Injuries in the neighbourhood of joints, consisting usually in tearing of a ligament with e?usion of blood. (See JOINTS, DISEASES OF.)
Action: external use only.
Uses: Bruises and contusions where skin is unbroken. Severe bruising after surgical operation. Neuralgia, sprains, rheumatic joints, aches and pains after excessive use as in sports and gardening.
Combination, in general use: 1 part Tincture Arnica to 10 parts Witch Hazel water as a lotion. Contra- indications: broken or lacerated skin.
Preparations: Compress: handful flowerheads to 1 pint boiling water. Saturate handtowel or suitable material in mixture and apply.
Tincture. 1 handful (50g) flowerheads to 1 pint 70 per cent alcohol (say Vodka) in wide-necked bottle. Seal tight. Shake daily for 7 days. Filter. Use as a lotion or compress: 1 part tincture to 20 parts water. Weleda Lotion. First aid remedy to prevent bruise developing.
Nelson’s Arnica cream.
Ointment. Good for applying Arnica to parts of the body where tincture or lotion is unsuitable. 2oz flowers and 1oz leaves (shredded or powdered) in 16oz lard. Moisten with half its weight of distilled water. Heat together with the lard for 3-4 hours and strain. For wounds and varicose ulcers.
Wet Dressing. 2 tablespoons flowers to 2 litres boiling water. For muscular pain, stiffness and sprains. Tincture. Alternative dosage: a weak tincture can be used with good effect, acceptable internally: 5 drops tincture to 100ml water – 1 teaspoon hourly or two-hourly according to severity of the case.
Widely used in Homoeopathic Medicine.
First used by Swiss mountaineers who chewed the leaves to help prevent sore and aching limbs.
Note: Although no longer used internally in the UK, 5-10 drop doses of the tincture are still favoured by some European and American physicians for anginal pain and other acute heart conditions; (Hawthorn for chronic).
Pharmacy only sale. ... arnica
Habitat: The temperate regions of the Himalayas. Wild at several places.
English: Roman Chamomile, Double Chamomile.Unani: Gul-e-Baabuuna.Siddha/Tamil: Shimai chamantipu.Action: Mild sedative, anticon- vulsant, antispasmodic, anti- inflammatory, mild analgesic; used externally for skin disorders, poultice of flowers in sprains and rheumatism.
Key application: Used mainly in France for mild spasmodic gastrointestinal disturbances and sluggishness of bowels, also for nervousness. (PDR.) (German Chamomile has been included by German Commission E among approved herbs, whereas Roman chamomile remains unapproved due to lack of clinical evidence.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes antispasmodic activity of Anthemis nobilis.The flower heads contain volatile oil (including azulenes and bisabolol); sesquiterpene lactone (nobilin); flavo- noids, cyanogenic glycoside, bitter glu- coside (anthemic acid); acetylenic salicylic derivatives, coumarins (including scopolin), valerianic acid; tannins.Azulenes and bisabolol are anti- inflammatory and antispasmodic, reducing histamine-induced reactions, including hay fever and asthma. Flavo- noids, especially anthemidin, are also antispasmodic. Valerianic acid and cyanogenic glycosides are sedative.Flowers and root—abortifacient. Leaves—astringent. A decoction is used for gargling in stomatitis and aphthae.Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of dried stembark in disorders of female genital tract and bleeding disorders.The dried bark contains alkaloids, steroids, reducing sugars and also tannins (4.61%). The ether-soluble alkaloid of the bark shows antibacterial activity.Dosage: Stembark—0.5-1.5 g powder. (API Vol. II.)... anthemis nobilisHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal, ascending to 1,000 m; throughout tropical India.
Ayurvedic: Chilhaka.Siddha/Tamil: Kadichai.Folk: Chillaa, Saptrangi.Action: Root—hypoglycaemic. Root bark is used as a tonic in anaemic conditions.
Fruit pulp—diuretic, purgative, Leaves—anti-inflammatory. Fruit pulp —diuretic.Ethanolic (80%) extract of the leaves showed significant anti-inflammatory activity in rats. Oil extracted from the seeds in rubbed on sprains. Various plant parts are used in neuralgia. and bladder. Chaksine has ganglion- blocking property. Chaksine and iso- chaksine possess a local anaesthetic effect intradermally. It produces a sustained fall in blood pressure of anaesthetized animals and produces a weak anti-acetylcholine effect. Roots also contains anthraquinones and aloe- emodin.Dosage: Seed—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... casearia tomentosaHabitat: Cultivated throughout India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh on commercial scale, for rose water.
Ayurvedic: Taruni, Desi Gulaab, Baaraamaasi, Cheenia-Gulaab. (Flowers—usually purple.)Siddha: Rojapoo (Tamil).Action: Fruit—applied to wounds, injuries, sprains, foul ulcers.... rosa bourboniana
Habitat: The sub-Himalayan tract from Garhwal to Sikkim; also in Chakrata range.
Folk: Ratanjot (var.), Rowana. Surasi is a doubtful synonym.Action: Bark—anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic; used in veterinary medicine for wounds and sprains.
Aerial parts contain coumarins— clausmarins A and B. Coumarins exhibit spasmolytic activity. The root also contains coumarins. Root and stem bark of Clausena excavata Burm. f. Eastern sub-Himalayan tract, Orissa and Bihar) also contain coumarins— clausenin and clausenidin. The root bark exhibits antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria.A related species, C. anisata (Willd.) Oliver, is reported from Uttar Pradesh. Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts exhibited spasmolytic activity. The fu- ranocoumarins, anisolactone, xantho- toxol, indicolactone, imperatorin and 2', 3'-epoxy-anisolactone have been isolated from the extract.In West African traditional medicine, the decoction of the root is given to control convulsions in children. The anticonvulsant agent has been found to be heliettin, extracted from the stem bark and roots.... clausena pentaphyllaHabitat: Cultivated in Gujarat; wild in parts of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
English: Mango-ginger, Wild Turmeric.Ayurvedic: Aamra Haridraa, Aam- ragandhi Haridraa, Surabhidaaru, Karpuraa.Unani: Aambaa Haldi, Daarchob.Siddha/Tamil: Mangaiinji.Action: Carminative, stomachic, appetizer, expectorant, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory. Specific in rheumatism and inflammation of liver; rheumatism; in contusions and sprains.
Presence of curcumin and a phytos- terol is reported in the rhizome. The essential oil exhibited antimicrobial, antifungal and anthelmintic activity against tape worms.Significant decrease was observed in liver total lipids and serum triglycerides of adult female rat when fed 10% Mango-ginger or 10% curcumin along with normal diet or a surcose- based hypertriglyceridaemic diet.Dosage: Rhizome—3-5 g powder; 10-20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)... curcuma amadaAction: Hips—applied to wounds, injuries, sprains and foul ulcers.
R. chinensis Jacq. and R. borboni- ana Desp. are synonyms of Rosa indica, found and cultivated throughout India. This variety is also known as Edward Rose or Kat Gulaab.... rosa macrophyllaHabitat: Cultivated chiefly in West Bengal and Kerala.
English: Wild turmeric, Yellow Zedoary.Ayurvedic: Karpuraa, Aranya-rajani kanda, Van Haridraa.Unani: Daarchob.Siddha/Tamil: Kastoori Manjal.Action: Uses similar to those of C. longa. Essential oil from rhizomes— antimicrobial, antifungal and anthelmintic. The tubers are applied externally to bruises and sprains, to skin eruptions and infections. A decoction is administered in biliary gastritis.
Fresh rhizomes contain a number of sesquiterpenes including curdione and cerumol. Curcumol and curdione showed inhibitory activity on sarcoma 180 in mice.The rhizomes yield 6.1% of an essential oil with d-camphene 0.8, d- camphor 2.5, sesquiterpenes 65.5, ses- quiterpene alcohols 22.0, acids 0.7%. The essential oil shows high amounts of ar-curcumene (18.6%), beta-cur- cumene (25.5%) and xanthorrhizol (25.7%).The oil, on intraperitoneal administration, partly reversed toxipathic hepatitis in mice induced by CCl4.Dosage: Rhizome—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... curcuma aromaticaHabitat: Cultivated mainly in West Bengal.
English: Black Zedorary.Ayurvedic: Rajani, Nishaa, Nishi, Raatri, Kaali Haldi, Nilkanth, Narkachura.Unani: Zarambaad.Siddha/Tamil: Manupasapu.Action: Carminative. Used externally for bruises and sprains.
The essential oil contains camphor as main constituent; others are cam- phane, bornylene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons.... curcuma caesiaHabitat: North-western Himalaya up to 1,350 m, in Punjab, South India, ascending to 2,400 m on Nilgiris. Also planted as a hedge plant in Northern India.
English: Jamacia Switch Sorrel.Ayurvedic: Raasnaa (substitute, used in Andhra Pradesh). (Raasnaa is equated with Pluchea lanceolata C. B. Clarke.)Siddha/Tamil: Virali, Velari.Action: Leaves—anti-inflammatory and antibacterial (used in the treatment of swellings, burns, wounds), febrifuge, embrocation of leaves is applied to sprains. Bark— astringent and anti-inflammatory. Aerial parts—hypoglycaemic.
The plant contains bioflavonoids (vitamin P) which are biologically active in improving blood circulation and strengthening capillaries. Aqueous and alcoholic extracts of the plant exhibited cardioinhibitory and coronory constricting, also spasmolytic, sedative and hypotensive activity.The leaves and pods gave iso-rham- netin-3-O-rutinoside, quercetin-3-O- galactoside and quercetin-3-O-rutino- side. Resin gave a diterpene carboxylic acid (hautriwaic acid). Flowers gave kaempferol.... dodonaea viscosaHabitat: Australia, North America; throughout the warmer parts of the world. In India, in wet plains and low hills and pasture grounds.
