow-growing benign tumour arising on one of the *vestibular nerves. It is also known as an acoustic neuroma, but this is a misnomer as the tumour arises from *Schwann cells rather than nerve cells and on a vestibular nerve rather than the cochlear (acoustic) nerve. Symptoms include hearing loss, tinnitus, and imbalance and there is an increased prevalence of the tumour in patients who have *neurofibromatosis type II. Diagnosis is by MRI scan and treatment is not always required. In those cases where treatment is necessary, this may be by surgery, radiotherapy, or *gamma knife.... vestibular schwannoma

Vestibular System

those parts of the body involved in balance. The peripheral vestibular system, or *vestibular apparatus, is in the inner ear. The central vestibular system comprises those parts of the brain that are involved in balance. The central vestibular system receives other inputs as well as from the ear, in particular inputs from the eyes and proprioceptors.... vestibular system

Virchow–robin Spaces

(perivascular spaces) fluid-filled spaces that form around blood vessels in the *pia mater as they penetrate deeper brain tissue. They may dilate, resulting in raised intracranial pressure. [R. Virchow (1821–1902), German pathologist]... virchow–robin spaces

Vital Staining

(intravital staining) the process of staining a living tissue by injecting a stain into the organism. Compare supravital staining.... vital staining

Von Rosen’s Sign

see Barlow manoeuvre. [S. Von Rosen, Swedish orthopaedic surgeon]... von rosen’s sign

Vt Storm

multiple episodes of *ventricular tachycardia (VT) over a period of hours. Treatment can be difficult, particularly as this condition is often triggered as a side-effect of antiarrhythmic medication (see proarrhythmia).... vt storm

 waardenburg’s Syndrome

an inherited form of deafness accompanied by a characteristic white forelock of hair and multiple colours within the irises of the eyes. It is inherited as an autosomal *dominant disease, i.e. the children of an affected parent have a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder, although severity is variable. The gene responsible has been identified. [P. J. Waardenburg (1886–1979), Dutch ophthalmologist]...  waardenburg’s syndrome

Wagr Syndrome

Wilms’ tumour (see nephroblastoma), aniridia, genitourinary abnormalities, and mental retardation: a condition due to a deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 11.... wagr syndrome

Waterhouse–friderichsen Syndrome

acute haemorrhage in the adrenal glands with haemorrhage into the skin associated with the sudden onset of acute bacteraemic *shock. It is usually caused by meningococcal septicaemia (see meningitis). [R. Waterhouse (1873–1958), British physician; C. Friderichsen (20th century), Danish physician]... waterhouse–friderichsen syndrome

Watzke–allen Sign

a test used in the diagnosis of a macular hole in the retina. A thin line of light is projected over the macula with a *slit lamp and the patient is asked to report on its appearance. A line appearing broken may indicate a macular hole.... watzke–allen sign

Web Space

the soft tissue between the bases of the fingers and toes.... web space

Wechsler Scales

standardized scales for the measurement of *intelligence quotient (IQ) in adults and children. They are administered by a psychologist. See intelligence test. [D. Wechsler (1896–1981), US psychologist]... wechsler scales

Wermer’s Syndrome

see MENS. [P. Wermer, US physician]... wermer’s syndrome

Werner’s Syndrome

a rare genetic disorder resulting in premature ageing that starts at adolescence. Growth may be retarded and affected individuals may suffer from a thin skin, arterial disease, leg ulcers, and diabetes. Treatment is limited to the management of complications, such as diabetes. The gene responsible codes for an enzyme involved in the mechanisms of DNA replication and repair, which in affected individuals is defective. [C. W. O. Werner (1879–1936), German physician]... werner’s syndrome

Williams Syndrome

a hereditary condition, caused by a defect (a *deletion) in chromosome 7, marked by a characteristic ‘elfin’ facial appearance (including large eyes, a wide mouth, and small chin), *hypercalcaemia, short stature, learning disabilities, and *aortic stenosis. Most affected children are highly sociable and have unusual conversational ability, using a rich and complex vocabulary. The condition can be diagnosed prenatally. [J. C. P. Williams (20th century), British physician]... williams syndrome

Wiskott–aldrich Syndrome

a rare *sex-linked recessive disorder characterized by eczema, *thrombocytopenia, and deficiency in the immune response (*immunodeficiency). It is caused by a decrease in the amount of Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP: a protein occurring in lymphocytes, platelets, and other cells) due to a mutation in the WASP gene.... wiskott–aldrich syndrome

Wolff–parkinson–white Syndrome

a congenital abnormality of heart conduction caused by the presence of an *accessory pathway of conduction between the atria and ventricles. It results in premature excitation of one ventricle and is characterized by an abnormal wave (delta wave) at the start of the QRS complex on the electrocardiogram. The accessory pathway predisposes the patient to episodes of fast heart rate due to the rapid self-sustaining circulation of an electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles and back again (*atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia). Emergency treatment is in the form of drugs that temporarily block the re-entry circuit. Permanent destruction of the accessory pathway by *radiofrequency ablation is usually curative. [L. Wolff; Sir J. Parkinson (1885–1976), British physician; P. D. White (1886–1973), US cardiologist]... wolff–parkinson–white syndrome

Wolfram Syndrome

(DIDMOAD syndrome) a rare syndrome consisting of a combination of *diabetes insipidus, *diabetes mellitus, *optic atrophy, and *deafness.... wolfram syndrome

Woods’ Screw Manoeuvre

an internal rotational manoeuvre to facilitate delivery in cases of *shoulder dystocia that have not responded to other measures. Using the fingertips of both hands, pressure is applied from behind the anterior shoulder and in front of the posterior shoulder. [C. E. Woods (20th century), US obstetrician]... woods’ screw manoeuvre

X-linked Lymphoproliferative Syndrome

(XLP syndrome, Duncan’s disease) a hereditary disorder of the immune system caused by a defective *sex-linked gene carried on an *X chromosome. There is uncontrolled proliferation of B-*lymphocytes in response to infection by the Epstein-Barr virus, which can lead to fulminating hepatitis or lymphoma. This condition is due to a defect in a gene, SAP, which encodes a signalling molecule found in the cytoplasm of cells.... x-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome

Xlp Syndrome

see X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome.... xlp syndrome

X-ray Screening

the use of an image intensifier to produce *real-time imaging during an X-ray examination on a TV monitor. It is widely used in angiography and *interventional radiology to guide procedures. See videofluoroscopy.... x-ray screening

Yellow Spot

see macula.... yellow spot

Ziehl–neelsen Stain

an acid-fast *carbol fuchsin stain used specifically for identifying the tubercle bacillus. [F. Ziehl (1857–1926), German bacteriologist; F. K. A. Neelsen (1854–94), German pathologist]... ziehl–neelsen stain

Zieve’s Syndrome

a combination of severe *hyperlipidaemia, haemolytic *anaemia, and *jaundice seen in susceptible individuals drinking alcohol to excess. [L. Zieve (1915–2000), US physician]... zieve’s syndrome

Zinc Sulphate

a preparation used in the treatment of proven zinc deficiency.... zinc sulphate

Spike

an inflorescence in which the sessile flowers are arranged in a raceme.... spike

Splenic

relating to the spleen, the largest endocrine gland.... splenic

Ambrette Seed

Abelmoschus moschatus

FAMILY: Malvaceae

SYNONYMS: Hibiscus abelmoschus, musk seed, Egyptian alcee, target-leaved hibiscus, muskmallow.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub about 1.5 metres high, bearing large single yellow flowers with a purple centre. The capsules, in the form of five-cornered pyramids, contain the greyish-brown kidney-shaped seeds which have a musky odour.

DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to India; widely cultivated in tropical countries including Indonesia, Africa, Egypt, China, Madagascar, and the West Indies. Distillation of the oil is generally carried out in Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES: A variety, H. esculentus, is grown largely in Istanbul as a demulcent. Another variety is also found in Martinique, the seeds of which have a more delicate scent.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Generally used as a stimulant and to ease indigestion, cramp and nervous dyspepsia. In Chinese medicine it is used to treat headache; in Egypt the seeds are used to sweeten the breath and are made into an emulsion with milk to be used for itch. The Arabs use the seeds to mix with coffee. Widely used as a domestic spice in the East.

ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, nervine, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the seeds. Liquid ambrette seed oil should be allowed to age for several months before it is used. A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-red liquid with a rich, sweet floral-musky odour, very tenacious. It blends well with rose, neroli, sandalwood, clary sage, cypress, patchouli, oriental and ‘sophisticated’ bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ambrettolide, ambrettolic acid, palmitic acid and farnesol.

SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates the oil to be non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation muscles and joints: Cramp, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Employed by the cosmetic and perfumery industries in oriental-type scents and for the adulteration of musk; also used as a musk substitute. Used for flavouring alcoholic and soft drinks as well as some foodstuffs, especially confectionery.

AMYRIS... ambrette seed

Anise, Star

Illicium verum

FAMILY: Illiciaceae

SYNONYMS: Chinese anise, illicium, Chinese star anise.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Evergreen tree up to 12 metres high with a tall, slender white trunk. It bears fruit which consist of five to thirteen seed-bearing follicles attached to a central axis in the shape of a star.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to south east China, also Vietnam, India and Japan. Mainly produced in China.

OTHER SPECIES: Several other related species, e.g. Japanese star anise which is highly poisonous!

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used in Chinese medicine for over 1300 years for its stimulating effect on the digestive system and for respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and unproductive coughs. In the East generally, it is used as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and often chewed after meals to sweeten the breath and promote digestion. A common oriental domestic spice.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, carminative, expectorant, insect repellent, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits, fresh or partially dried. An oil is also produced from the leaves in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, extremely sweet, liquorice like scent. It blends well with rose, lavender, orange, pine and other spice oils, and has excellent masking properties.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Trans-anethole (80–90 per cent).

SAFETY DATA: Despite the anethole content, it does not appear to be a dermal irritant, unlike aniseed. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; it can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.

Digestive System: Colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion.

Immune system: Colds.

OTHER USES: By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures, lozenges, etc. and to mask undesirable odours and flavours in drugs. As a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste and detergents as well as cosmetics and perfumes. Widely used for flavouring food, especially confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.... anise, star

Synergy

agents working together harmoniously; coordination in the action of muscles, organs or substances such as drugs.... synergy

Birch, Sweet

Betula lenta

FAMILY: Betulaceae

SYNONYMS: B. capinefolia, cherry birch, southern birch, mahogany birch, mountain mahogany.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful tree about 25 metres high which has a pyramidal shape while young. It has bright green leaves and a dark reddish-brown aromatic bark, which is broken into plates or patches.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Canada and southeastern USA; produced mainly in Pennsylvania.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous species of birch, spanning several continents, such as black birch (B. nigra) found in North America. Not to be confused with the European white birch (B. alba), which produces birch tar oil used in chronic skin diseases.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The cambium (the layer directly under the bark) is eaten in the spring, cut into strips like vermicelli. The bark, in the form of an infusion, is used as a general stimulant and to promote sweating. As a decoction or syrup, it is used as a tonic for dysentery and is said to be useful in genito-urinary irritation. The flavour of wintergreen and birch bark, in the form of a tea, was popular with the American Indians and European settlers. More recently, this has been translated into a preference for ‘root beer’ flavourings.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, depurative, diuretic, rubefacient, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the bark macerated in warm water.

CHARACTERISTICS: Colourless, pale yellow or reddish tinted liquid with an intense, sweet-woody, wintergreen-like scent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Almost entirely methyl salicylate (98 per cent), produced during the maceration process. It is almost identical in composition to wintergreen oil.

SAFETY DATA: Methyl salicylate, the major constituent, is not exactly toxic but very harmful in concentration.’ It can be absorbed through the skin, and fatal poisoning via this route has been reported.’. ’ It is also classed as an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Limited use as a counter-irritant in anti-arthritic and antineuralgic ointments and analgesic balms. Limited use as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes; extensively used as a flavouring agent, especially ‘root beer’, chewing gum, toothpaste, etc. (usually very low-level use).... birch, sweet

Broom, Spanish

Spartium junceum

FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae).

SYNONYMS: Genista juncea, genista, weavers broom, broom (absolute), genet (absolute).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A decorative plant, often cultivated as an ornamental shrub, up to 3 metres high with upright woody branches and tough flexible stems. It has bright green leaves and large, yellow, pea-like fragrant flowers, also bearing its seeds in pods or legumes.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe, especially southern Spain and southern France; mainly cultivated in Spain, France, Italy and USA (as a garden shrub). The absolute is produced in Southern France.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to dyer’s greenweed (Genista tinctoria) and the common or green broom (Sarothamnus scoparius or Cytisus scoparius). There are also several other related species of broom, which are rich in their folk tradition.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The twigs and bark have been used since ancient times to produce a strong fibre which can be made into cord or a coarse cloth. The branches were also used for thatching, basketwork, fencing and, of course, for making brooms. Spanish broom has similar therapeutic properties to the common broom, which is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for cardiac dropsy, myocardial weakness, tachycardia and profuse menstruation. However, the Spanish broom is said to be five to six times more active than the common broom, and even that must be used with caution by professional herbalists due to the strength of the active ingredients: ‘A number of cases of poisoning have occurred from the substitution of the dried flowers of Spartium for those of true Broom.’.

