A highly infectious viral disease that was declared eradicated in
1980 after a global vaccination campaign.
1980 after a global vaccination campaign.
Habitat: A tree occurring in salt marshes and tidal creeks.
English: White mangrove.Ayurvedic: Tuvara.Siddha/Tamil: Kandal.Folk: Tivaria (Gujarat), Upattam (Tamil Nadu).Action: Stem/bark—astringent. Pulp of unripe fruit—used for healing skin lesions of smallpox; fruits and immature seeds, used as cicatrizant of abscesses and ulcers.
The bark contains 5% tannin, tri- acontanol and triterpenoids. Kernels contain lapachol, which possesses an- titumour activity. Aerial parts yield beta-sitosterol, friedelin, lupenone, lu- peol, betulinic and ursolic acids.... avicennia officinalisHabitat: Native to Burma; found all over India.
English: Neem tree, Margosa tree.Ayurvedic: Nimba, Nimbaka, Arishta, Arishtaphala, Pichumarda, Pichumanda, Pichumandaka, Tiktaka, Sutiktak, Paaribhadra.Unani: Aazaad-Darakht-e-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil: Vemmu, Veppu, Veppan, Arulundi.Action: Leaf, bark—antimicrobial, antifungal, anthelmintic, insecti- cidal, antiviral, antipyretic, anti- malarial, antiperiodic, mosquito larvicidal, anti-inflammatory, antifertility, spermicidal, hypogly- caemic; used in inflammation of gums, gingivitis, periodonitis, sores, boils, enlargement of spleen, malarial fever, fever during childbirth, measles, smallpox, head scald and cutaneous affections. Oil—used as a contraceptive for intravaginal use, for the treatment of vaginal infections, and as a mosquito repellent.
Plant tetranortriterpenoids have been examined extensively for their antibiotic, antitumour, insecticidal, antibacterial and antifungal activities.The methanolic extract of the bark shows antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum.The aqueous extract of leaves exhibited antiulcer and anti-inflammatory activity.The water-soluble portion of alcoholic extract of leaves reduces blood sugar in glucose-fed and adrenaline- induced hyperglycaemic rats (but not in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats).A volatile fraction of the Neem oil is reported to be responsible for sper- micidal activity at a dose of 25 mg/ml for human sperm. The oil has been found to retard the growth of human immunodeficiency virus.Neem oil has caused mitochondri- al injury in mice; poisonous in high doses. (Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage: Dried leaf—1-3 g powder; 10-20 g for decoction; stembark— 2-4 g powder decoction for external use. (API Vol. II.) Leaf juice— 10-20 ml; oil—5-10 drops; bark decoction—50-100 ml. (CCRAS.)... azadirachta indicaHabitat: Cultivated as an ornamental. Found in Bihar, North Bengal, Orissa, Western Ghats and Southwards.
Siddha/Tamil: Aanaparuga.Action: Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antimicrobial. Applied to smallpox pustules. Root—bruised and fried in oil, applied to abscesses.... pothos scandens
Central to an understanding of public health is recognition that public-health practitioners are concerned not just with individuals, but also with whole populations – and that improving health care plays only a part of public-health improvement. The health of populations (public health) is also dependent on many factors such as the social, economic and physical environment in which the people live and the nutrition and health care available to them.
For thousands of years, a fundamental feature of civilisations has been to seek to improve the health of the population and protect it from disease. This has led to the development of legal frameworks which di?er widely from country to country, depending on their social and political development. All are concerned to stop the spread of infectious diseases, and to maintain the safety of urban food and water supplies and waste disposal. Most are also associated with housing standards, some form of poverty relief, and basic health care. Some trading standards are often covered, at least in relation to the sale and distribution of poisons and drugs, and to controls on industrial and transport safety – for example, in relation to drinking and driving and car design. Although these varied functions protect the public health and were often originally developed to improve it, most are managerially and professionally separated from today’s public-health departments. So public-health professionals in the NHS, armed with evidence of the cause of a disease problem, must frequently act as advocates for health across many agencies where they play no formal management part. They must also seek to build alliances and add a health perspective to the policies of other services wherever possible.
Epidemiology is the principal diagnostic method of public health. It is de?ned as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states in speci?ed populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems. Public-health practitioners also draw on many other skills, such as those of statisticians, sociologists, anthropologists, economists and policy analysts in identifying and trying to resolve the health problems of the societies they serve. Treatments proposed are likely to extend well beyond the clinic or hospital and may include recommendations for measures to resolve poverty, improve sanitation or housing, control pollution, change lifestyles such as smoking, improve nutrition, or change health services. At times of acute EPIDEMIC, public-health doctors have considerable legal powers granted to enable them to prevent infection from spreading. At other times their work may be more concerned with monitoring, reporting, planning and managing services, and advocating policy changes to politicians so that health is promoted.