English: Crowfoot Grass, Crab Grass.Ayurvedic: Nandimukha (var.).Folk: Nandiaa (Orissa), Mahaar Naachni (Maharashtra), Thippa Ragi (Tamil Nadu).Action: Used for biliary disorders. In Vietnamese traditional medicine, a decoction of the whole plant is used as stomachic, diuretic, febrifuge, and in sprains.
Aerial parts contain vitexin, 3-O- beta-D-glucopyranosyl-beta-sitosterol and its 6'-O-palmitoyl derivatives. of intoxication. Used for abdominal pains, nausea, bleeding nose. Fresh plants from Uttaranchal gave 0.4% essential oil having dehydroelsholtzia ketone 88.7% as the main constituent, followed by humulene 2.4% and caryophyllene 0.9% (the oil composition of the species which grow in Japan and Kashmir is different.)Plant contains linarin, apigenin and 7-O-glucosides of apigenin and lute- olin.The Japanese species, used for hangovers, gave compounds including tri- terpenoids, steroids and flavonoids.Elsholtzia blenda Benth., synonym Perilla elata D. Don, is also equated with Ban-Tulasi. Major constituent of the essential oil is geranyl acetate. Other constituents are p-cymene, sa- binene, borneol, geraniol, linalyl acetate, fernesol, limonene, linalool, cit- ronellol, thymol and nerolidol.... eleusine indicaMoist heat may be administered by soaking the affected area in a warm bath, or applying a hot compress or poultice. Dry heat may be administered by a heating pad, hot-water bottle, or by a heat lamp that produces infra-red rays. More precise methods of administering heat to tissues deeper in the body include ultrasound treatment and short-wave diathermy.... heat treatment
BURSITIS, TENDINITIS and non-speci?c back pain (see BACKACHE).
Osteoarthritis (OA) rarely starts before 40, but by the age of 80 affects 80 per cent of the population. There are structural and functional changes in the articular cartilage, as well as changes in the collagenous matrix of tendons and ligaments. OA is not purely ‘wear and tear’; various sub-groups have a genetic component. Early OA may be precipitated by localised alteration in anatomy, such as a fracture or infection of a joint. Reactive new bone growth typically occurs, causing sclerosis (hardening) beneath the joint, and osteophytes – outgrowths of bone – are characteristic at the margins of the joint. The most common sites are the ?rst metatarsal (great toe), spinal facet joints, the knee, the base of the thumb and the terminal ?nger joints (Heberden’s nodes).
OA has a slow but variable course, with periods of pain and low-grade in?ammation. Acute in?ammation, common in the knee, may result from release of pyrophosphate crystals, causing pseudo-gout.
Urate gout results from crystallisation of URIC ACID in joints, against a background of hyperuricaemia. This high concentration of uric acid in the blood may result from genetic and environmental factors, such as excess dietary purines, alcohol or diuretic drugs.
In?ammatory arthritis is less common than OA, but potentially much more serious. Several types exist, including: SPONDYLARTHRITIS This affects younger men, chie?y involving spinal and leg joints. This may lead to in?ammation and eventual ossi?cation of the enthesis – that is, where the ligaments and tendons are inserted into the bone around joints. This may be associated with disorders in other parts of the body: skin in?ammation (PSORIASIS), bowel and genito-urinary in?ammation, sometimes resulting in infection of the organs (such as dysentery). The syndromes most clearly delineated are ankylosing spondylitis (see SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF), psoriatic or colitic spondylitis, and REITER’S SYNDROME. The diagnosis is made clinically and radiologically; no association has been found with autoantibodies (see AUTOANTIBODY). A particularly clear gene locus, HLA B27, has been identi?ed in ankylosing spondylitis. Psoriasis can be associated with a characteristic peripheral arthritis.
Systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases (see AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERS). RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA) – see also main entry. The most common of these diseases. Acute in?ammation causes lymphoid synovitis, leading to erosion of the cartilage, associated joints and soft tissues. Fibrosis follows, causing deformity. Autoantibodies are common, particularly Rheumatoid Factor. A common complication of RA is Sjögren’s syndrome, when in?ammation of the mucosal glands may result in a dry mouth and eyes. SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) and various overlap syndromes occur, such as systemic sclerosis and dermatomyositis. Autoantibodies against nuclear proteins such as DNA lead to deposits of immune complexes and VASCULITIS in various tissues, such as kidney, brain, skin and lungs. This may lead to various symptoms, and sometimes even to organ failure.
Infective arthritis includes: SEPTIC ARTHRITIS An uncommon but potentially fatal disease if not diagnosed and treated early with approriate antibiotics. Common causes are TUBERCLE bacilli and staphylococci (see STAPHYLOCOCCUS). Particularly at risk are the elderly and the immunologically vulnerable, such as those under treatment for cancer, or on CORTICOSTEROIDS or IMMUNOSUPPRESSANT drugs. RHEUMATIC FEVER Now rare in western countries. Resulting from an immunological reaction to a streptococcal infection, it is characterised by migratory arthritis, rash and cardiac involvement.
Other infections which may be associated with arthritis include rubella (German measles), parvovirus and LYME DISEASE.
Treatment Septic arthritis is the only type that can be cured using antibiotics, while the principles of treatment for the others are similar: to reduce risk factors (such as hyperuricaemia); to suppress in?ammation; to improve function with physiotherapy; and, in the event of joint failure, to perform surgical arthroplasty. NON-STEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) include aspirin, paracetamol and many recently developed ones, such as the proprionic acid derivatives IBUPROFEN and naproxen, along with other drugs that have similar properties such as PIROXICAM. They all carry a risk of toxicity, such as renal dysfunction, or gastrointestinal irritation with haemorrhage. Stronger suppression of in?ammation requires corticosteroids and CYTOTOXIC drugs such as azathioprine or cyclophosphamide. Recent research promises more speci?c and less toxic anti-in?ammatory drugs, such as the monoclonal antibodies like in?iximab. An important treatment for some osteoarthritic joints is surgical replacement of the joints.... joints, diseases of
Habitat: Throughout India, ascending to 1,500 m in the Himalayas.
Ayurvedic: Jingini, Jhingan, Gudamanjari.Siddha/Tamil: Kalasan, Anaikkarai, Odiyan.Action: Bark—stimulant and astringent; used in gout; decoction for aphthae of the mouth and for toothache. Leaves— boiled and applied to sprains, bruises, local swellings, elephantiasis. Gum— given in asthma; as a cordial to women during lactation.
The roots contain cluytyl ferulate; heartwood gave lanosterol; bark, dl- epi-catechin and (+)-leucocyanidin; flowers and leaves, ellagic acid, querce- tin and quercetin-3-arabinoside. Flowers also contain iso-quercetin and morin. Leaves in addition contain beta-sitosterol, leucocyanidin and leu- codelphinidin.... lannea coromandelicaVarious gases, liquids and solids will emit light when they are suitably stimulated. A gassed laser is pumped by the ionising e?ect of a high-voltage current. This is the same process as that used in a ?uorescent tube. Each type of laser has a di?erent e?ect on biological tissues and this is related to the wavelength of the light produced. The wavelength determines the degree of energy absorption by di?erent tissues, and because of this, di?erent lasers are needed for di?erent tasks. The argon laser produces light in the visible green wavelength which is selectively absorbed by HAEMOGLOBIN. It heats and coagulates (see COAGULATION) tissues so can be used to seal bleeding blood vessels and to selectively destroy pigmented lesions. The carbon-dioxide laser is the standard laser for cutting tissue: the infra-red beam it produces is strongly absorbed by water and so vaporises cells. Thus, by moving a ?nely focused beam across the tissue, it is possible to make an incision.
The two main uses of laser in surgery are the endoscopic (see ENDOSCOPE) photocoagulation of bleeding vessels, and the incision of tissue. Lasers have important applications in OPHTHALMOLOGY in the treatment of such disorders as detachment of the retina and the diabetic complications of proliferative retinopathy and of the cornea (see EYE, DISORDERS OF). The destruction of abnormal cells – a sign of pre-malignancy – in the CERVIX UTERI is done using lasers. The beams may also be used to remove scar tissue from the FALLOPIAN TUBES resulting from infection, thus unblocking the tubes and improving the chances of CONCEPTION. Lasers also have several important applications in DERMATOLOGY. They are used in the treatment of pigmented lesions such as LENTIGO, in the obliteration of port-wine stains, in the removal of small, benign tumours such as verrucas, and ?nally in the removal of tattoos.
Low-intensity laser beams promote tissue healing and reduce in?ammation, pain and swelling. Their e?ect is achieved by stimulating blood and lymph ?ow and by cutting the production of PROSTAGLANDINS, which provoke in?ammation and pain. The beams are used to treat ligament sprains, muscle tears and in?amed joints and tendons.
The three great advantages of lasers are their potency, their speed of action, and the ability to focus on an extremely small area. For these reasons they are widely used, and have allowed great advances to be made in microsurgery, and particularly in FIBREOPTIC ENDOSCOPY.... laser
Habitat: Mediterranean region and Asia Minor. Dried plant and flowers are imported into Mumbai from Persian Gulf.
English: Arabian or French Lavender.Unani: Ustukhuddus, Alfaajan.Folk: Dhaaru.Action: Flowers—antidepressive, sedative, anticonvulsant, carminative, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antiseptic. Used in depression, nervous headache, sluggish circulation, physical and mental exhaustion, insomnia, epilepsy, neuralgia and rheumatic affections.
Oil—rubefacient, antimicrobial. Used for nervous palpitations, giddiness, spasm and colic. Relieves sprains, neuralgia and rheumatism; rubbed for stimulating paralysed limbs. Applied to sores, burns, scalds and varicose veins.Plant—used for the treatment of epilepsy and chronic sinusitis in Unani medicine.Aerial parts of the plant contain oleanolic, ursolic and vergatic acid, beta-sitosterol, alpha-amyrin and its acetate, lupeol, erythrodiol, luteolin, acacetin and vitexin.The leaves contain polyphenols, api- genin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside, luteolin andits7-O-beta-D-glucoside, and7-O- beta-D-glucuronide, rosmarinic acid, and 6-O-caffeoyl glucose.For depression, tincture of lavender flower (1: 5 in 50% alcohol), 60 drops per day, has been used for 4 weeks in Western herbal. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... lavandula stoechasHabitat: Throughout India; up to an elevation of 1,500 m in the Himalayas.