ACTIONS: Antihaemorrhagic, cardioactive, diuretic, cathartic, emmenagogue, narcotic, vasoconstrictor.

EXTRACTION: An absolute is obtained by solvent extraction from the dried flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brown, viscous liquid with an intensely sweet, floral, hay-like scent with a herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rose, tuberose, cassie, mimosa, violet, vetiver and herbaceous-type fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The absolute contains capryllic acid, phenols, aliphatics, terpenes, esters, scoparin and sparteine, as well as wax, etc.

SAFETY DATA: Sparteine, which is contained in the flowers as the main active constituent, is toxic. In large doses, it causes vomiting, renal irritation, weakens the heart, depresses the nerve cells and lowers the blood pressure, and in extreme cases causes death.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Used in soaps, cosmetics and high-class perfumery; also as a flavour ingredient in sweet rich ‘preserves’, alcoholic and soft drinks.... broom, spanish

Carrot Seed

Daucus carota

FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS: Wild carrot, Queen Anne’s lace, bird’s nest.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Annual or biennial herb, with a small, inedible, tough whitish root. It has a much-branched stem up to 1.5 metres high with hairy leaves and umbels of white lacy flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, Asia and North Africa; naturalized in North America. The essential oil is mainly produced in France.

OTHER SPECIES: An oil is also produced by solvent extraction from the red fleshy root of the common edible carrot (D. carota subspecies sativus) mainly for use as a food colouring.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A highly nutritious plant, containing substantial amounts of Vitamins A, C, B1 and B2. The roots have a strong tonic action on the liver and gall bladder, good for the treatment of jaundice and other complaints. The seeds are used for the retention of urine, colic, kidney and digestive disorders, and to promote menstruation. In the Chinese tradition it is used to treat dysentery and to expel worms.

The dried leaves are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for calculus, gout, cystitis and lithuria.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antiseptic, carminative, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, hepatic, stimulant, tonic, vasodilatory and smooth muscle relaxant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried fruit (seeds).

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow or amber-coloured liquid with a warm, dry, woody-earthy odour. It blends well with costus, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, geranium, citrus and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, carotol, daucol, limonene, bisabolene, elemene, geraniol, geranyl acetate, caryophyllene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis, rashes, revitalizing and toning, mature complexions, wrinkles.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, gout, oedema, rheumatism.

Digestive System: Anaemia, anorexia, colic, indigestion, liver congestion.

Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, glandular problems, PMT.

OTHER USES: Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially seasonings.... carrot seed

Lemon-scented

Eucalyptus citriodora

FAMILY: Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS: Lemon-scented gum, citron-scented gum, scented gum tree, spotted gum, ‘boabo’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An attractive, tall, evergreen tree with a smooth dimpled bark, blotched in grey, cream and pink, cultivated as an ornamental. The trunk grows fast, straight and to considerable height, and is used for timber. The young leaves are oval, the mature leaves narrow and tapering.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia; cultivated mainly in Brazil and China.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous other species of eucalyptus – see entry on eucalyptus blue gum. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used traditionally for perfuming the linen cupboard by enclosing the dried leaves in a small cloth sachet. During the last century it was regarded as a good insect repellent, especially for cockroaches and silverfish.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, deodorant, expectorant, fungicidal, insecticide.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, fresh, citronella-like odour and sweet balsamic undertone.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Citronellal (80–95 per cent), citronellol, geraniol and pinene, among others. (The gum or ‘kino’ contains the antibiotic substance ‘citriodorol’.)

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Eucalyptus oil is toxic when taken internally, see Eucalyptus blue gum entry.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Athlete’s foot and other fungal infections (e.g. candida), cuts, dandruff, herpes, insect repellent, scabs, sores, wounds.

Respiratory System: Asthma, laryngitis, sore throat.

Immune System: Colds, fevers, infectious skin conditions such as chickenpox, infectious disease. ‘The essential oil contained in the leaves appears to have bacteriostatic activity towards Staphylococcus aureus; this is due to synergism between the citronellol and citronellal present in the oil’..

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component (in place of E. globulus) in soaps, detergents and perfumes; also used in room sprays and insect repellents Employed for the isolation of natural citronellal.... lemon-scented

Fir Needle, Silver

Abies alba

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: A. pectinata, whitespruce, European silver fir, edeltanne, weisstanne, templin (cone oil), Strassburg or Vosges turpentine (oil), fir needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A relatively small coniferous tree, with a regular pyramidal shape and a silvery white bark, grown chiefly for timber and as Christmas trees.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to north European mountainous regions; cultivated mainly in Switzerland, Poland, Germany, France, Austria and especially Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES: Oils that are distilled from the twigs and needles of various members of the coniferous families, Abies, Larix, Picea, Pinus, and Tsuga, are all commonly called fir needle oil – it is therefore important to know the specific botanical name. There are many other members of the fir or Abies family, notably the Canadian balsam (A. balsamifera) and the Siberian fir (A. siberica), the most popular fir needle oil in Europe and the USA due to its fine fragrance. Others include the Japanese fir needle oil from A.mayriana or A.sachalinensis. See also entries on spruce, pines and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is highly esteemed on the Continent for its medicinal virtues and its fragrant scent. It is used mainly for respiratory complaints, fever, muscular and rheumatic pain.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antiseptic (pulmonary), antitussive, deodorant, expectorant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the 1. needles and young twigs, and 2. fir cones, broken up pieces (templin oil)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A colourless or pale yellow liquid of pleasing, rich, sweet-balsamic odour. 2. Similar to the needle oil, but with a more orange-like fragrance. It blends well with galbanum, labdanum, lavender, rosemary, lemon, pine and marjoram.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Santene, pinene, limonene, bornyl acetate, lauraldehyde among others. 2. Pinene, limonene, borneol, bornyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs, sinusitis, etc.

Immune System: Colds, fever, ’flu.

OTHER USES: Employed as an ingredient in some cough and cold remedies and rheumatic treatments. Used as a fragrance component in deodorants, room sprays, disinfectants, bath preparations, soaps and perfumes.... fir needle, silver

Lavender, Spike

Lavandula latifolia

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: L. spica, aspic, broad-leaved lavender, lesser lavender, spike.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An aromatic evergreen sub-shrub up to 1 metre high with lance-shaped leaves, broader and rougher than true lavender. The flower is more compressed and of a dull grey-blue colour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of France and Spain; also found in North Africa, Italy, Yugoslavia and the eastern Mediterranean countries. It is cultivated internationally; the oil is mainly produced in France and Spain.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many different chemotypes of lavender in general, and this also applies to spike lavender. The French spike oil is reputed to be a more delicate, aromatic scent than the Spanish variety. For other varieties, see entries on lavandin, true lavender and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Culpeper recommends spike lavender for a variety of ailments including ‘pains of the head and brain which proceed from cold, apoplexy, falling sickness, the dropsy, or sluggish malady, cramps, convulsions, palsies, and often faintings’. He also warns that ‘the oil of spike is of a fierce and piercing quality, and ought to be carefully used, a very few drops being sufficient for inward or outward maladies’.. The preparation ‘oleum spicae’ was made by mixing ¼ spike oil with ¾ turpentine, and used for paralysed limbs, old sprains and stiff joints (it was also said to encourage hair growth).