The term ‘the public health’ can relate to the state of health of the population, and be represented by measures such as MORTALITY indices
(e.g. perinatal or infant mortality and standardised mortality rates), life expectancy, or measures of MORBIDITY (illness). These can be compared across areas and even countries. Sometimes people refer to a pubic health-care system; this is a publicly funded service, the primary aim of which is to improve health by the use of population-based measures. They may include or be separate from private health-care services for which individuals pay. The structure of these systems varies from country to country, re?ecting di?erent social composition and political priorities. There are, however, some general elements that can be identi?ed:
Surveillance The collection, collation and analysis of data to provide useful information about the distribution and causes of health and disease and related factors in populations. These activities form the basis of epidemiology, which is the diagnostic backbone of public-health practice.
Intervention The design, advocacy and implementation of policies to improve health. This may be through the provison of PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, environmental measures, in?uencing the behaviour of individuals, or the provision of appropriate services to limit disability and handicap. It will lead to advocacy for health, promoting change in many areas of policy including, for example, taxation and improved housing and employment opportunities.
Evaluation Assessment of the ?rst two steps to assess their impact in terms of e?ectiveness, e?ciency, acceptability, accessibility, value for money or other indicators of quality. This enables the programme to be reviewed and changed as necessary.
The practice of public health The situation in the United Kingdom will be described as, even though systems vary, it will give a general impression of the type of work covered. HISTORY Initially, public-health practice related to food, the urban environment and the control of infectious diseases. Early examples include rules in the Bible about avoiding certain foods. These were probably based on practical experience, had gradually been adopted as sensible behaviour, become part of culture and ?nally been incorporated into religious laws. Other examples are the regulations about quarantine for PLAGUE and LEPROSY in the Middle Ages, vaccination against SMALLPOX introduced by William Jenner, and Lind’s use of citrus fruits to prevent SCURVY at sea in the 18th century.
It was during the 19th century, in response to the health problems arising from the rapid growth of urban life, that the foundations of a public-health system were created. The ‘sanitary’ concept was fundamental to these developments. This suggested that overcrowding in insanitary conditions was the cause of most disease epidemics and that improved sanitation measures such as sewerage and clean water supplies would prevent them. Action to introduce such measures were often initiated only after epidemics spread out of the slums and into wealthier and more powerful families. Other problems such as the stench of the River Thames outside the Houses of Parliament also led to a demand for e?ective sanitary control measures. Successive public-health laws were passed by Parliament, initially about sanitation and housing, and then, as scienti?c knowledge grew, about bacterial infections.
In the middle of the 19th century the ?rst medical o?cers of health were appointed with responsibility to report regularly and advise local government about the measures needed to control disease and improve health. Their scope and responsibility widened as society changed and took on a wider welfare role. After more than a century they changed as part of the reforms of the NHS and local government in the 1960s and became more narrowly focused within the health-care system and its management. Increased recognition of the multifactorial causes, costs and limitations of treatment of conditions such as cancer and heart disease, and the emergence of new problems such as AIDS/HIV and BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE) have again showed the importance of prevention and a broader approach to health. With it has come recognition that, while disease may be the justi?cation for action, a narrow diseasetreatment-based approach is not always the most e?ective or economic solution. The role of the director of public health (the successor to the medical o?cer of health) is again being expanded, and in 1997 – for the ?rst time in the UK – a government Minister for Public Health was appointed. This reffects not only a greater priority for public health, but also a concern that the health effects of policy should be considered across all parts of government.
(See also ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH.)... public health
Habitat: Tamil Nadu up to 2,100 m, and along the back waters in Kerala and West Bengal.
Folk: Nanjaruppan (Tamil Nadu, Kerala).Action: Plant—alexipharmic; used for the treatment of urticaria, smallpox, excessive perspiration, biolious swellings, as an antidote to arsenic poisoning. Leaves—used for scabies.... tylophora tenuis
Special needs The Children Act 1989, Education Acts 1981, 1986 and 1993, and the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Legislation 1979 impose various statutory duties to identify and provide assistance for children with special needs. They include the chronically ill as well as those with impaired development or disabilities such as CEREBRAL PALSY, or hearing, vision or intellectual impairment. Many CDTs keep a register of such children so that services can be e?ciently planned and evaluated. Parents of disabled children often feel isolated and neglected by society in general; they are frequently frustrated by the lack of resources available to help them cope with the sheer hard work involved. The CDT, through its key workers, does its best to absorb anger and divert frustration into constructive actions.
There are other groups of children who come to the attention of child health services. Community paediatricians act as advisers to adoption and fostering agencies, vital since many children needing alternative homes have special medical or educational needs or have behavioural or psychiatric problems. Many see a role in acting as advocates, not just for those with impairments but also for socially disadvantaged children, including those ‘looked after’ in children’s homes and those of travellers, asylum seekers, refugees and the homeless.
Child protection Regrettably, some children come to the attention of child health specialists because they have been beaten, neglected, emotionally or nutritionally starved or sexually assaulted by their parents or carers. Responsibility for the investigation of these children is that of local-authority social-services departments. However, child health professionals have a vital role in diagnosis, obtaining forensic evidence, advising courts, supervising the medical aspects of follow-up and teaching doctors, therapists and other professionals in training. (See CHILD ABUSE.)