Folk: Vallipana (Malyalam); Bhuuta-bhairavi (Bengal), Bhuuta- raaj; Kalzhaa (Bihar). Rudrajataa is a doubtful synonym.Action: Plant—expectorant. Root— used in external applications for rheumatism, sprains, cut wounds, eczema, scabies, carbuncles. A decoction in drunk in gastric attacks.
The acetone extract of fresh leaves exhibits antifungal activity. The fern contains a methyl ester of gibberellin.The plant contains lygodinolide, dryocrassol, tectoquinone, kaempfer- ol, beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol. The root contains quercetin.Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibited potent antifertility activity.L. japonicum Sw., found in North India from Kashmir to Sikkim and Bhutan, and in Western mountains of South India, is used as an expectorant in China.... lygodium flexuosumHabitat: Indegenous to Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, Malay Peninsula to Australia; grown in Indian gardens and parks.
English: Cajeput tree, Swamp Tea tree, White Tea tree.Folk: Kaayaaputi. (The oil of Cajeput is imported into India, chiefly from France and Netherlands.)Action: Oil—used as an expectorant in chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, and as a carminative. Acts as anthelmintic, especially against round worms. Enters into ointments for rheumatism and stiff joints, sprains and neuralgia, migraine, colds, influenza, and as a mosquito repellent.
Key application: The oil is antimicrobial and hypermic in vitro. (German Commission.)The oil contains terpenoids, 1,8- cineole (40-65%) as major component, with alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol, nerolidol, limonene, benzaldehyde, valeraldehyde, dipentene and various sesquiterpenes; 3,5-dimethyl-4,6,di- O-methylphloroacetophenone.The essential oil of Melaleuca al- ternifolia (Tea Tree Oil) is indicated for acne, tinea pedis and toe and nail onychomycosis on the basis of human trials. (Sharon M. Herr.)Tea Tree Oil is distilled from the leaves of several species of Australian trees belonging the genus Melaleuca, principaly from M. alternifolia. Tea Tree Oil should contain a maximum of 15% 1,8-cineole and a minimum of 30% (+)-terpinen-4-ol, the principal germicidal ingredient. Other constituents, alpha-terpineol and linalool, also exhibit antimicrobial activity. (Cited in Rational Phytotherapy.)The essential oil of Melaleuca virdi- flora Solander ex Gaertner leaves, known as Niauli Oil, is used for catarrh of the upper respiratory tract. The oil is antibacterial and stimulatory to circulation in vitro. (German Commission E.) Like cajeput oil, the principal constituent is cineole (eucalyptol).A related species, M. genistifolia, indigenous to Australia, is grown in botanical gardens at Saharanpur and Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh). The leaves and terminal twigs yield 0.53% of a volatile oil which consists mainly of d-pinene, and about 2% cineole and traces of aldehyde.... melaleuca leucadendronHabitat: Subtropical Himalayas, Ganjam, Konkan, Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.
Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Sampangi.Folk: Tumari. Vikhaari, Vekhali (Maharashtra).Action: Bark—anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, narcotic; used in chronic bronchitis; also administered in leprous affections; a paste is applied to inflammatory and rheumatic swellings.
The Himalayan plants yielded an essential oil (0.26%) with alpha-pinene, dipentene, linalool, cineol, methyl sal- icylate, decyl aldehyde, anisaldehyde, bergapten, eugenol, indole and salicylic and benzoic acids as major constituents. The oil is applied topically in sprains, bruises, sciatica, rheumatism, chest affections and in certain skin diseases.The narcotic action of the bark is attributed to the presence of a yellow oleoresin. The bark also contain a saponin, pittosporin.... pittosporum floribundumHabitat: Cultivated in Kulu. Occasionally found in hedges and abandoned coffee plantations in Upper Ghats.
Ayurvedic: Rakta-Taruni (non- classical).Action: Fruit—antiseptic, applied to wounds, injuries, sprains and foul ulcers.
The fruityieldedbeta-sitosterol, sco- parone, salicylic and gallic acid. Fruits contained multiflorin; flower petals gave astragalin. A purgative compound, multinoside A acetate, has been isolated from the fruit. Quercetin-3- O-xyloside, isoquercitrin and hyperin were also isolated.Floral absolute oil contains eugenol (22.8), phenylethanol (18.1) and hene- icosane (10.2%).The root gave a triterpenoid, tor- mentic acid.The plant extract, along with kojic acid or its derivatives, produced excellent skin-lightening and sun-burn preventing effects.... rosa multifloraHabitat: Tidal creeks and mangrove swamps of India.
Folk: Orchaa (Bengal), Tivar, Chipi (Maharashtra).Action: Fruit—fermented juice is used for arresting haemorrhage. Juice of unripe fruit is given in cough. Fruit is also used as a poultice in sprains and swellings. Fruit wall—vermifuge.
The stem bark and root bark contain 9-17 and 11.0 to 11.9% tannin of the pyrogallol class.The fruit yields 11% pectin on dry basis.... sonneratia caseolaris– an early graded return to activity gives the best long-term results, but doing too much too soon runs the risk of exacerbating the original injury.
Chronic (overuse) injuries affecting the bones (see BONE), tendons (see TENDON) or BURSAE of the JOINTS are common in many sports. Examples include chronic INFLAMMATION of the common extensor tendon where it
attaches to the later EPICONDYLE of the humerus – common in throwers and racquet sportspeople – and stress fractures of the TIBIA or METATARSAL BONES of the foot in runners. After an initial period of rest, management often involves coaching that enables the athlete to perform the repetitive movement in a less injury-susceptible manner.
Exercise physiology is the science of measuring athletic performance and physical ?tness for exercise. This knowledge is applied to devising and supervising training regimens based on scienti?c principles. Physical ?tness depends upon the rate at which the body can deliver oxygen to the muscles, known as the VO2max, which is technically di?cult to measure. The PULSE rate during and after a bout of exercise serves as a good proxy of this measurement.
Regulation of sport Sports medicine’s role is to minimise hazards for participants by, for example, framing rule-changes which forbid collapsing the scrum, which has reduced the risk of neck injury in rugby; and in the detection of the use of drugs taken to enhance athletic performance. Such attempts to gain an edge in competition undermine the sporting ideal and are banned by leading sports regulatory bodies. The Olympic Movement Anti-Doping Code lists prohibited substances and methods that could be used to enhance performance. These include some prohibited in certain circumstances as well as those completely banned. The latter include:
stimulants such as AMPHETAMINES, bromantan, ca?eine, carphedon, COCAINE, EPHEDRINE and certain beta-2 agonists.
NARCOTICS such as DIAMORPHINE (heroin), MORPHINE, METHADONE HYDROCHLORIDE and PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE.
ANABOLIC STEROIDS such as methandione, NANDROLONE, stanazol, TESTOSTERONE, clenbuterol, androstenedone and certain beta-2 agonists.
peptide HORMONES, mimetics and analogues such as GROWTH HORMONE, CORTICOTROPHIN, CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIC HORMONE, pituitary and synthetic GONADOTROPHINS, ERYTHROPOIETIN and INSULIN. (The list produced above is not comprehen
sive: full details are available from the governing bodies of relevant sports.) Among banned methods are blood doping (pre-competition administration of an athlete’s own previously provided and stored blood), administration of arti?cial oxygen carriers or plasma expanders. Also forbidden is any pharmacological, chemical or physical manipulation to affect the results of authorised testing.
Drug use can be detected by analysis of the URINE, but testing only at the time of competition is unlikely to detect drug use designed to enhance early-season training; hence random testing of competitive athletes is also used.
The increasing professionalism and competitiveness (among amateurs and juveniles as well as professionals) in sports sometimes results in pressures on participants to get ?t quickly after injury or illness. This can lead to
players returning to their activity before they are properly ?t – sometimes by using physical or pharmaceutical aids. This practice can adversely affect their long-term physical capabilities and perhaps their general health.... sports medicine
Habitat: Europe and from the Mediterranean to Caucasian region. Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfrey has been introduced in Simla; Prickly Camfrey is cultivated in Western India.
English: Comfrey, Knitbone.Folk: Sankuutan (Maharashtra).Action: Vulnerary (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia), astringent, demulcent, haemostatic, tissue- restorative (repairs broken bones and lacerated flesh, promotes formation of a callus).
Key application: Externally for fractures and sprains, to promote bone growth and formation of callus. (German Commission E.)Allantoin, a cell proliferant, helps repair damaged tissues. Antiinflammatory action is due to rosmarinic acid and other phenolic acids. Used for stomach ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, colitis, hiatus hernia; pleurisy, bronchitis (contraindicated in oede- matous conditions of the lung); and for the treatment of fractures, sickets, varicose ulcers. Experiments, during the 1960s, reveal that pyrrolizidine alkaloids are toxic to liver (dispute still unresolved); it is still not clear if these are hepatotoxic in the context of the whole plant. The aerial parts are considered safe.Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfrey has been equated with Symphytum peregrinum Ledeb. (introduced into India in Simla).The Plant is a good source of al- lantoin, a drug used in the treatment of gastric ulcers, disorders of liver and cancer. Tincture of the fresh herb is reported to be used for asthma, bronchitis and congestive conditions of the lungs.... symphytum officinaleHabitat: Throughout India in hotter parts, usually climbing on trees.
Siddha/Tamil: Pappili.Folk: Pitti, Raamadhaani, Kevati (var.).Action: Stem bark—powdered and mixed with sesame oil, externally applied to skin diseases and sprains. Root bark—used for atonic dyspepsia, mild fever and debility. Sap—used for the treatment of deafness.