Spike lavender is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, indicated for flatulent dyspepsia, colic, depressive headaches, and the oil (topically) for rheumatic pain.

ACTIONS: See true lavender.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a penetrating, fresh herbaceous, camphoraceous odour. It blends well with rosemary, sage, lavandin, eucalyptus, rosewood, lavender, petitgrain, pine, cedarwood, oakmoss, patchouli and spice oils, particularly clove.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly cineol and camphor (40–60 per cent), with linalol and linalyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See true lavender.

OTHER USES: It is used in some pharmaceutical preparations and especially in veterinary practice as a prophylactic, in incipient paralysis, for rheumatism and arthritis and to get rid of lice. It is extensively employed as a fragrance component especially in soaps and industrial perfumes such as deodorants, disinfectants and cleaning agents, as well as insecticides and room sprays, etc. It is also used in the food industry and in the production of fine varnishes and lacquers.... lavender, spike

Marjoram, Sweet

Origanum majorana

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Marjorana hortensis, knotted marjoram.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender bushy perennial plant (cultivated as an annual in colder climates), up to 60 cms high with a hairy stem, dark green oval leaves and small greyish white flowers in clusters or ‘knots’. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, Egypt and North Africa. Major oil-producing countries include France, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anaphrodisiac, antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cordial, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypotensive, laxative, nervine, sedative, stomachic, tonic, vasodilator, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried flowering herb. An oleoresin is also produced in smaller quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or amber coloured mobile liquid with a warm, woody, spicy camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavender, rosemary, bergamot, chamomile, cypress, cedarwood, tea tree and eucalyptus.

OTHER SPECIES: There is a great deal of confusion regarding the various species of marjoram or oregano. The most common types are the pot or French marjoram (Origanum onites or Marjorana onites), which is a hardier plant than the sweet marjoram and of a spreading nature; the Spanish marjoram or oregano (Thymus mastichina) and the wild or common marjoram or oregano (Origanum vulgare) which is used to produce the so-called ‘oregano oil’. See entries on common oregano, Spanish oregano and also the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional culinary herb and folk remedy. It was used by the ancient Greeks in their fragrances, cosmetics and medicines; the name oregano derives from a Greek word meaning ‘joy of the mountains’. lt is a versatile herb which has a soothing, fortifying and warming effect; it aids digestive and menstrual problems, as well as nervous and respiratory complaints.

It is ‘comforting in cold diseases of the head, stomach, sinews and other parts, taken inwardly or outwardly applied ... helps diseases of the chest, obstructions of the liver and spleen.’. It is also very helpful for muscular and rheumatic pain, sprains, strains, stiff joints, bruises, etc.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinenes, terpineol, sabinenes, linalol, carvacrol, linalyl acetate, ocimene, cadinene, geranyl acetate, citral, eugenol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Not to be used during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Chilblains, bruises, ticks.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, lumbago, muscular aches and stiffness, rheumatism, sprains, strains.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.

Digestive system: Colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, PMT.

Immune system: Colds.

Nervous system: Headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: The oil and oleoresin are used as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed in most major food categories, especially meats, seasonings and sauces, as well as soft drinks and alcoholic beverages such as vermouths and bitters.... marjoram, sweet

Mint, Spearmint

Mentha spicata

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: M. viridis, common spearmint, garden spearmint, spire mint, green mint, lamb mint, pea mint, fish mint.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hardy branched perennial herb with bright green, lance-shaped, sharply toothed leaves, quickly spreading underground runners and pink or lilac-coloured flowers in slender cylindrical spikes.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now common throughout Europe, western Asia and the Middle East. It was introduced to the USA where it has become a very popular flavouring. The oil is produced in midwest USA, Hungary, Spain, Yugoslavia, the USSR and China.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several different types of spearmint, especially in the USA, such as the curly mint (M. spicata var. crispa). In Russia the oil from M. verticellata is also sold as spearmint oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Valued all over the world as a culinary herb, as shown by its folk names. It was used by the ancient Greeks as a restorative and to scent their bathwater. The distilled water is used to relieve hiccough, colic, nausea, indigestion and flatulence. ‘Applied to the forehead and temples, it eases the pains in the head, and is good to wash the heads of young children with, against all manner of breakings out, sores or scabs ... being smelled unto, it is comforting to the head.’.

ACTIONS: Anaesthetic (local), antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, decongestant, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive mobile liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, minty odour. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, jasmine, eucalyptus, basil and rosemary and is often used in combination with peppermint.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: L-carvone (50–70 per cent), dihydrocarvone, phellandrene, limonene, menthone, menthol, pulegone, cineol, linalol, pinenes, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE ‘The properties of spearmint oil resemble those of peppermint but its effects are less powerful ... it is better adapted to children’s maladies.’.

Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, congested skin.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, sinusitis.

Digestive system: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatobiliary disorders, nausea, vomiting.

Immune system: Colds, fevers, ’flu.

Nervous system: Fatigue, headache, migraine, nervous strain, neurasthenia, stress.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component, mainly in soaps and colognes. Primarily used as a flavour ingredient in a wide range of products, including toothpaste, chewing gum, sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks.... mint, spearmint

Orange, Sweet

Citrus sinensis

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYMS: C. aurantium var. dulcis, C. aurantium var. sinensis, China orange, Portugal orange.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree, smaller than the bitter variety, less hardy with fewer or no spines. The fruit has a sweet pulp and non-bitter membranes. Another distinguishing feature is the shape of the leaf stalk: the bitter orange is broader and in the shape of a heart.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to China; extensively cultivated especially in America (California and Florida) and round the Mediterranean (France, Spain, Italy). The expressed oil is mainly produced in Israel, Cyprus, Brazil and North America; the distilled oil mainly comes from the Mediterranean and North America.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous cultivated varieties of sweet orange, for example Jaffa, Navel and Valencia. There are also many other subspecies such as the Japanese orange (C. aurantium var. natsudaidai). See also bitter orange.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A very nutritious fruit, containing vitamins A, B and C. In Chinese medicine the dried sweet orange peel is used to treat coughs, colds, anorexia and malignant breast sores. Li Shih-chen says: ‘The fruits of all the different species and varieties of citrus are considered by the Chinese to be cooling. If eaten in excess they are thought to increase the “phlegm”, and this is probably not advantageous to the health. The sweet varieties increase bronchial secretion, and the sour promote expectoration. They all quench thirst, and are stomachic and carminative.’.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, choleretic, digestive, fungicidal, hypotensive, sedative (nervous), stimulant (digestive and lymphatic), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by cold expression (hand or machine) of the fresh ripe or almost ripe outer peel. 2. Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh ripe or almost ripe outer peel. An oil of inferior quality is also produced by distillation from the essences recovered as a byproduct of orange juice manufacture. Distilled sweet orange oil oxidizes very quickly, and anti-oxidant agents are often added at the place of production. (An oil from the flowers is also produced occasionally called neroli Portugal or neroli petalae; an oil from the leaves is also produced in small quantities.)