School health services Once children have reached school age, the emphasis changes. The prime need becomes identifying those with problems that may interfere with learning – including those with special needs as de?ned above, but also those with behavioural problems. Teachers and parents are advised on how to manage these problems, while health promotion and health education are directed at children. Special problems, especially as children reach secondary school (aged 11–18) include accidents, substance abuse, psychosexual adjustment, antisocial behaviour, eating disorders and physical conditions which loom large in the minds of adolescents in particular, such as ACNE, short stature and delayed puberty.
There is no longer, in the UK, a universal school health service as many of its functions have been taken over by general practitioners and hospital and community paediatricians. However, most areas still have school nurses, some have school doctors, while others do not employ speci?c individuals for these tasks but share out aspects of the work between GPs, health visitors, community nurses and consultant paediatricians in child health.
Complementing their work is the community dental service whose role is to monitor the whole child population’s dental health, provide preventive programmes for all, and dental treatment for those who have di?culty using general dental services – for example, children with complex disability. All children in state-funded schools are dentally screened at ages ?ve and 15.
Successes and failures Since the inception of the NHS, hospital services for children have had enormous success: neonatal and infant mortality rates have fallen by two-thirds; deaths from PNEUMONIA have fallen from 600 per million children to a handful; and deaths from MENINGITIS have fallen to one-?fth of the previous level. Much of this has been due to the revolution in the management of pregnancy and labour, the invention of neonatal resuscitation and neonatal intensive care, and the provision of powerful antibiotics.
At the same time, some children acquire HIV infection and AIDS from their affected mothers (see AIDS/HIV); the prevalence of atopic (see ATOPY) diseases (ASTHMA, eczema – see DERMATITIS, HAY FEVER) is rising; more children attend hospital clinics with chronic CONSTIPATION; and little can be done for most viral diseases.
Community child health services can also boast of successes. The routine immunisation programme has wiped out SMALLPOX, DIPHTHERIA and POLIOMYELITIS and almost wiped out haemophilus and meningococcal C meningitis, measles and congenital RUBELLA syndrome. WHOOPING COUGH outbreaks continue but the death and chronic disability rates have been greatly reduced. Despite these huge health gains, continuing public scepticism about the safety of immunisation means that there can be no relaxation in the educational and health-promotion programme.
Services for severely and multiply disabled children have improved beyond all recognition with the closure of long-stay institutions, many of which were distinctly child-unfriendly. Nonetheless, scarce resources mean that families still carry heavy burdens. The incidence of SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) has more than halved as a result of an educational programme based on ?rm scienti?c evidence that the risk can be reduced by putting babies to sleep on their backs, avoidance of parental smoking, not overheating, breast feeding and seeking medical attention early for illness.
Children have fewer accidents and better teeth but new problems have arisen: in the 1990s children throughout the developed world became fatter. A UK survey in 2004 found that one in ?ve children are overweight and one in 20 obese. Lack of exercise, the easy availability of food at all times and in all places, together with the rise of ‘snacking’, are likely to provoke signi?cant health problems as these children grow into adult life. Adolescents are at greater risk than ever of ill-health through substance abuse and unplanned pregnancy. Child health services are facing new challenges in the 21st century.... child development teams (cdts)
Habitat: Throughout South and East India and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Ayurvedic: Raaj-Paathaa (bigger var. of Paathaa, Cissampelos pareira Linn.).Siddha/Tamil: Para.Action: Roots—used in smallpox, bone fractures, malarial fever, jaundice, stomachache.
The root yielded tetrandrine as the major alkaloid. Tetrandrine (0.1 g/day) was found effective in the treatment of chloroquine resistant malaria.Tetrandrine possesses cytotoxic and immunomodulatory properties and is indicated in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. It shows an- tihypertensive, cardiac depressant and vasodilator effect. It also exhibits antiallergic activity.... cyclea arnotiiHabitat: A pulse crop, particularly in Madras, Mysore, Mumbai and Hyderabad.