The stem bark gave friedelin and several anthraquinones. The root contains anthraquinones, ventinones A and B. Major constituents of the root bark are emodin, its glucoside and corresponding analogues, ventiloquino- nes. The fruit, leaves and stem gave lupeol, beta-sitosterol and its gluco- side.... ventilago denticulataHabitat: Throughout India in tropical and subtropical regions.
Ayurvedic: Sinduvaara, Nirgundi (white var.).Siddha/Tamil: Karu Nochi, Siru Nochi.Folk: Paani-Sambhaalu.Action: Leaves—febrifuge, antibacterial, anthelmintic, cytotoxic. Extract of the leaves showed inhibitory action against Mycobac- terium tuberculosis. Leaves used as poultice in rheumatism, inflammations and sprains. Root and flowers—febrifuge. Root—expectorant. Fruit—used in amenorrhoea.
Aerial parts gave friedelin, beta- sitosterol and itsbeta-D-glucoside, and a long chain hydrocarbon. The leaves gave the flavonoids—artemetin, lute- olin, orientin, casticin; and iridoid gly- cosides, aucubin and agnuside. The fruits contain an alkaloid, vitricin.Vitrosin A and vitexicarpin, isolated from the plant, blocked spontaneous contraction of isolated guinea-pig trachea induced by histamine. (Planta Med, 2002, Nov., 68/11).The leaves are reported to improve memory and favour hair growth. Leaf extract showed significant antitumour activity in the murine tumour system.... vitex trifoliaAction: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, rubefacient, anthelmintic, insect repellent. Antimicrobial. Antiscorbutic. Expectorant.
Uses: Used by natives of the Molucca Islands as a lotion for painful stiff joints. Advised by physicians at the turn of the century to combat the tubercle bacillus. Infections of the bronchi. Worms in children. Toothache. Headache.
Preparation. Topically for toothache, bruises, sprains, neuralgia. Cajuput oil BPC: dose, 0.05-0.2ml.
Today it is confined to external use only as an ingredient of stimulating liniments and ointments for aching joints, fibrositis, etc. An ingredient of Olbas oil. ... cajeput
Constituents: allantoin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids (fresh young leaves and roots), mucilage, phenolic acids, steroidal saponins (root).
Action: astringent-demulcent, haemostatic, vulnerary. Rapid healer of flesh and bones by its property to accelerate mitosis (cell-division). Useful wherever a mucilaginous tissue restorative is required (repairing broken bones and lacerated flesh), especially in combination with Slippery Elm powder which prevents excess fluidity.
Uses: Ulceration anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract; colitis, hiatus hernia.
Bleeding from stomach, throat, bowel, bladder and lungs (haemoptysis) in which it reduces blood clotting time. Once used extensively for tuberculosis (pulmonary and elsewhere). Irritating cough, ‘dry’ lung complaints; pleurisy. Increases expectoration. Should not be given for oedematous conditions of the lungs.
Bones – fractures: to promote formation of a callus; rickets, wasting disease. Skin – varicose ulcers and indolent irritating sores that refuse to heal. Promotes suppuration of boils and gangrene as in diabetes. Bruises. STD skin lesions, internally and externally. Blood sugar control: assists function of the pancreas. Urine: scalding. Rheumatoid arthritis: improvement reported. Malignancy: cases of complete regression of sarcoma and carcinoma recorded. Rodent ulcer, (as a paste).
Preparations: thrice daily.
Tea: dried herb, one heaped teaspoon to each cup; or, 1oz to 1 pint boiling water; infuse 15 minutes, half- 1 cup for no more than 8 weeks.
Tincture (leaf). 1 part to 5 parts alcohol: dose 2.5-5ml. Maximum weekly dosage – 100ml for no more than 8 weeks.
Tincture (root). 1 part to 5 parts alcohol. Maximum weekly dosage – 80ml, for 8 weeks.
(National Institute of Medical Herbalists)
Poultice. A mucilage is prepared from fresh root in a liquidiser or by use of a rolling pin. For sprains, bruises, severe cuts, cleaning-out old ulcers and wounds.
Compress. 3 tablespoons crushed root or powder in 1 pint (500ml) water. Bring to boil; simmer gently 10 minutes. Saturate linen or suitable material and apply. Renew 2-3 times daily as moisture dries off. Ointment. 1 part powder, or liquid extract, to 10 parts base (cooking fat, Vaseline, etc).
Oil (external use). Ingredients: powdered Comfrey root in peanut oil and natural chlorophyll. (Henry Doubleday Research Association)
Notes. Contains trace element germanium, often given for cancer and arthritis. (Dr Uta Sandra Goodman) Helps eliminate toxic minerals. Neutralises free radicals that are created by toxic substances entering the body. Restores the body’s pH balance disturbed by highly acid foods such as meat, dairy products, refined foods and alcohol.
Dr H.E. Kirschner, well-known American physician, reported being called to the bedside of a patient with a huge advanced cancer of the breast. The odour was over-powering and the condition hopeless, but he advised poultices of fresh crushed Comfrey leaves several times daily to the discharging mass. Much to the surprise of all, the vile odour disappeared. The huge sore scaled over and the swelling subsided. Within three weeks the once-malignant sore was covered with a healthy scale and the pain disappeared. Unfortunately, treatment came too late; metastases had appeared in the liver which could not be reached by the poultices.
Claims that Comfrey is a toxic plant are unsubstantiated by a mass of clinical evidence to the contrary. Attempts to equate the effects of its isolated compounds apart from the whole plant yield conflicting results. For thousands of years the plant has been used by ancient and modern civilisations for healing purposes. Risks must be balanced with benefits.
There is a growing body of opinion to support the belief that a herb which has, without ill-effects been used for centuries and capable of producing convincing results is to be recognised as safe and effective.
Experiments reveal that in sufficient doses Comfrey can cause liver disease in laboratory animals. Its risk to humans has been a matter of serious debate since the 1960s, and is still unresolved. Although the overall risk is very low, a restriction has been placed on the plant as a precautionary measure. Fresh Comfrey leaves should not be used as a vegetable which is believed to be a health risk. It is believed that no toxicity has been found in common Comfrey (Symphytum officinale L). No restriction has been placed on use of dried Comfrey leaves as a tea. The debate continues.
It would appear that use of the root of Symphytum officinale may be justified in the treatment of severe bone diseases for which it has achieved a measure of success in the past, such as rickets, Paget’s disease, fractured bones, tuberculosis, etc, its benefits outweighing risks. Few other medicinal plants replenish wasted bone cells with the speed of Comfrey. (external use only) ... comfrey
Constituents: ammoniacal salts, saponin, tannic acid, inulin.
Action: vulnerary. Acts upon muscle fibres of blood vessels. “A princely remedy for the aches and pains of old gardeners.” (Dr C. Burnett) Discutient.
Relations: Arnica, Calendula, St John’s Wort, Witch Hazel.
Uses: Tumours resulting from a blow. Injuries, sprains, bruises, excessive tiredness.
Preparation. Infusion. Half a cup fresh or dried flowerheads to two cups water. Bring to boil; remove vessel when boiling point is reached; strain when cold. Use externally as a lotion or with suitable material as a compress. Internal: 2 teaspoons thrice daily.
Note: A glycosidase inhibitor has been found in the leaves of the common daisy which is very similar to castanospernine and other HIV drugs. It is believed this may prevent the spread of the HIV virus. ... daisy
Avoid overstocking; some herbs lose their potency on the shelf in time, especially if exposed. Do not keep on a high shelf out of the way. Experts suggest a large box with a lid to protect its contents, kept in a cool dry place away from foods and other household items. Store mixtures containing Camphor separately elsewhere. Camphor is well-known as a strong antidote to medicinal substances. Keep all home-made ointments in a refrigerator. However harmless, keep all remedies out of reach of children. Be sure that all tablet containers have child-resistant tops.
Keep a separate box, with duplicates, permanently in the car. Check periodically. Replace all tablets when crumbled, medicines with changed colour or consistency. Always carry a large plastic bottle of water in the car for cleansing dirty wounds and to form a vehicle to Witch Hazel and other remedies. Label all containers clearly.
Health care items: Adhesive bandages of all sizes, sterile gauze, absorbant cotton wool, adhesive tape, elastic bandage, stitch scissors, forceps (boiled before use), clinical thermometer, assorted safety pins, eye-bath for use as a douche for eye troubles, medicine glass for correct dosage.
Herbal and other items: Comfrey or Chickweed ointment (or cream) for sprains and bruises. Marshmallow and Slippery Elm (drawing) ointment for boils, abscesses, etc. Calendula (Marigold) ointment or lotion for bleeding wounds where the skin is broken. An alternative is Calendula tincture (30 drops) to cupful of boiled water allowed to cool; use externally, as a mouth rinse after dental extractions, and sipped for shock. Arnica tincture: for bathing bruises and swellings where the skin is unbroken (30 drops in a cup of boiled water allowed to cool). Honey for burns and scalds. Lobelia tablets for irritating cough and respiratory distress. Powdered Ginger for adding to hot water for indigestion, vomiting, etc. Tincture Myrrh, 5-10 drops in a glass of water for sore throats, tonsillitis, mouth ulcers and externally, for cleansing infected or dirty wounds. Tincture Capsicum (3-10 drops) in a cup of tea for shock, or in eggcup Olive oil for use as a liniment for pains of rheumatism. Cider vinegar (or bicarbonate of Soda) for insect bites. Oil Citronella, insect repellent. Vitamin E capsules for burns; pierce capsule and wipe contents over burnt area. Friar’s balsam to inhale for congestion of nose and throat. Oil of Cloves for toothache. Olbas oil for general purposes. Castor oil to assist removal of foreign bodies from the eye. Slippery Elm powder as a gruel for looseness of bowels. Potter’s Composition Essence for weakness or collapse. Antispasmodic drops for pain.