SYNONYM: 1. A yellowy-orange or dark orange mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh fruity scent, richer than the distilled oil. It blends well with lavender, neroli, lemon, clary sage, myrrh and spice oils such as nutmeg, cinnamon and clove.

2. A pale yellow or colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, light-fruity scent, but little tenacity.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 90 per cent monoterpenes, mainly limonene. The cold expressed oil also contains bergapten, auraptenol and acids.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic (although ingestion of large amounts of orange peel has been known to be fatal to children); non-irritant and non-sensitizing (although limonene has been found to cause dermatitis in a few individuals). Distilled orange oil is phototoxic: its use on the skin should be avoided if there is danger of exposure to direct sunlight. However, there is no evidence to show that expressed sweet orange oil is phototoxic although it too contains coumarins.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Dull and oily complexions, mouth ulcers.

Circulation muscles and joints: Obesity, palpitations, water retention.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, chills.

Digestive system: Constipation, dyspepsia, spasm.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu.

Nervous system: Nervous tension and stressrelated conditions.

OTHER USES: Sweet orange peel tincture is used to flavour pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially eau-de-colognes. Extensively used in all areas of the food and drinks industry (more so than the bitter orange oil). Used as the starting material for the isolation of naturallimonene.... orange, sweet

Oregano, Spanish

Thymus capitatus

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: T. capitans, Coridothymus capitatus, Satureja capitata, Thymbra capitata, oreganum (oil), Israeli oreganum (oil), Cretan thyme, corido thyme, conehead thyme, headed savory, thyme of the ancients.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial creeping herb with a woody stem, small dark green leaves and pink or white flowers borne in clusters.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Middle East and Asia Minor; grows wild in Spain. The oil is produced mainly in Spain, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey.

OTHER SPECIES: Although this herb is strictly a thyme, it serves as the source for most so-called ‘oregano oil’. For other related species see entries on common thyme, common oregano and sweet marjoram; see also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: According to Mrs Grieve the properties and oil of Spanish oregano (Thymus capitatus) are similar to the common thyme (T. vulgaris); it also shares many qualities with the common oregano or wild marjoram (Origanum vulgare).

ACTIONS: See common oregano.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brownish-red or purple oil with a strong tarlike, herbaceous, refreshing odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Carvacrol, thymol, cymene, caryophyllene, pinene, limonene, linalol, borneol, myrcene, thujone, terpinene.

SAFETY DATA: Dermal toxin, skin irritant, mucous membrane irritant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used on the skin at all.’.

OTHER USES: See common oregano.... oregano, spanish

Pine, Scotch

Pinus sylvestris

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: Forest pine, Scots pine, Norway pine, pine needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree, up to 40 metres high with a flat crown. It has a reddish-brown, deeply fissured bark, long stiff needles which grow in pairs, and pointed brown cones.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Eurasia; cultivated in the eastern USA, Europe, Russia, the Baltic States and Scandinavia, especially Finland.

OTHER SPECIES: Like the fir tree, there are numerous species of pine which yield an essential oil from their heartwood as well as from their twigs and needles and are also used to produce turpentine. The oil from the needles of the Scotch pine is one of the most useful and safest therapeutically. Other species which produce pine needle oil include the eastern white pine (P. strobus) from the eastern USA and Canada, the dwarf pine (P. mugo var. pumilio) grown in central and southern Europe, and the black pine (P. nigra) from Austria and Yugoslavia.

Many varieties, such as the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), are used to produce turpentine. In addition, the oil commonly known as Siberian pine needle oil is actually from the Siberian fir (Abies sibirica). See also dwarf pine and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The young macerated shoots are added to the bath for nervous exhaustion, circulatory disorders, slow, healing wounds, arthritis, rheumatism and skin disorders. It was used by the American Indians to prevent scurvy, and to stuff mattresses to repel lice and fleas.

As an inhalation it helps relieve bronchial catarrh, asthma, blocked sinuses, etc. The pine kernels are said to be excellent restoratives for consumptives, and after long illness.

ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, hepatic), antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cholagogue, choleretic, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, hypertensive, insecticidal, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (adrenal cortex, circulatory, nervous), vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by dry distillation of the needles. 2. Gum turpentine is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin: see entry on turpentine. (An inferior essential oil is also produced by dry distillation from the wood chippings, etc.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pine needle oil is a colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, dry-balsamic, turpentine-like aroma. It blends well with cedarwood, rosemary, tea tree, sage, lavender, juniper, lemon, niaouli, eucalyptus and marjoram. 2. See entry on turpentine.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 50–90 per cent monoterpene hydrocarbons: pinenes, carene, dipentene, limonene, terpinenes, myrcene, ocimene, camphene, sabinene; also bornyl acetate, cineol, citral, chamazulene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization. Avoid in allergic skin conditions.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Cuts, lice, excessive perspiration, scabies, sores.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.

Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urinary infection.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu.

Nervous system: Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions, neuralgia.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, toiletries (especially bath products) and, to a limited extent, perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in major food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.... pine, scotch

Sage, Common

Salvia officinalis

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Garden sage, true sage, Dalmatian sage.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen, shrubby, perennial herb up to 80 cms high with a woody base, soft, silver, oval leaves and a mass of deep blue or violet flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region; cultivated worldwide especially in Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, Turkey, France, China and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several different species and cultivars which have been developed, such as the Mexican sage (S. azurea grandiflora) and the red sage (S. colorata) both of which are used medicinally. Essential oils are also produced from other species including the Spanish sage (S. lavendulaefolia) and clary sage (S. selarea) – see separate entries and Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient repute, valued as a culinary and medicinal plant – called herba sacra or ‘sacred herb’ by the Romans. It has been used for a variety of disorders including respiratory infections, menstrual difficulties and digestive complaints. It was also believed to strengthen the senses and the memory.