English: Horsegram.Ayurvedic: Kulattha, Kulittha, Khalva, Vardhipatraka.Unani: Kulthi.Siddha/Tamil: Kollu, Kaanam.Action: Plant—used in measles, smallpox, adenitis, burns, sores. Seeds—astringent, antipyretic, diuretic. Decoction or soup is used in affections of the liver and spleen, intestinal colic, in leucorrhoea and menstrual dissorders, urinary discharges. A valuable protein supplement.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the decoction of dry seeds in calculus and amenorrhoea.The seeds contain crude protein 20.8, pentosan 10.8 and water-soluble gum 2.8%. The presence of antinu- tritional components such as haemag- glutinin and a protease inhibitor has been reported. The inhibitor activity decreased during germination.The mean protein value of the seeds is 25.47% which is more or less equivalent to soybean, winged bean and gram. Nutritionally, the horsegram seeds are richer in lysine content when compared to Cajanus cajan (Arhar) pulse and gram pulse.Presence of vitamin A in the green pods makes them a valuable diet for children; green leaves may be used in vitamin C deficiency syndrome, due to the presence of ascorbic acid and calcium. The seeds contain several common phytosterols.Strepogenin—several times higher than in casein.A decoction of seeds (soaked or boiled in water) is prescribed as diuretic and antilithiatic and has been clinically established.Diuretic activity of a dipeptide (py- roglutamylglutamine) has been found to be 2-3 times that of acetazolamide in albino rats.Globulin fraction of the seeds showed hypolipidaemic effects in rats.A lectin-like glycoprotein from stems and leaves possesses carbohydrate- binding activity.Dosage: Seed—6 g powder; decoction 50-100 ml. (CCRAS.)... dolichos biflorusAction: astringent, anti-fertility, anti-fungal, antibacterial, antispasmodic, anti-haemorrhagic. Oxytocic. Uses. Tea used by the Chinese for simple headache. Smallpox, jaundice, leprosy (Ancient Arabian). Salmonella, brucellosis, staphylococcus aureus, streptococcus. Splenic enlargement.
Preparations: Tea: no longer taken internally, but used as a skin lotion.
Externally as a natural hair dye and conditioner. Rinses, dyes, shampoos, etc. Overuse turns the hair red. ... henna
Treatment. Internal: St John’s Wort. Vitamin E (400iu daily).
Topical: Castor oil. Oil from Vitamin E capsule.
Juice: Aloe Vera or Houseleek. ... keloid
Eruptions may be acute or chronic. Most of the acute eruptions belong to the exanthemata (see EXANTHEM): that is, they are bright in col-our and burst out suddenly like a ?ower. These are the eruptions of SCARLET FEVER, measles, German measles (see RUBELLA), SMALLPOX and chickenpox. In general, the severity of these diseases can be measured by the amount of eruption. Some eruptions are very transitory, like nettle-rash, appearing and vanishing again in the course of a few hours. (See also SKIN, DISEASES OF.)... eruption
Habitat: Western India, upper Gangetic plains and Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Dhanvayaasa, Dhan- vayavaasa, Dhanvayaasaka, Duraal- abhaa, Samudraantaa. Gaandhaari, Kachhuraa, Anantaa, Duhsparshaa. (Alhagi pseudalhagi is used as a substitute for F. cretica.)Unani: Dhamaasaa.Action: Astringent, antiseptic, blood-purifier and febrifuge. Applied to abscesses, scrofulous glands and wounds; also given as a prophylactic against smallpox. Bark—used for dermatosis Extract of aerial parts—antiviral, antiamphetaminic, spasmogenic. Plant ash—given to children suffering from anaemia.
The aerial parts contain several tri- terpenoid saponins which gave sa- pogenin, nahagenin, oleanolic acid. Aerial parts also gave diterpenes, fa- gonone and its derivatives, besides flavonoids.The flavonoids, quercetin and kaem- pferol, isolated from the leaves and flowers, showed antimicrobial activity.The fruits are rich in ascorbic acid.Dosage: Whole plant—50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... fagonia creticaHabitat: Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
English: Tamthar.Siddha/Tamil: Kullai.Folk: Dhohan (Rajasthan), Jalidar (Punjab), Kharamati (Maharashtra).Action: Root—antidiarrhoeal. Root and bark—used in genitourinary infections, syphilis and smallpox.
The methanol extract of the roots contain beta-carboline alkaloids, harman, harmine, harmol, harmalol and harmaline.The roots are also used to treat cough.... grewia villosaHabitat: Native to Europe; grown occasionally in gardens at hill stations.
English: English Holly, Common Holly.Action: Leaves—diaphoretic, febrifuge. Used in catarrh, pleurisy, intermittent fever, smallpox and rheumatism. Also in jaundice. Berries—violently emetic and purgative; employed in dropsy. Powdered berries are used as astringent to check bleeding.
(Berries possess totally different qualities as compared to leaves.)The plant contains ilicin (a bitter principle), ilexanthin, theobromine (only in the leaf) and caffeic acid. Alkaloid theobromine is used for asthma. In Greece, boiled leaves are used for treating enlarged prostate.An extract of the plant caused a fatal drop in blood pressure in rats.The ethanolic extract of the fruits yields cyanogenic glucosides.... ilex aquifoliumAn international organization established in 1948 as an agency of the United Nations with responsibilities for international health matters and public health. The headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland.
The has campaigned effectively against some infectious diseases, most
notably smallpox, tuberculosis, and malaria.
Other functions include sponsoring medical research programmes, organizing a network of collaborating national laboratories, and providing expert advice and specific targets to its 160 member states with regard to health matters.... world health organization
It must be noted that diseases are not communicated to others by a person who is incubating an illness. Some diseases, however, such as MEASLES, become infectious as soon as the ?rst symptoms set in after the incubation period is over; others, like SCARLET FEVER and SMALLPOX, are not so infectious then as in their later stages. The incubation period for any given disease is remarkably constant, although in the case of a severe attack the incubation is usually slightly shortened, and if the oncoming attack is a mild one, the period may be lengthened. All, however, may take a few days longer than the time stated to show themselves (see INFECTION), and several – especially WHOOPINGCOUGH – may be di?cult to recognise in their early stages.