Distilled extract of Witch Hazel deserves special mention for bleeding wounds, sunburn, animal bites, stings, or swabbed over the forehead to freshen and revive during an exhausting journey. See: WITCH HAZEL.
Stings of nettles or other plants are usually rendered painless by a dock leaf. Oils of Tea Tree, Jojoba and Evening Primrose are also excellent for first aid to allay infection. For punctured wounds, as a shoemaker piercing his thumb with an awl or injury from brass tacks, or for shooting pains radiating from the seat of injury, tincture or oil of St John’s Wort (Hypericum) is the remedy. ... first aid and medicine chest
LAVENDER. Lavendula vera. Lavendula angustifolia. Flowers.
Constituents: flavonoids, coumarins, triterpenes, volatile oil.
Action: inhalant, antidepressive, antispasmodic, cephalic, pleasant antiseptic, carminative, rubefacient (oil), sedative, anticonvulsant. Antimicrobial. (B.N. Uzdennikov, Nauch, Tr. Tyumen. Sel-Khoz. Inst., No 7, 116 1970)
Uses: Nervous headache, neuralgia, rheumatism, depression, sluggish circulation, chilblains, insomnia, for transient reduction in high blood pressure; windy colic, physical and mental exhaustion, neurasthenia, sense of panic and fainting (1-3 drops in honey). Toothache, sprains, sinusitis, bladder infection. To relieve stress; calm and relax. Migraine (hot).
Combines well with Lime flowers (Lavender 1; Lime flowers 3) for transient high blood pressure. Preparations. Dried flowers, dose: half-2 grams. Thrice daily.
Tea. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water: infuse 15 minutes. Dose: one-third to half cup.
Home liniment. Place handful (approximately 50g) flowers in 1 pint (500ml) 60 per cent alcohol (vodka, etc). Macerate 8 days in cool shady place; shake daily. Filter. Massage into affected area.
Tincture BHP (1983). 1 part to 5 parts 60 per cent alcohol. Dose: 2-4ml.
Tablets/capsules. 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon).
Aromatherapy: oil used for a wide range of conditions.
Lavender oil, Used externally for neuralgia, rheumatism, aching muscles or to smear over forehead for migraine.
Lavender bath. 1oz (30g) fresh flowers and tips to 1 pint (500ml) water. Bring to boil. Remove vessel when boiling point is reached. Strain. Add to bath water. Tonic effect. ... lassitude
Action: Gastro-intestinal stimulant, anaphrodisiac, expectorant, emmenagogue, rubifacient. Mild antiseptic because of its thymol content, diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, antispasmodic (mild), antiviral, anti-stress.
Uses: aid to digestion, coughs, colds, influenza, antiseptic mouth wash and gargle, tension headache, masturbation in the young, to promote menstrual flow suppressed by cold.
Preparations: Thrice daily.
Tea: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup.
Aromatherapy: 4 to 6 drops Oil of Marjoram added to 2 teaspoons Almond oil as a rub for muscular pains, neuritis, sprains and rheumatic aches.
Widely used in cooking. Avoid in pregnancy. Marjoram is related to Oregano but is sweeter and milder. ... marjoram
In the chest. When in the gullet it can closely resemble pain in the heart and can be mistaken for angina. Gullet pain, worse by acid and hot drinks, is always a background pain and fails to resolve after exercise. See: OESOPHAGEAL SPASM.
Aching muscles. Bio-strath Willow Formula.
In the hips. Ligvites. (Gerard House)
Ovarian. See: OVARIES.
Fibrositis, polymyalgia. Low degree pain in muscles. Any one:– Black Cohosh, Devil’s Claw, Wild Lettuce, Wild Yam, Wintergreen, Lavender, Parsley, Fenugreek seeds, Meadowsweet, German Chamomile.
In the chest. (Lungs) Balm of Gilead. (Heart) Motherwort. Breast. Evening Primrose oil.
Spine. St John’s Wort.
Aching teeth. Oil of Cloves.
Lumbago, sciatica, backache. Bio-Strath Willow formula.
Gout, rheumatism, osteo-arthritis. Poultice or compress – Comfrey, Plantain leaves, Olbas oil, Weleda Massage oil.
The acute abdomen. Carminative herbs for flatulent colic.
Pain in bowels. (Internal) Wild Yam, Cinnamon, Ginger, Caraway. (External) Cold-pack with Castor oil, Chamomile poultice.
Sprains, bruises. 5 drops Oil of Camphor to egg-cup Olive oil, rub-in relief.
Facial stabbing pains. Plantain, Chamomile, Rosemary, or Wintergreen (external) compress, lotion, tincture.
Womb. Raspberry leaf/Motherwort tea (equal parts), internal.
Head. Feverfew, Skullcap, Passion flower.
Nerve pains. Valerian. Jamaica Dogwood.
See: ANALGESICS, ANTISPASMODICS, NEURALGIA, PLEURODYNIA, etc.
Aromatherapy. Combine, equal parts Oils of Clove, Sassafras and Camphor. Add 10 drops to egg-cup Olive oil: use as a rub for aching muscles and stiff joints.
Drugs suppress pain without necessarily removing the underlying cause. The natural response to pain is to tighten, but if the patient lets go and relaxes into it, then he finds he can better control it. ... pain
joint The junction between 2 or more bones. Many joints are highly mobile, while others are fixed or allow only a small amount of movement.
Joints in the skull are fixed joints firmly secured by fibrous tissue. The bone surfaces of mobile joints are coated with smooth cartilage to reduce friction. The joint is sealed within a tough fibrous capsule lined with synovial membrane (see synovium), which produces a lubricating fluid. Each joint is surrounded by strong ligaments that support it and prevent excessive movement. Movement is controlled by muscles that are attached to bone by tendons on either side of the joint. Most mobile joints have at least one bursa nearby, which cushions a pressure point.
There are several types of mobile joint. The hinge joint is the simplest, allowing bending and straightening, as in the fingers. The knee and elbow joints are modified hinge joints that allow some rotation as well. Pivot joints, such as the joint between the 1st and 2nd vertebrae (see vertebra), allow rotation only. Ellipsoidal joints, such as the wrist, allow all types of movement except pivotal. Ball-and-socket joints include the hip and shoulder joints. These allow the widest range of movement (backwards or forwards, sideways, and rotation).
Common joint injuries include sprains, damage to the cartilage, torn ligaments, and tearing of the joint capsule.
Joint dislocation is usually caused by injury but is occasionally congenital.
A less severe injury may cause subluxation (partial dislocation).
Rarely, the bone ends are fractured, which may cause bleeding into the joint (haemarthrosis) or effusion (build-up of fluid in a joint) due to synovitis (inflammation of the joint lining).
Joints are commonly affected by arthritis.
Bursitis may occur as a result of local irritation or strain.... jogger’s nipple
Knee injuries are common.
They include ligament sprains, torn meniscus, dislocation of the patella, and fracture of any of the bones in the joint.
Chondromalacia patellae is common in adolescents.... knee
can be estimated assuming that patterns of health and illness in a community do not change. life support The process of keeping a person alive by artificially inflating the lungs (see ventilation) and, if it is needed, maintaining the heartbeat. ligament A band of tough, fibrous, partly elastic tissue. Ligaments are important compo.
nents of joints; they bind the bone ends together and prevent excessive movement.
They also support various internal organs.
Minor ligament injuries such as sprains are treated with ice, bandaging, and sometimes physiotherapy.
If a ligament has been torn (ruptured), the joint is either immobilized by a plaster cast to allow healing or repaired surgically.... life expectancy
The wrist contains 8 bones (known collectively as the carpus) arranged in 2 rows, one articulating with the bones of the forearm, and the other connecting to the bones of the palm. Tendons connect the forearm muscles to the fingers and thumb, and arteries and nerves supply the muscles, bones, and skin of the hand and fingers.
Wrist injuries may lead to serious disability by limiting hand movement. A common injury in adults is Colles’ fracture, in which the lower end of the radius is fractured and the wrist and hand aredisplaced backwards. In young children, similar displacement results from a fracture through the epiphysis (growing end) of the radius. A sprain can affect ligaments at the wrist joint, but most wrist sprains are not severe. (See also carpal tunnel syndrome; wrist-drop; tenosynovitis; and osteoarthritis.)... wrist
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Myrcia acris, Pimenta acris, myrcia, bay, bay rum tree, wild cinnamon, bayberry, bay leaf (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A wild-growing tropical evergreen tree up to 8 metres high, with large leathery leaves and aromatic fruits.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the West Indies, particularly Dominica where the essential oil is produced.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other varieties, for example the anise-scented and lemon-scented bay, the oils of which have a totally different chemical composition. Not to be confused with bay laurel, the common household spice, nor with the North American bayberry or wax myrtle (Myrcia cerifera) well known for its wax yielding berries.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The West Indian bay tree is often grown in groves together with the allspice or pimento bush, then the fruits of both are dried and powdered for the preparation of the household allspice. The so-called bay rum tree also provides the basic ingredient for the famous old hair tonic, which is made from the leaves by being distilled in rum. ‘A hair application with both fragrant and tonic virtues … useful for those who suffer from greasy hair and need a spirit-based, scalp-stimulating lotion to help them to control their locks!’9
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anticonvulsant, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, expectorant, stimulant, tonic (for hair).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the leaves. An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark yellow mobile liquid with a fresh-spicy top note and a sweet-balsamic undertone. It blends well with lavander, lavandin, rosemary, geranium, ylang ylang, citrus and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Eugenol (up to 56 per cent), myrcene, chavicol and, in lesser amounts, methyl eugenol, linalol, limonene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Moderately toxic due to high eugenol content; also a mucous membrane irritant – use in moderation only. Unlike bay laurel, however, it does not appear to cause dermal irritation or sensitization.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Scalp stimulant, hair rinse for dandruff, greasy, lifeless hair, and premoting growth.
Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Muscular and articular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, strains.