It is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for inflammations of the mouth, tongue and throat.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hypertensive, insecticidal, laxative, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaves. (A so-called ‘oleoresin’ is also produced from the exhausted plant material.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, warm-spicy, herbaceous, somewhat camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, rosemary, rosewood, lavender, hyssop, lemon and other citrus oils. The common sage oil is preferred in perfumery work to the Spanish sage oil which, although safer, has a less refined fragrance.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (about 42 per cent), cineol, borneol, caryophyllene and other terpenes.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin (due to thujone). Abortifacient; avoid in pregnancy. Avoid in epilepsy. Use with care or avoid in therapeutic work altogether – Spanish sage or clary sage are good alternatives.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical preparations such as mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes, etc. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, shampoos, detergents, anti-perspirants, colognes and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are extensively used for flavouring foods (mainly meat products), soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, especially vermouth. It also serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.... sage, common

Sage, Clary

Salvia sclarea

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Clary, clary wort, muscatel sage, clear eye, see bright, common clary, clarry, eye bright.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Stout biennial or perennial herb up to 1 metre high with large, hairy leaves, green with a hint of purple, and small blue flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe; cultivated worldwide especially in the Mediterranean region, Russia, the USA, England, Morocco and central Europe. The French, Moroccan and English clary are considered of superior quality for perfumery work.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the garden sage (S. officinalis) and the Spanish sage (S. lavendulaefolia), which are both used to produce essential oils. Other types of sage include meadow clary (S. pratensis) and vervain sage (S. verbenaca). Clary sage should not be confused with the common wayside herb eyebright (Euphrasia).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb, highly esteemed in the Middle Ages, has now largely fallen out of use. It was used for digestive disorders, kidney disease, uterine and menstrual complaints, for cleansing ulcers and as a general nerve tonic. The mucilage from the seeds was used for treating tumours and for removing dust particles from the eyes.

Like garden sage, it cools inflammation and is especially useful for throat and respiratory infections.

ACTIONS: Anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, emmenagogue, hypotensive, nervine, regulator (of seborrhoea), sedative, stomachic, tonic, uterine.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops and leaves. (A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellowy-green liquid with a sweet, nutty herbaceous scent. It blends well with juniper, lavender, coriander, cardamon, geranium, sandalwood, cedarwood, pine, labdanum, jasmine, frankincense, bergamot and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Linalyl acetate (up to 75 per cent), linalol, pinene, myrcene and phellandrene, among others. Constituents vary according to geographical origin – there are several different chemotypes.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Do not use clary sage oil while drinking alcohol since it can induce a narcotic effect and exaggerate drunkenness. Clary sage is generally used in preference to the garden sage in aromatherapy due to its lower toxicity level.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, boils, dandruff, hair loss, inflamed conditions, oily skin and hair, ophthalmia, ulcers, wrinkles.

Circulation muscles and joints: High blood pressure, muscular aches and pains.

Respiratory system: Asthma, throat infections, whooping cough.

Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, labour pain, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Nervous system: Depression, frigidity, impotence, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related disorders.

OTHER USES: The oil and absolute are used as fragrance components and fixatives in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. The oil is used extensively by the food and drink industry, especially in the production of wines with a muscatel flavour.... sage, clary

Sage, Spanish

Salvia lavendulaefolia

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Lavender-leaved sage.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub, similar to the garden sage but with narrower leaves and small purple flowers. The whole plant is aromatic with a scent reminiscent of spike lavender.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountains in Spain, it also grows in south west France and Yugoslavia. The oil is mainly produced in Spain.

OTHER SPECIES: A very similar oil is distilled in Turkey from a Greek variety, S. triloba, which is used for pharmaceutical purposes. See also entries on clary sage and common sage for other types of sage.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Spain it is regarded as something of a ‘cure-all’. Believed to promote longevity and protect against all types of infection (such as plague). Used to treat rheumatism, digestive complaints, menstrual problems, infertility and nervous weakness.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, deodorant, depurative, digestive, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hypotensive, nervine, regulator (of seborrhoea), stimulant (hepatobiliary, adrenocortical glands, circulation), stomachic, tonic (nerve and general).

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh-herbaceous, camphoraceous, slightly pinelike odour. It blends well with rosemary, lavandin, lavender, pine, citronella, eucalyptus, juniper, clary sage and cedarwood.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Camphor (up to 34 per cent), cineol (up to 35 per cent), limonene (up to 41 per cent), camphene (up to 20 per cent), pinene (up to 20 per cent) and other minor constituents.

SAFETY DATA: Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy; use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, cuts, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, excessive sweating, hair loss, gingivitis, gum infections, sores.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, debility, fluid retention, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism. Respiratory system: Asthma, coughs, laryngitis.

Digestive system: Jaundice, liver congestion.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, sterility.

Immune system: Colds, fevers, ’flu.

Nervous system: Headaches, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially ‘industrial’ type fragrances. Extensively employed in foods (especially meat products), as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... sage, spanish

Santolina

Santolina chamaecyparissus

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Lavandula taemina, cotton lavender

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen, woody shrub with whitish-grey foliage and small, bright yellow, ball-shaped flowers borne on long single stalks. The whole plant has a strong rather rank odour, a bit like chamomile.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Italy, now common throughout the Mediterranean region. Much grown as a popular border herb.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties such as S. fragrantissima. It is not related to true lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) despite the common name.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was used as an antidote to all sorts of poison, and to expel worms; also ‘good against obstruction of the liver, the jaundice and to promote the menses’.. It was used to keep away moths from linen, to repel mosquitos, and as a remedy for insect bites, warts, scabs and verrucae. The Arabs are said to have used the juice for bathing the eyes.

ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, antitoxic, anthelmintic, insecticidal, stimulant, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a strong, acrid, herbaceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Only one principal constituent: santolinenone.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin. ‘There is no safety data available ... likely to be dangerously toxic.’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Little used in flavour or perfumery work due to toxicity.... santolina

Savine

Juniperus sabina

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS: Sabina cacumina, savin (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A compact evergreen shrub about 1 metre high (though much taller in the Mediterranean countries), which tends to spread horizontally. It has a pale green bark becoming rough with age, small, dark green leaves and purplish-black berries containing three seeds.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, middle and southern Europe. The oil is produced mainly in Austria (the Tirol), a little in France and Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the common juniper (J. communis) and other members of the family – see juniper.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was used at one time as an ointment or dressing for blisters, in order to promote discharge, and for syphilitic warts and other skin problems. It is rarely administered nowadays because of its possible toxic effects.

ACTIONS: Powerful emmenagogue, rubefacient, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the twigs and leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive oily liquid with a disagreeable, bitter, turpentine-like odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Sabinol, sabinyl acetate, terpinene, pinene, sabinene, decyl aldehyde, citronellol, geraniol, cadinene and dihydrocuminyl alcohol.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin. Dermal irritant. Abortifacient. ‘The oil is banned from sale to the public in many countries due to its toxic effects (nerve poison and blood circulation stimulant).’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy, whether internally or externally.’.