Incubation periods of the more common infectious diseases:
The fore?nger or second digit of the hand.... incubation
Habitat: Deccan, Mysore southwards.
Folk: Sivanarvembu (Tamil Nadu).Action: Leaves—cooling, aperient; given for smallpox to children, bruised leaves applied to contusions.
The alcoholic extract of the aerial parts yielded several lignans, phy- tosterols, brassicasterol, campesterol, 7,22-ergostadienol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, spinasterol, 28-isofucostil and a sterol glucoside, beta-sitosterol-3-O- glucoside.Justica vasculosa Wall. (Eastern Himalayas, Assam Khasi Hills) is also used for inflammations.... justica tranquebariensisHabitat: Maharashtra, Deccan and Bengal.
Ayurvedic: Parnabija (var.), Vatapatri.Unani: Zakhm-e-Hayaat.Siddha/Tamil: Malakalli.Folk: Hemasaagar.Action: Plant—used in fever, dyspepsia, skin allergy, asthma, bronchitis. Leaves—astringent, antiseptic, astringent. Applied to insect bites. Lotions are used for smallpox. Leaf juice is given in diarrhoea, dysentery, lithiasis.... kalanchoe laciniata
Habitat: Kashmir and Kumaon, at altitudes of 1,500-2,700 m.
Folk: Lubis firmun.Action: Leaves—sedative. Seeds— diuretic, lithotriptic. A decoction of roots and twigs is given in the form of syrup in eruptive diseases, such as smallpox and measles.
The aerial parts contain pyrrolizi- dine alkaloids.Saline extracts of the aerial parts and roots, administered to experimental animals by injection, inhibit oestrus and the functioning of ovaries and testes; the activity of the thyroid gland is also reduced. The active principle is formed from phenolic precursors like caffeic, chlorogenic, rosmarinic acid as well as luteolin-7 beta-glucuronide by an oxidation step. Other constituents are lithospermic acid and shikonin.Shikonin and acetyl-shikonin, the pigments of the root, exhibit anti- inflammatory activity comparable to phenylbutazone.An infusion of leaves is used in Spain as sedative.... lithospermum officinanleHabitat: Moist parts of India, up to 1,800 m.
English: Indian Rhododendron.Folk: Laakheri, Paalorey (Maharashtra). Tulasi (Nepal). Nakkukappan (Tamil Nadu), Phutuka (Assam).Action: Leaf—antidiarrhoeal, antiseptic. Locally applied in smallpox to prevent pox-marks. Leaf and flowering top—astringent, antileucorrhoeic. Bark—applied to wounds. Also employed in preparation of gargles.
The leaves gave amino acids—gly- cine, valine, leucine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, methionine, tyrosine, isoleucine and hydroxyproline. The roots gave beta-sitosterol and a tri- terpene, melastomic acid.... melastoma malabathricumHabitat: North-eastern parts of India, West Bengal, Western Ghats and Andaman Islands.
Folk: Asar (Bengal); Thengprenke- orong (Assam); Kadambu, Visalam, Kottei (Tamil Nadu); Abhrangu (Karnataka).Action: Plant—stomachic, an- tidysenteric, antisyphilitic, antibacterial (also used for smallpox and eczema).... microcos paniculata
Noti?able diseases in the UK (For more information on a speci?c disease, refer to the separate dictionary entry.) Acute encephalitis Acute poliomyelitis Anthrax Cholera Diphtheria Dysentery (amoebic or bacillary) Ebola virus disease Food poisoning Lassa fever Leprosy (reported to Chief Medical O?cer at the Department of Health) Leptospirosis Malaria Marburg disease Measles Meningitis Meningococcal septicaemia (without meningitis) Mumps Ophthalmia neonatorum Paratyphoid fever Plague Rabies Relapsing fever Rubella Scarlet fever Smallpox Tetanus Tuberculosis Typhoid fever Typhus Viral haemorrhagic fever (including Lassa fever) Viral hepatitis Whooping cough Yellow fever
Reporting AIDS is voluntary (and in con?dence) to the Director, Communicable Diseases Surveillance Centre (PHLS).... notifiable diseases
Habitat: Maharashtra, Manipur, North Bengal, Bihar and Assam, Western Ghats and Andaman Islands.
English: Hathipaila.Ayurvedic: Muchukun- da, Muchakunda, Kshatra- vriksha, Chivuka, Prativishnuka, Muchukunda Champaa. Karnikaara (also equated with Cassia fistula).Unani: Gul-e-Muchkun.Siddha/Tamil: Vennangu.Action: Flower—anti-inflammatory, styptic (used for bleeding piles, haematuria, ulcers). Charred flowers and bark, mixed with the powder of Mallotus philippinensis, are applied to smallpox eruptions.