IMMUNE SYSTEM: Colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in fragrance work, in soaps, detergents, perfumes, aftershaves and hair lotions, including bay rum. Employed as a flavour ingredient in many major food categories, especially condiments, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... bay, west indian
FAMILY: Dipterocarpaceae
SYNONYMS: D. camphora, Borneo camphor, East Indian camphor, Baros camphor, Sumatra camphor, Malayan camphor.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The camphora tree grows to a great height, a majestic tree often over 25 metres high, with a thick trunk up to 2 metres in diameter. Borneol is a natural exudation found beneath the bark in crevices and fissures of some mature trees (about 1 per cent); young trees produce only a clear yellow liquid known as ‘liquid camphor’.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Borneo and Sumatra.
OTHER SPECIES: To be distinguished from the Japanese or Formosa type of camphor, more commonly used in Europe, which is relatively toxic. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Borneol has long been regarded as a panacea by many Eastern civilizations, especially in ancient Persia, India and China. It was used as a powerful remedy against plague and other infectious diseases, stomach and bowel complaints. In China it was also used for embalming purposes. ‘It is mentioned by Marco Polo in the thirteenth century and Camoens in 1571 who called it the “balsam of disease”.’. It is valued for ceremonial purposes in the east generally, and in China particularly for funeral rites. Its odour repels insects and ants, and it is therefore highly regarded as timber for the construction of buildings.
ACTIONS: Mildly analgesic, antidepressant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, carminative, rubefacient, stimulant of the adrenal cortex, tonic (cardiac and general).
EXTRACTION: The borneol is collected from the tree trunk in its crude crystalline form (the natives test each tree first by making incisions in the trunk to detect its presence). The so-called ‘oil of borneol’ is extracted by steam distillation of the wood.
CHARACTERISTICS: Watery white to viscous black oil depending upon the amount of camphor which it contains, with a distinctive, sassafras-like, camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude is made up of mainly cl-borneol which is an alcohol, not a ketone (like Japanese camphor). The oil contains approx. 35 per cent terpenes: pinene, camphene, dipentene; 10 per cent alcohols: d-borneol, terpineol; 20 per cent sesquiterpenes, and 35 per cent resin.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, dermal irritant in concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, bruises, insect repellent,
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Debility, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Immune System: Colds, fever, ‘flu and other infectious diseases.
Nervous System: Nervous exhaustion, stress-related conditions, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: It is used to scent soap in the East but is still relatively unknown in the West in pharmaceutical and perfumery work. In China and Japan it is used for making varnish and ink; also asa dilutant for artists’ colours. Mainly used for ritual purposes in the East.... borneol
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Broad-leaf peppermint, blue peppermint, menthol-scented gum.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A robust, medium-sized eucalyptus tree, with a short trunk, spreading branches and fibrous grey bark. The young leaves are blue and heart-shaped, the mature leaves are very aromatic, thick and tapering at both ends.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia, especially New South Wales and Victoria. Oil is also produced in South Africa.
OTHER SPECIES: There are two types of broad-leaved peppermint although they look identical – one is rich in cineol (E. dives var. C.) and one is rich in ‘piperitone’ (E. dives var. Type). It is also similar to the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita) and the grey or narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra). See also entry on Eucalyptus, blue gum and Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The aborigines used the burning leaves in the form of a fumigation for the relief of fever; ‘heat went out of sick man and into fire’.
ACTIONS: See Eucalyptus, blue gum.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, camphoraceous, spicy-minty odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Piperitone (40–50 per cent), phellandrene (20–30 per cent), camphene, cymene, terpinene and thujene, among others. It is sold as Grades A, B or C according to the exact balance of constituents.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. Eucalyptus oil is toxic if taken internally (see entry on eucalyptus blue gum).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, sores, ulcers etc.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sports injuries, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, throat and mouth infections, etc.
Immune System: Colds, fevers, ’flu, infectious illness, e.g. measles.
Nervous System: Headaches, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, sciatica.
OTHER USES: Little used medicinally these days except in deodorants, disinfectants, mouthwashes, gargles and in veterinary practice. ‘Piperitone’ rich oils are used in solvents. Employed for the manufacture of thymol and menthol (from piperitone).
EUCALYPTUS, ... eucalyptus, broad-leaved peppermint
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: Laurus camphora, true camphor, hon-sho, laurel camphor, gum camphor, Japanese camphor, Formosa camphor.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, handsome, evergreen tree, up to 30 metres high, not unlike the linden. It has many branches bearing clusters of small white flowers followed by red berries. It produces a white crystalline substance, the crude camphor, from the wood of mature trees over fifty years old.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Japan and Taiwan principally, also China; cultivated in India, Ceylon, Egypt, Madagascar, southern Europe and America.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of camphor: the ho-sho variety produces ho leaf and ho wood oil; the Chinese variety produces apopin oil; the Japan and Taiwan type, known as hon-sho or true camphor, produces two chemotypes: camphor-safrol (Japan) and camphor-linalol (Taiwan). All these are to be distinguished from the Borneo camphor or borneol which is of different botanical origin.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A long-standing traditional preventative of infectious disease; a lump of camphor would be worn around the neck as a protection. In addition it was used for nervous and respiratory diseases in general, and for heart failure! However, in its crude form it is very poisonous in large doses, and has been removed from the British Pharmacopoeia.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, counter-irritant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, rubefacient, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Crude camphor is collected from the trees in crystalline form. The essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the wood, root stumps and branches and then rectified under vacuum and filter pressed to produce three fractions, known as white, brown and yellow camphor.
CHARACTERISTICS: White camphor is the lightest (lowest boiling) fraction, a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sharp, pungent camphoraceous odour. Brown camphor is the middle fraction. Yellow camphor, a blue-green or yellowish liquid, is the heaviest.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1 White camphor contains mainly cineol, with pinene, terpineol, menthol, thymol and no safrol. 2. Brown camphor contains up to 80 per cent safrol and some terpineol. 3. Yellow camphor contains mainly safrol, sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols.
SAFETY DATA: Brown and yellow camphor (containing safrol) are toxic and carcinogenic and ‘should not be used in therapy, either internally or externally.’. White camphor does not contain safrol and is relatively non-toxic, non-sensitizing and non-irritant. It is, however, an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE White camphor may be used with care for:
Skin care: Acne, inflammation, oily conditions, spots; also for insect prevention (flies, moths, etc).
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, coughs.
Immune System: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious disease.
OTHER USES: White and brown camphor are used as the starting material for the isolation of many perfumery chemicals, for example safrol and cineol. White camphor is used as a solvent in the paint and lacquer industry, and for the production of celluloid. Fractions of white oil are used as fragrance and masking agents in detergents, soaps, disinfectants and household products.... camphor
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Helichrysum, everlasting, St John’s herb.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic herb, up to 0.6 metres high with a much-branched stem, woody at the base. The brightly coloured, daisy-like flowers become dry as the plant matures, yet retain their colour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, especially the eastern part and North Africa. It is cultivated mainly in Italy, Yugoslavia, Spain and France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other Helichrysum species such as H. arenarium found in florist shops and H. stoechas which is also used to produce an absolute. H. orientale is grown for its oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Europe it is used for respiratory complaints such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and whooping cough; also for headaches, migraine, liver ailments and skin conditions including burns, allergies and psoriasis. Usually taken in the form of a decoction or infusion.
ACTIONS: Anti-allergenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antitussive, antiseptic, astringent, cholagogue, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hepatic, nervine.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowers and flowering tops. 2. An absolute (and concrete) are also produced by solvent extraction.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow to red oily liquid with a powerful, rich honeylike scent with a delicate tealike undertone. 2. A yellowy-brown viscous liquid with a rich, floral, tealike scent. It blends well with chamomile, boronia, labdanum, lavender, mimosa, oakmoss, geranium, clary sage, rose, Peru balsam, clove and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Nerol and neryl acetate (30–50 per cent), geraniol, pinene, linalol, isovaleric aldehyde, sesquiterpenes, furfurol and eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
Skin care: Abscess, acne, allergic conditions, boils, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, inflammation, spots, wounds etc.
Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, strained muscles.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, chronic coughs, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Liver congestion, spleen congestion.
Immune system: Bacterial infections, colds, ’flu, fever.
Nervous system: Depression, debility, lethargy, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes. The absolute is used to flavour certain tobaccos; used for the isolation of natural anethole.... immortelle
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: M. chamomilla, camomile, blue chamomile, matricaria, Hungarian chamomile, sweet false chamomile, single chamomile, chamomile blue (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual, strongly aromatic herb, up to 60 cms tall with a hairless, erect, branching stem. It has delicate feathery leaves and simple daisy-like white flowers on single stems. In appearance it is very similar to the corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis) but can be distinguished from it because the latter is scentless.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and north and west Asia; naturalized in North America and Australia. It is cultivated extensively, especially in Hungary and eastern Europe, where the oil is produced. It is no longer grown in Germany, despite the herbal name.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of chamomile, such as the pineapple weed (Chamaemelium suaveolens) and the Roman chamomile (C. nobile), both of which are used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has a long-standing medicinal tradition, especially in Europe for ‘all states of tension and the visceral symptoms that can arise therefrom, such as nervous dyspepsia and nervous bowel, tension headaches, and sleeplessness; especially useful for all children’s conditions, calming without depressing …’.
An excellent skin care remedy, it has many of the same qualities as Roman chamomile, except that its anti-inflammatory properties are greater due to the higher percentage of azulene.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, anti inflammatory, antiphlogistic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carlminative, cicatrisant, cholagogue, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, hepatic, nerve sedative, stimulant of leucocyte production, stomachic, sudorific, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flower heads (up to 1.9 per cent yield). An absolute is also produced in small quantities, which is a deeper blue colour and has greater tenacity and fixative properties.