OTHER USES: Occasional perfumery use. Little employed nowadays.... savine

Savory, Winter

Satureja montana

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: S. obovata, Calamintha montana.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A bushy perennial subshrub up to 40 cms high with woody stems at the base, linear leaves and pale purple flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now found all over Europe, Turkey and the USSR. The oil is mainly produced in Spain, Morocco and Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES: The creeping variety of the winter savory (S. montana subspicata) is also a well-known garden herb. See also summer savory (S. hortensis) and Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It has been used as a culinary herb since antiquity, much in the same way as summer savory. It was used as a digestive remedy especially good for colic, and in Germany it is used particularly for diarrhoea.

When compared against many varieties of thyme, rosemary and lavender, recent research has shown ‘the net superiority of the anti microbial properties of essence of savory’..

ACTIONS: See summer savory.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the whole herb. (An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sharp, medicinal, herbaceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly carvacrol, cymene and thymol, with lesser amounts of pinenes, limonene, cineol, borneol and terpineol.

SAFETY DATA: See summer savory.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used on the skin at all.’.

OTHER USES: Occasionally used in perfumery work. The oil and oleoresin are employed to some extent in flavouring, mainly meats and seasonings.... savory, winter

Schinus Molle

Schinus molle

FAMILY: Anacardiaceae

SYNONYMS: Peruvian pepper, Peruvian mastic, Californian pepper tree.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical evergreen tree up to 20 metres high with graceful, drooping branches, feathery foliage and fragrant yellow flowers. The berries or fruit have an aromatic, peppery flavour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America; found growing wild in Mexico, Peru, Guatemala and other tropical regions, including California. It has been introduced into North and South Africa and the Mediterranean region. The fruits are collected for essential oil production in Spain, Guatemala and Mexico.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus) – see entry on mastic.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Greece and other Mediterranean countries an intoxicating beverage is made from the fruits of the tree. The fruit is also used as a substitute for black pepper in the growing areas. During World War II, the oil of black pepper was unavailable and was consequently replaced by schinus molle.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruit or berries. (An oil from the leaves is also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale green or olive, oily liquid with a warm, woody-peppery scent with a smoky undertone. It blends well with oakmoss, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, black pepper and eucalyptus.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly phellandrene, also caryophyllene, pinene and carvacrol.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See black pepper.

OTHER USES: Used as a substitute for black pepper in perfumery and flavouring work.... schinus molle

Spruce, Hemlock

Tsuga canadensis

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: Pinus canadensis, Abies canadensis, spruce, eastern hemlock, common hemlock, hemlock (oil), spruce (oil), fir needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large evergreen tree up to 50 metres tall, with slender horizontal branches, finely toothed leaves and smallish brown cones, which yields a natural exudation from its bark.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the west coast of the USA. The oil is produced in Vermont, New York, New Hampshire, Virginia and Wisconsin.

OTHER SPECIES: Numerous cultivars of this species exist; often the oil is produced from a mixture of different types. Similar oils, also called simply ‘spruce oil’ are produced from the black spruce (Picea nigra or mariana), the Norway spruce (P. abies) and the white or Canadian spruce (P. glauca). The essential oil from the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), contains quite different constituents. It is also closely related to the Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), which is also used to produce an essential oil and a balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The bark of the hemlock spruce (which contains tannins and resin as well as volatile oil) is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia indicated for diarrhoea, cystitis, mucous colitis, leucorrhoea, uterine prolapse, pharyngitis, stomatitis and gingivitis. An extract of the bark is also used in the tanning industry.

ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, nervine, rubefacient, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a pleasing, fresh-balsamic, sweet-fruity odour. It blends well with pine, oakmoss, cedarwood, galbanum, benzoin, lavender, lavandin and rosemary.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinenes, limonene, bornyl acetate, tricyclene, phellandrene, myrcene, thujone, dipentene and cadinene, among others. Constituents vary according to source and exact botanical species (sometimes mixed).

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs, respiratory weakness.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.

Nervous system: Anxiety, stress-related conditions – ‘opening and elevating through grounding ... excellent for yoga and meditation.’.

OTHER USES: Used in veterinary liniments. Extensively used for room spray perfumes, household detergents, soaps, bath preparations and toiletries, especially in the USA.... spruce, hemlock

Styrax, Levant

Liquidambar orientalis

FAMILY: Hamamelidaceae

SYNONYMS: Balsam styracis, oriental sweetgum, Turkish sweetgum, asiatic styrax, styrax, storax, liquid storax.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A deciduous tree up to 15 metres high with a purplish-grey bark, leaves arranged into five three-lobed sections, and white flowers. The styrax is a pathological secretion produced by pounding the bark, which induces the sapwood to produce a liquid from beneath the bark. It hardens to form a semi-solid greenish-brown mass with a sweet balsamic odour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Asia Minor. It forms forests around Bodrum, Milas, Mugla and Marmaris in Turkey.

OTHER SPECIES: Very similar to the American styrax (L. styraciflua) or red gum, which produces a natural exudation slightly darker and harder than the Levant type. There are also many other types of styrax; Styrax officinale produced the styrax of ancient civilizations. NB: Styrax benzoin is the botanical name for benzoin, with which it shares similar qualities.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In China it is used for coughs, colds, epilepsy and skin problems, including cuts, wounds and scabies. In the West it has been recommended as a remedy for catarrh, diphtheria, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, ringworm, etc. A syrup made from the bark of the American styrax is used for diarrhoea and dysentery in the western USA.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, bactericidal, balsamic, expectorant, nervine, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the crude. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction).

CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a sweet-balsamic, rich, tenacious odour. It blends well with ylang ylang, jasmine, mimosa, rose, lavender, carnation, violet, cassie and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly styrene with vanillin, phenylpropyl alcohol, cinnamic alcohol, benzyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Frequently adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Cuts, ringworm, scabies, wounds.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs.

Nervous system: Anxiety, stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Used in compound benzoin tincture, mainly for respiratory conditions. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components mainly in soaps, floral and oriental perfumes. The resinoid and absolute are used in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, stomachic.... styrax, levant

Skin Care

Acne (M,S,F,B,I,N):

Bergamot, camphor (white), cananga, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, galbanum, geranium, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lemongrass, lime, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, violet, yarrow, ylang ylang.

Allergies (M,S,F,B,I):

Melissa, chamomile (German & Roman), immortelle, true lavender, spikenard.

Athlete’s foot (S):

Clove bud, eucalyptus, lavender (true &spike), lemon, lemongrass, myrrh, patchouli, tea tree.

Baldness & hair care (S,H):

West Indian bay, white birch, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), grapefruit, juniper, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), yarrow, ylang ylang.