The fresh flowers yielded kaempfe- rol- 3 - O -beta - D -galactoside, along with luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside. The leaves also contain betulin, lu- peol, bauerenol, friedelin and beta- sitosterol.Dosage: Flower—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... pterospermum acerifoliumOriginally quarantine, as its name implies, involved detention for 40 days; but the period now covers the incubation period of the disease, the presence of which is suspected.
Numerous international conferences upon the subject have been held with the view of arriving at a uniform practice as regards quarantine in di?erent countries. The diseases to which quarantine applies are CHOLERA, YELLOW FEVER, PLAGUE, SMALLPOX, TYPHUS FEVER and RELAPSING FEVER.
The general practice with regard to quarantine is that when a serious disease breaks out in any country, the government of that country noti?es surrounding governments as to the ports and other places that have become centres of infection. Any people travelling from these centres and attempting to enter another country, are subject to measures prescribed in the appropriate regulations. These measures vary with the disease involved.... quarantine
Habitat: Throughout India, in waste places and hedges.
Ayurvedic: Parpata (as adulterant).Siddha/Tamil: Punakapundu.Action: Leaves—juice is aperient, febrifuge, refrigerant; bruised leaves are applied externally to disperse swellings. Root—febrifuge. The juice of leaves is given to children suffering from smallpox.... rungia pectinata
Habitat: The hotter parts of India, up to 1,350 m.
Ayurvedic: Shaalmali, Mochaa, Mochaahva, Pichhila, Raktapushpa, Sthiraayu, Kankataadhya, Tuulini. Shaalmali-veshtaka (gum).Unani: Semal. Mochras (gum).Siddha: Mul Ilavam. Ielavampisin (gum).Folk: Semar.Action: Young roots (Semul- musali)—astringent, (used for dysentery) stimulant, demulcent. Fruits—stimulant, diuretic, expectorant. Used for chronic inflammation of bladder, kidney also for calculus affections. Flowers— astringent and cooling, applied to cutaneous affections. Leaves— anti-inflammatory. Stem bark— demulcent, styptic. Aqueous extract with curd is given for blood- dysentery. Bark—paste is applied to skin eruptions, boils, acne, pimples. Seeds used for chickenpox, smallpox, catarrhal affections, chronic cystitis and genitourinary diseases. Gum—astringent, demulcent, styptic. Used for diarrhoea, dysentery, haemoptysis, bleeding piles, menor- rhagia, spermatorrhoea. Root and pod—used for the treatment of low vitality and debility.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the stem bark in bleeding disorders and in acne vul- garis.All parts of the plant gave beta- sitosterol and its glucosides; seeds, bark and root bark, lupeol; flowers, hentri- acontane, hentriacontanol; root bark, in addition, gave 7-hydroxycadalene. The seed oil yields arachidic, linoleic, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids; seeds contain carotenes, n-hexacosanol, et- hylgallate and tocopherols; the gum contains gallic and tannic acids, yields L-arbinose, D-galactose, D-galacturo- nic acid and D-galactopyranose.Younger roots contain more sugars (arabinose and galactose 8.2%) and peptic substances (6.0%) than the older ones. They contain mucilage, starch (71.2%), mineral matter (2.1%), tannins 0.4 and non-tannins 0.1%, along with other constituents.The Musali compares favourably with the nutritive value of Pueraria tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Ipomoea digitata and Butea monosperma (all used in sexual debility).A related species, Salmalia insig- nis (Wall.) Schott & Endl., synonym Bombax insigne Wall. (Assam, Western Ghats and the Andamans); is known as Semul; Dumboil (Assam), Didu (Andamans) and Kal-ilavu (Tamil Nadu).Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. III.) Flower, bark root— 3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... salmalia malabaricaHabitat: Native to tropical Asia; grown in Assam, Bengal, Punjab, Vadodara, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
English: Agati Sesban, Swamp Pea.Ayurvedic: Agastya, Agasti, Munidrum, Munitaru, Muni, Vangasena, Vakrapushpa, Kumbha.Siddha/Tamil: Agatti.Action: Plant—astringent, antihistamine, febrifuge. Used for intermittent fevers, catarrh, cough, consumption, glandular enlargement.
The aqueous extract of flowers has been found to produce haemolysis of human and sheet erythrocytes even at low concentration due to methyl ester of oleanolic acid. Flowers also gave nonacosan-6-one and kaempferol-3- rutinoside.The seed gave kaempferol-3,7-diglu- coside, (+)-leucocyanidin and cyani- din-3-glucoside. Seed also contains galactomannan.A saponin present in the leaves on hydrolysis gave an acid sapogenin oleanoic acid, galactose, rhamnose and glucuronic acid. Besides saponin, the leaves contain an aliphatic alcohol, grandiflorol.The bark contains gum and tannin. The red gum is used as a substitute for Gum arabic. An infusion of the bark is given in first stages of smallpox and other eruptive fevers (emetic in large doses).Dosage: Whole plant—10- 20 ml juice; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... sesbania grandifloraHealthy people are inoculated with vaccine as a protection against a particular disease; this produces ANTIBODIES which will confer immunity against a subsequent attack of the disease. (See IMMUNISATION for programme of immunisation during childhood.)