CHARACTERISTICS: An inky-blue viscous liquid with a strong, sweetish warm-herbaceous odour. It blends well with geranium, lavender, patchouli, rose, benzoin, neroli, bergamot, marjoram, lemon, ylang ylang, jasmine, clary sage and labdanum.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Chamazulene, farnesene, bisabolol oxide, en-yndicycloether, among others. (NB The chamazulene is not present in the fresh flower but is only produced during the process of distillation.)
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; causes dermatitis in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, allergies, boils, burns, cuts, chilblains, dermatitis, earache, eczema, hair care, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, sensitive skin, teething pain, toothache, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, inflamed joints, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprains.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, indigestion, nausea.
Genito-Urinary System: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.
Nervous System: Headache, insomnia, nervous tension, migraine and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and in carminative, antispasmodic and tonic preparations. Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps, detergents, high-class perfumes and hair and bath products. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... chamomile, german
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: Sweet bay, bay laurel, Grecian laurel, true bay, Mediterranean bay, Roman laurel, noble laurel, laurel leaf (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree up to 20 metres high with dark green, glossy leaves and black berries; often cultivated as an ornamental shrub.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region; extensively cultivated especially for its berries, in France, Spain, Italy, Morocco, Yugoslavia, China, Israel, Turkey and Russia. The oil is mainly produced in Yugoslavia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several related species, all of which are commonly called Bay: Californian bay (Umbellularia california), West Indian bay (Pimenta racemosa) and the cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus), which is poisonous.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A popular culinary herb throughout Europe. The leaves were used by the ancient Greeks and Romans to crown their victors. Both leaf and berry were formerly used for a variety of afflictions including hysteria, colic, indigestion, loss of appetite, to promote menstruation and for fever. It is little used internally these days, due to its narcotic properties. A ‘fixed’ oil of bay, expressed from the berries, is still used for sprains, bruises, earache, etc.
ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, bactericidal, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, hypotensive, sedative, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaf and branchlets. (An oil from the berries is produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A greenish-yellow liquid with a powerful, spicy-medicinal odour. It blends well with pine, cypress, juniper, clary sage, rosemary, olibanum, labdanum, lavender, citrus and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (30–50 per cent), pinene, linalol, terpineol acetate, and traces of methyl eugenol.
SAFETY DATA: Relatively non-toxic and nonirritant; can cause dermatitis in some individuals. Use in moderation due to possible narcotic properties attributed to methyl eugenol. Should not be used during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Digestive system: Dyspepsia, flatulence, loss of appetite.
Genito-urinary system: Scanty periods. Immune system: Colds, ’flu, tonsillitis and viral infections.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in detergents, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially aftershaves. Extensively used in processed food of all types, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... laurel
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Eugenia aromatica, E. caryophyllata, E. caryophyllus.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A slender evergreen tree with a smooth grey trunk, up to 12 metres high. It has large bright green leaves standing in pairs on short stalks. At the start of the rainy season long buds appear with a rosy pink corolla at the tip; as the corolla fades the calyx slowly turns deep red. These are beaten from the tree and, when dried provide the cloves of commerce.
DISTRIBUTION: Believed to be native to Indonesia; now cultivated worldwide, especially in the Philippines, the Molucca Islands and Madagascar. The main oil-producing countries are Madagascar, and Indonesia.
OTHER SPECIES: The clove tree has been cultivated in plantations for over 2000 years. The original wild trees found in the Moluccas, produce an essential oil that contains no eugenol at all.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Extensively used as a domestic spice worldwide. Tincture of cloves has been used for skin infections (scabies, athlete’s foot); for digestive upsets; to dress the umbilical cord; for intestinal parasites; to ease the pain of childbirth (steeped in wine); and notably for toothache. The tea is used to relieve nausea.
In Chinese medicine the oil is used for diarrhoea, hernia, bad breath and bronchitis as well as for those conditions mentioned above. In Indonesia, the ‘Kretak’ cigarette is popular, made from two parts tobacco and one part cloves.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antibiotic, antiemetic, antihistaminic, antirheumatic, antineuralgic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, carminative, counter-irritant, expectorant, larvicidal, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water distillation from the 1. buds and 2. leaves, and by steam distillation from the 3. stalks or stems. A concrete, absolute and oleoresin are also produced from the buds in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Clove bud is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet-spicy odour and a fruity-fresh top note. The bud oil is favoured in perfumery work. It blends well with rose, lavender, vanillin, clary sage, bergamot, bay leaf, lavandin, allspice, ylang ylang and cananga. 2. Clove leaf is a dark brown oil with a crude, burnt-woody odour. 3. Clove stem oil is a pale yellow liquid with a strong spicy-woody odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Bud: 60-90 per cent eugenol, eugenyl acetate, caryophyllene and other minor constituents. 2. Leaf: 82–88 per cent eugenol with little or no eugenyl acetate, and other minor constituents. 3. Stem: 90–95 per cent eugenol, with other minor constituents.
SAFETY DATA: All clove oils can cause skin and mucous membrane irritation; clove bud and stem oil may cause dermatitis in some individuals. Clove bud is the least toxic of the three oils due to the lower eugenol percentage. Use in moderation only in low dilution (less than 1 per cent).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Only use clove bud oil, not the leaf or stem oil.
Skin Care: Acne, athlete’s foot, bruises, burns, cuts, insect repellent (mosquito), toothache, ulcers, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis.
Digestive System: Colic, dyspepsia, nausea.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, minor infections.
OTHER USES: Used in dental preparations, and as a fragrance component in toothpastes, soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient in major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks. Used in the production of printing ink, glue and varnish; clove leaf oil is used as the starting material for the isolation of eugenol.... clove
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: L. spica, aspic, broad-leaved lavender, lesser lavender, spike.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An aromatic evergreen sub-shrub up to 1 metre high with lance-shaped leaves, broader and rougher than true lavender. The flower is more compressed and of a dull grey-blue colour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of France and Spain; also found in North Africa, Italy, Yugoslavia and the eastern Mediterranean countries. It is cultivated internationally; the oil is mainly produced in France and Spain.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many different chemotypes of lavender in general, and this also applies to spike lavender. The French spike oil is reputed to be a more delicate, aromatic scent than the Spanish variety. For other varieties, see entries on lavandin, true lavender and the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Culpeper recommends spike lavender for a variety of ailments including ‘pains of the head and brain which proceed from cold, apoplexy, falling sickness, the dropsy, or sluggish malady, cramps, convulsions, palsies, and often faintings’. He also warns that ‘the oil of spike is of a fierce and piercing quality, and ought to be carefully used, a very few drops being sufficient for inward or outward maladies’.. The preparation ‘oleum spicae’ was made by mixing ¼ spike oil with ¾ turpentine, and used for paralysed limbs, old sprains and stiff joints (it was also said to encourage hair growth).
Spike lavender is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, indicated for flatulent dyspepsia, colic, depressive headaches, and the oil (topically) for rheumatic pain.
ACTIONS: See true lavender.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a penetrating, fresh herbaceous, camphoraceous odour. It blends well with rosemary, sage, lavandin, eucalyptus, rosewood, lavender, petitgrain, pine, cedarwood, oakmoss, patchouli and spice oils, particularly clove.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly cineol and camphor (40–60 per cent), with linalol and linalyl acetate, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See true lavender.
OTHER USES: It is used in some pharmaceutical preparations and especially in veterinary practice as a prophylactic, in incipient paralysis, for rheumatism and arthritis and to get rid of lice. It is extensively employed as a fragrance component especially in soaps and industrial perfumes such as deodorants, disinfectants and cleaning agents, as well as insecticides and room sprays, etc. It is also used in the food industry and in the production of fine varnishes and lacquers.... lavender, spike
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Gum tree, southern blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum, fever tree, stringy bark.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A beautiful, tall, evergreen tree, up to 90 metres high. The young trees have bluish-green oval leaves while the mature trees develop long, narrow, yellowish leaves, creamy-white flowers and a smooth, pale grey bark often covered in a white powder.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia. Mainly cultivated in Spain and Portugal, also Brazil, California, Russia and China. Very little of this oil now comes from its native countries.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 different species of eucalyptus, of which at least 500 produce a type of essential oil. Many have been extracted simply for experimental purposes, and research is still being carried out with regard to the different constituents of each oil. In general, they can be divided into three categories. 1. The medicinal oils containing large amounts of cineol (or eucalyptol), such as the blue gum, but increasingly the blue malee (E. polybractea), the narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. australiana) and the gully gum (E. smithii). 2. The industrial oils containing mainly piperitone and phellandrene, such as the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita), grey peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra) and increasingly the broad-leaved peppermint (E. dives var. Type). 3. The perfumery oils containing mainly citronellal, such as the lemon-scented eucalyptus (E. citriodora). See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional household remedy in Australia, the leaves and oil are especially used for respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and croup, and the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco for asthma. It is also used for feverish conditions (malaria, typhoid, cholera, etc.) and skin problems like burns, ulcers and wounds. Aqueous extracts are used for aching joints, bacterial dysentery, ringworms, tuberculosis, etc. and employed for similar reasons in western and eastern medicine. The wood is also used for timber production in Spain.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, balsamic, cicatrisant, decongestant, deodorant, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hypoglycaemic, parasiticide, prophylactic, rubefacient, stimulant, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and young twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless mobile liquid (yellows on ageing), with a somewhat harsh camphoraceous odour and woody-sweet undertone. It blends well with thyme, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, pine, cedarwood and lemon. (The narrow-leaved eucalyptus (E. radiata var. australiana) is often used in preference to the blue gum in aromatherapy work, being rich in cineol but with a sweeter and less harsh odour.)
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (70–85 per cent), pinene, limonene, cymene, phellandrene, terpinene, aromadendrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Externally non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. ‘When taken internally eucalyptus oil is toxic and as little as 3.5ml has been reported as fatal’..
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Burns, blisters, cuts, herpes, insect bites, insect repellent, lice, skin infections, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea.
Immune System: Chickenpox, colds, epidemics, ’flu, measles.