Boils, abscesses & blisters (S,C,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, mastic, niaouli, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, turpentine.

Bruises (S,C):

Arnica (cream), borneol, clove bud, fennel, geranium, hyssop, sweet marjoram, lavender, thyme.

Burns (C,N):

Canadian balsam, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, eucalyptus blue gum, geranium, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, niaouli, tea tree, yarrow.

Chapped & cracked skin (S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, benzoin, myrrh, patchouli, sandalwood.

Chilblains (S,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, black pepper.

Cold sores/herpes (S):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lemon, tea tree.

Congested & dull skin (M,S,F,B,I):

Angelica, white birch, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), palmarosa, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, rosewood, ylang ylang.

Cuts/sores (S,C):

Canadian balsam, benzoin, borneol, cabreuva, cade, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), galbanum, geranium, hyssop, immortelle, lavender (spike & true), lavandin, lemon, lime, linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, Scotch pine, Spanish sage, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Dandruff (S,H):

West Indian bay, cade, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), eucalyptus, spike lavender, lemon, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tea tree.

Dermatitis (M,S,C,F,B):

White birch, cade, cananga, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hops, hyssop, juniper, true lavender, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mint (peppermint & spearmint), palmarosa, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Dry & sensitive skin (M,S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, cassie, chamomile (German & Roman), frankincense, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), rosewood, sandalwood, violet.

Eczema (M,S,F,B):

Melissa, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, white birch, cade, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, thyme, violet, yarrow.

Excessive perspiration (S,B):

Citronella, cypress, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, petitgrain, Scotch pine, Spanish sage.

Greasy or oily skin/scalp (M,S,H,F,B):

West Indian bay, bergamot, cajeput, camphor (white), cananga, carrot seed, citronella, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, juniper, lavender, lemon, lemongrass, !itsea cubeba, mandarin, marigold, mimosa, myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sandalwood, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, ylang ylang.

Haemorrhoids/piles (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Copaiba balsam, coriander, cubebs, cypress, geranium, juniper, myrrh, myrtle, parsley, yarrow.

Insect bites (S,N):

French basil, bergamot, cajeput, cananga, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, marigold, melissa, niaouli, tea tree, thyme, ylang ylang.

Insect repellent (S,V):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), Virginian cedarwood, citronella, clove bud, cypress, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), geranium, lavender, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, mastic, melissa, patchouli, rosemary, turpentine.

Irritated & inflamed skin (S,C,F,B):

Angelica, benzoin, camphor (white), Atlas cedarwood, chamomile (German & Roman), elemi, immortelle, hyssop, jasmine, lavandin, true lavender, marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Lice (S,H):

Cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, geranium, lavandin, spike lavender, parsley, Scotch pine, rosemary, thyme, turpentine.

Mouth & gum infections/ulcers (S,C):

Bergamot, cinnamon leaf, cypress, sweet fennel, lemon, mastic, myrrh, orange (bitter & sweet), sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Psoriasis (M,S,F,B):

Angelica, bergamot, white birch, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), true lavender.

Rashes (M,S,C,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), hops, true lavender, marigold, sandalwood, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Ringworm (S,H):

Geranium, spike lavender, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine.

Scabies (S):

Tolu balsam, bergamot, cinnamon leaf, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), Scotch pine, rosemary, Levant styrax, thyme, turpentine.

Scars & stretch marks (M,S):

Cabreuva, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, true lavender, mandarin, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rosewood, sandalwood, spikenard, violet, arrow.

Slack tissue (M,S,B):

Geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lemongrass, lime, mandarin, sweet marjoram, orange blossom, black pepper, petitgrain, rosemary, yarrow.

Spots (S,N):

Bergamot, cade, cajeput, camphor (white), eucalyptus (lemon), immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, litsea cubeba, mandarin, niaouli, tea tree.

Ticks (S,N):

Sweet marjoram.

Toothache & teething pain (S,C,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh.

Varicose veins (S,C):

Cypress, lemon, lime, neroli, yarrow.

Verrucae (S,N):

Tagetes, tea tree.

Warts & corns (S,N):

Cinnamon leaf, lemon, lime, tagetes, tea tree.

Wounds (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, cabreuva, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, cypress, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), frankincense, galbanum, geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, patchouli, rosewood, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Wrinkles & mature skin (M,S,F,B):

Carrot seed, elemi, sweet fennel, frankincense, galbanum, geranium, jasmine, labdanum, true lavender, mandarin, mimosa, myrrh, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, spikenard, ylang ylang.... skin care

Genito-urinary And Endocrine Systems

Amenorrhoea/lack of menstruation (M,B):

French basil, carrot seed, celery seed, cinnamon leaf, dill, sweet fennel, hops, hyssop, juniper, laurel, lovage, sweet marjoram, myrrh, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Dysmenorrhoea/cramp, painful or difficult menstruation (M,C,B):

Melissa, French basil, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, frankincense, hops, jasmine, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, sweet marjoram, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Cystitis (C,B,D):

Canadian balsam, copaiba balsam, bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, mastic, niaouli, parsley, Scotch pine, sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Frigidity (M,S,B,V):

Cassie, cinnamon leaf, jasmine, neroli, nutmeg, parsley, patchouli, black pepper, cabbage rose, rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, ylang ylang.

Lack of nursing milk (M):

Celery seed, dill, sweet fennel, hops.

Labour pain & childbirth aid (M,C,B):

Cinnamon leaf, jasmine, true lavender, nutmeg, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage.

Leucorrhoea/white discharge from the vagina (B,D):

Bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), cinnamon leaf, cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, mastic, myrrh, rosemary, clary sage, sandalwood, tea tree, turpentine.

Menopausal problems (M,B,V):

Cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, rose (cabbage & damask).

Menorrhagia/excessive menstruation (M,B):

Chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, rose (cabbage & damask).

Premenstrual tension/PMT (M,B,V):

Carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, true lavender, sweet marjoram, neroli, tarragon.

Pruritis/itching (D):

Bergamot, Atlas cedarwood, juniper, lavender, myrrh, tea tree.

Sexual overactivity (M,B):

Hops, sweet marjoram.

Thrush/candida (B,D):

Bergamot, geranium, myrrh, tea tree.

Urethritis (B,D):

Bergamot, cubebs, mastic, tea tree, turpentine.

Immune System

Chickenpox (C,S,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), true lavender, tea tree.

Colds/’flu (M,B,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, French basil, West Indian bay, bergamot, borneol, cabreuva, cajeput, camphor (white), caraway, cinnamon leaf, citronella, clove bud, coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, frankincense, ginger, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, laurel, lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Fever (C,B):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, immortelle, juniper, lemon, lemongrass, lime, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, yarrow.

Measles (S,B,I,V):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lavender (spike & true), tea tree.... genito-urinary and endocrine systems




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