Vaccines may be divided into two classes: stock vaccines, prepared from micro-organisms known to cause a particular disease and kept in readiness for use against that disease; and autogenous vaccines, prepared from microorganisms which are already in the patient’s body and to which the disease is due. Vaccines intended to protect against the onset of disease are of the former variety.
Autogenous vaccines are prepared by cultivating bacteria found in SPUTUM, URINE and FAECES, and in areas of in?ammation such as BOILS (FURUNCULOSIS). This type of vaccine was introduced by Wright about 1903.
Anthrax vaccine was introduced in 1882 for the protection of sheep and cattle against this disease. A safe and e?ective vaccine for use in human beings has now been evolved. (See ANTHRAX.)
BCG vaccine is used to provide protection against TUBERCULOSIS. (See also separate entry on BCG VACCINE.)
Cholera vaccine was introduced in India about 1894. Two injections are given at an interval of at least a week; this gives a varying degree of immunity for six months. (See CHOLERA.)
Diphtheria vaccine is available in several forms. It is usually given along with tetanus and pertussis vaccine (see below) in what is known as TRIPLE VACCINE. This is given in three doses: the ?rst at the age of two months; the second at three months; and the third at four months, with a booster dose at the age of ?ve years. (See DIPHTHERIA.)
Hay fever vaccine is a vaccine prepared from the pollen of various grasses. It is used in gradually increasing doses for prevention of HAY FEVER in those susceptible to this condition.
In?uenza vaccine A vaccine is now available for protection against INFLUENZA due to the in?uenza viruses A and B. Its use in Britain is customarily based on advice from the health departments according to the type of in?uenza expected in a particular year.
Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccines are given in combination early in the second year of life. A booster dose may prove necessary, as there is some interference between this vaccine and the most recent form of pertussis vaccine (see below) o?ered to children. Uptake has declined a little because of media reports suggesting a link with AUTISM – for which no reliable medical evidence (and much to the contrary) has been found by investigating epidemiologists. (See also separate entry for each disease, and for MMR VACCINE.)
Pertussis (whooping-cough) vaccine is prepared from Bordetella pertussis, and is usually given along with diphtheria and tetanus in what is known as triple vaccine. (See also WHOOPING-COUGH.)
Plague vaccine was introduced by Ha?kine, and appears to give useful protection, but the duration of protection is relatively short: from two to 20 months. Two injections are given at an interval of four weeks. A reinforcing dose should be given annually to anyone exposed to PLAGUE.
Poliomyelitis vaccine gives a high degree of protection against the disease. This is given in the form of attenuated Sabin vaccine which is taken by mouth – a few drops on a lump of sugar. Reinforcing doses of polio vaccine are recommended on school entry, on leaving school, and on travel abroad to countries where POLIOMYELITIS is ENDEMIC.
Rabies vaccine was introduced by Pasteur in 1885 for administration, during the long incubation period, to people bitten by a mad dog, in order to prevent the disease from developing. (See RABIES.)
Rubella vaccine, usually given with mumps and measles vaccine in one dose – called MMR VACCINE, see also above – now provides protection against RUBELLA (German measles). It also provides immunity for adolescent girls who have not had the disease in childhood and so ensures that they will not acquire the disease during any subsequent pregnancy – thus reducing the number of congenitally abnormal children whose abnormality is the result of their being infected with rubella via their mothers before they were born.
Smallpox vaccine was the ?rst introduced. As a result of the World Health Organisation’s successful smallpox eradication campaign – it declared the disease eradicated in 1980 – there is now no medical justi?cation for smallpox vaccination. Recently, however, there has been increased interest in the subject because of the potential threat from bioterrorism. (See also VACCINATION.)
Tetanus vaccine is given in two forms: (1) In the so-called triple vaccine, combined with diphtheria and pertussis (whooping-cough) vaccine for the routine immunisation of children (see above). (2) By itself to adults who have not been immunised in childhood and who are particularly exposed to the risk of TETANUS, such as soldiers and agricultural workers.
Typhoid vaccine was introduced by Wright and Semple for the protection of troops in the South African War and in India. TAB vaccine, containing Salmonella typhi (the causative organism of typhoid fever – see ENTERIC FEVER) and Salmonella paratyphi A and B (the organisms of paratyphoid fever – see ENTERIC FEVER) has now been replaced by typhoid monovalent vaccine, containing only S. typhi. The change has been made because the monovalent vaccine is less likely to produce painful arms and general malaise, and there is no evidence that the TAB vaccine gave any protection against paratyphoid fever. Two doses are given at an interval of 4–6 weeks, and give protection for 1–3 years.... vaccine
A single virus particle, known as a virion, comprises an inner core of NUCLEIC ACID which is surrounded by one or two protective coverings (capsid) made of protein. Sometimes the capsid is enclosed by another layer called the viral envelope (also a protein structure). The envelope often disintegrates when the virus invades a cell. Viruses enter cells and then indulge in a complex and variable process of replication using some of the cells’ own structure. Viruses may stay in a host’s nucleus, being reactivated months or years later. There are more than a score of large families of viruses, from papoviruses, which cause WARTS, through HERPES viruses (cold sores, CHICKENPOX, SHINGLES) and orthomyxoviruses (in?uenza), to corona viruses (common cold) and retroviruses (AIDS/HIV). Viral diseases are more dif?cult to treat than those caused by bacteria: ANTIBIOTICS are ine?ective but INTERFERON, a group of natural substances, shows promise. IMMUNISATION is the most e?ective way of combating viral infections; smallpox, poliomyelitis, MUMPS, MEASLES and RUBELLA are examples of viral diseases which have been successfully combated. Research is progressing to ?nd a vaccine against HIV.... virus
Habitat: Throughout North India, rather scarce in South India.
English: Fire-flame Bush, Shiran- jitea.Ayurvedic: Dhaataki, Dhaatri, Kun- jaraa, Taamrapushpi, Bahupushpi, Vahnijwaalaa.Siddha/Tamil: Velakkai.Action: Dried flower—purifies blood, heals ulcers, astringent, prescribed in haemetemesis, erysipelas, dysentery, diarrhoea, menorrhagia, leucorrhoea. Flowers are used in alcohol-based tonics for fermentation (a yeast strain, saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been isolated). Bark—uterine sedative.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the flower in acute diarrhoea, haemorrhages, ulcerations and erysipelas.The dried flowers are powdered and sprinkled over ulcers and wounds. The flowers also enter into an ointment used on pustules of smallpox.In small doses the plant stimulates, while in large doses depresses the central nervous system.The flowers and leaves gave polyphe- nols—ellagic acid, polystachoside and myricetin-3-galactoside. Flowers also gave anthocyanins—pelargonidin- 3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin-3,5-di- glucoside; octacosanol, chrysopha- nol-8-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside and beta-sitosterol. Hecogenin, mesoinos- itol and flavone glycosides—quercetin- 3-rhamnoside, naringenin-7-glucoside and kaempferol, have been reported from flowers.The bark contains C-glucoside, ber- genin.The flowers, leaves and bark contain tannins—24.1, 12-20 and 20-27% respectively. Dimeric hydrolyzable tannins—woodfordins A, B and C, and trimeric tannins woodfordin D and oenothein A and B have been isoalt- ed from dried flowers. A new tannin monomer, isoschimawalin A and five oligomers—woodfordin E, F, G, H and I, have also been isoalted.Oenothein A and B exhibited remarkable host-mediated antitumour activity. Woodfordin C and D also showed antitumour activity. Woodfordin C showed inhibitory activity toward DNA topoisomerase II.Dosage: Flower—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)English: Pala Indigo Plant.Ayurvedic: Shveta Kutaja. (white- flowered), Punkutaja, Indrayava (seeds).Unani: Inderjao Shireen.Siddha/Tamil: Irum-paalai, Nila- paalai.Action: Bark—antidysenteric. Also used in piles and skin diseases. Seeds—antidysenteric, astringent, febrifuge, anthelmintic. Bark and seeds—prescribed in flatulence and bilious affections.
Pods, without seeds, contain the cycloartanes, cycloartenone and cy- cloeucalenol along with alpha- and beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and the terpene, wrightial. The leaves contain beta- amyrin. Stem bark gave beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol and lupeol.The seeds, leaves and roots have been shown to contain an indigo- yielding glucoside.The flowers gave 3-O-rhamnogluco- side which exhibited significant anti- inflammatory activity in carrageenan- induced hind paw oedema.The bark is commonly used as an adulterant of Kurchi Bark (obtained from Holarrhena antidysenterica).... woodfordia fruticosaAcute encephalitis, acute meningitis, acute poliomyelitis, anthrax, cholera, diphtheria, dysentery (amoebic and bacillary), food poisoning, infective jaundice, leprosy, leptospirosis, lassa fever, mumps, malaria, marburg disease, measles, German measles, ophthalmia neonatorum, paratyphoid fever, plague, rabies, relapsing fever, scarlet fever, smallpox, tetanus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, typhus, viral haemorrhagic fever, whooping cough and yellow fever.
Six communicable diseases are internationally notifiable to the World Health Organisation: yellow fever, plague, cholera, smallpox, louse-borne relapsing fever, louse-borne typhus.
Notification has to be made to local and central Government authorities. Certain occupational diseases and all cases of cancer must be registered and notified.
It is required that the above diseases and certain others receive modern medical therapy in a hospital or treatment under the supervision of a qualified physician. Failure to conform may expose a practitioner, registered or unregistered, to a charge of negligence. ... notifiable diseases
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