Nervous System: Debility, headaches, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: The oil and cineol are largely employed in the preparation of liniments, inhalants, cough syrups, ointments, toothpaste and as pharmaceutical flavourings also used in veterinary practise and dentistry. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents and toiletries – little used in perfumes. Used for the isolation of cineol and employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories.... eucalyptus, blue gum
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Chrysanthemum vulgare, C. tanacetum, buttons, bitter buttons, bachelor’s buttons, scented fern, cheese.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hardy perennial wayside herb, up to 1 metre high with a smooth stem, dark ferny leaves and small, round, brilliant yellow flowers borne in clusters. The whole plant is strongly scented.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to central Europe; naturalized in North America and now found in most temperate regions of the world. The essential oil is mainly produced in France, Germany, Hungary, Poland and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the medicinal herb feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), the marigolds and daisy family.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Traditionally used to flavour eggs and omelettes. It has a long history of medicinal use, especially among gypsies, and is regarded as something of a ‘cure all’. It was used to expel worms, to treat colds and fever, prevent possible miscarriage and ease dyspepsia and cramping pains. Externally, the distilled water was used to keep the complexion pale, and the bruised leaves employed as a remedy for scabies, bruises, sprains and rheumatism. It was also used generally for nervous disorders and to keep flies and vermin away.
The flowers are still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific (used externally) for worms in children.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the whole herb (aerial parts).
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow, olive or orange liquid (darkening with age) with a warm, sharp spicy herbaceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (66–81 per cent), camphor, borneol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin – poisonous due to high thujone content. Abortifacient.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in aromatherapy whether internally or externally.’.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in herbaceous-type perfumes. The oil used to be used in alcoholic drinks – it is no longer used for flavouring.... tansy
FAMILY: Zingiberaceae
SYNONYMS: Common ginger, Jamaica ginger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect perennial herb up to 1 metre high with a thick, spreading, tuberous rhizome root, which is very pungent. Each year it sends up a green reedlike stalk with narrow spear-shaped leaves and white or yellow flowers on a spike direct from the root.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Asia, extensively cultivated all over the tropics in Nigeria, the West Indies, India, China, Jamaica and Japan. Most oil is distilled in the UK, China and India.
OTHER SPECIES: Several varieties according to location which are all used to produce oils with slight variations in their constitiuents; for example the African oil is generally darker. Another member of the same family, galangal (Alpinia officinarum), is also known as ginger root or Chinese ginger.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ginger has been used as a domestic spice and as a remedy for thousands of years, especially in the East. Fresh ginger is used in China for many complaints including rheumatism, bacterial dysentery, toothache, malaria, and for cold and moist conditions such as excess mucus and diarrhoea.
It is best known as a digestive aid, especially in the West: in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is specifically indicated for flatulent intestinal colic. Preserved and crystallized ginger is a popular sweet, in the East and West.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the unpeeled, dried, ground root. (An absolute and oleoresin are also produced for use in perfumery.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, amber or greenish liquid with a warm, slightly green, fresh, woody-spicy scent. It blends well with sandalwood, vetiver, patchouli, frankincense, rosewood, cedarwood, coriander, rose, lime, neroli, orange and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Gingerin, gingenol, gingerone, zingiberine, linalol, camphene, phellandrene, citral, cineol, borneol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), slightly phototoxic; may cause sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, strains etc.
Respiratory System: Catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.
Digestive System: Diarrhoea, colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion, loss of appitite, nausea, travel sickness.
Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, fever, infectious disease.
Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion.
OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in digestive, carminative and laxative preparations; used as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental and men’s fragrances; extensively employed in all major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... ginger
FAMILY: Poaceae (Gramineae)
SYNONYMS: Andropogon muricatus, vetivert, khus khus.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, tufted, perennial, scented grass, with a straight stem, long narrow leaves and an abundant complex lacework of undergound white rootlets.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Also cultivated in Reunion, the Philippines, the Comoro Islands, Japan, West Africa and South America. The oil is mainly produced in Java, Haiti and Reunion; some is distilled in Europe and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: Botanically related to lemongrass, citronella, litsea cubeba and flouve oil (also from the roots of a tropical grass).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The rootlets have been used in the East for their fine fragrance since antiquity. They are used by the locals to protect domestic animals from vermin, and the fibres of the grass are woven into aromatic matting. It is grown in India to protect against soil erosion during the tropical rainy season.
In India and Sri Lanka the essence is known as ‘the oil of tranquillity’.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, depurative, rubefacient, sedative (nervous system), stimulant (circulatory, production of red corpuscles), tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the roots and rootlets washed, chopped, dried and soaked. (A resinoid is also produced by solvent extraction for perfumery work.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brown, olive or amber viscous oil with a deep smoky, earthy woody odour with a sweet persistent undertone. The colour and scent can vary according to the source – Angola produces a very pale oil with a dry-woody odour. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, violet, jasmine, opopanax, patchouli, oakmoss, lavender, clary sage, mimosa, cassie and ylang ylang.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Vetiverol, vitivone, terpenes, e.g. vetivenes, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, cuts, oily skin, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, stiffness.
Nervous system: Debility, depression, insomnia, nervous tension – ‘Vetiver is deeply relaxing, so valuable in massage and baths for anybody experiencing stress.’.
OTHER USES: Employed as a fixative and fragrance ingredient in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types. The oil is used in food preservatives, especially for asparagus.... vetiver
FAMILY: Oleaceae
SYNONYMS: Jasmin, jessamine, common jasmine, poet’s jessamine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or vine up to 10 metres high with delicate, bright green leaves and star-shaped very fragrant white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to China, northern India and west Asia; cultivated in the Mediterranean region, China and India (depending on the exact species). The concrete is produced in Italy, France, Morocco, Egypt, China, Japan, Algeria and Turkey; the absolute is mainly produced in France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of jasmine used for medicine and perfumery work. Apart from the common jasmine, the most widespead varieties are the royal or Italian jasmine (J. grandiflorum) which is grown in the Mediterranean region, and its Eastern counterpart J. officinale var. grandiflorum or J. auriculatum. See the Botanical Classification section for a more comprehensive list.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In China the flowers of J. officinale var. grandiflorum are used to treat hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and dysentery; the flowers of J. sambac are used for conjunctivitis, dysentery, skin ulcers and tumours. The root is used to treat headaches, insomnia, pain due to dislocated joints and rheumatism.
In the West, the common jasmine was said to ‘warm the womb ... and facilitate the birth; it is useful for cough, difficulty of breathing, etc. It disperses crude humours, and is good for cold and catarrhous constitutions, but not for the hot.’ It was also used for hard, contracted limbs and problems with the nervous and reproductive systems.
ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, galactagogue, parturient, sedative, tonic (uterine).
EXTRACTION: A concrete is produced by solvent extraction; the absolute is obtained from the concrete by separation with alcohol. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the absolute.
CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a dark orange-brown, viscous liquid with an intensely rich, warm, floral scent and a tealike undertone. It blends well with rose, sandalwood, clary sage, and all citrus oils. It has the ability to round off any rough notes and blend with virtually everything.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: There are over 100 constituents in the oil including benzyl acetate, linalol, phenylacetic acid, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, methyl anthranilate, cis jasmone, methyl jasmonate, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing. (An allergic reaction has been known to occur in some individuals.)
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Dry, greasy, irritated, sensitive skin.
Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular spasm, sprains.
Respiratory system: Catarrh, coughs, hoarseness, laryngitis.
Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, frigidity, labour pains, uterine disorders.
Nervous system: Depression, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions. ‘It ... produces a feeling of optimism, confidence and euphoria. It is most useful in cases where there is apathy, indifference or listlessness.’.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially high-class floral and oriental fragrances. The oil and absolute are employed in a wide range of food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The dried flowers of J. sambac are used in jasmine tea.... jasmine
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: L. vera, L. officinalis, garden lavender, common lavender
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen woody shrub, up to 1 metre tall, with pale green, narrow, linear leaves and flowers on blunt spikes of a beautiful violet-blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated all over the world. The oil is produced mainly in France, also Spain, Italy, England, Australia, Tasmania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria, Greece, etc.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of lavender; L. angustifolia is divided into two subspecies – L. delphinensis and L. fragrans. French lavender (L. stoechas) is a smaller shrub with dark violet flowers; see also entries on spike lavender, lavandin and the Botanical Classification section. The so-called cotton lavender (Santolina chamaecyparissus) and the sea lavender (Statice caroliniana) belong to different botanical families.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Lavender has a well-established tradition as a folk remedy, and its scent is still familiar to almost everyone. It was used to ‘comfort the stomach’ but above all as a cosmetic water, an insect repellent, to scent linen, and as a reviving yet soothing oil ‘The essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made from it, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms and colic ... A few drops of lavender in a hot footbath has a marked influence in relieving fatigue. Outwardly applied, it relieves toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. In hysteria, palsy and similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve power, lavender will act as a powerful stimulant.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops. 2. An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, floral herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone; it has a more fragrant floral scent compared to spike lavender. It blends well with most oils, especially citrus and florals; also cedarwood, clove, clary sage, pine, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli, etc. 2. The absolute is a dark green viscous liquid with a very sweet herbaceous, somewhat floral odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 100 constituents including linalyl acetate (up to 40 per cent), linalol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene, caryophyllene, among others. Constituents vary according to source: high altitudes generally produce more esters.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Generally regarded as the most versatile essence therapeutically:
Skin care: Abscesses, acne, allergies, athlete’s foot, boils, bruises, burns, dandruff, dermatitis, earache, eczema, inflammations, insect bites and stings, insect repellent, lice, psoriasis, ringworm, scabies, sores, spots, all skin types, sunburn, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Lumbago, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, halitosis, laryngitis, throat infections, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Abdominal cramps, colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune system: ’Flu.
Nervous system: Depression, headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions, PMT, sciatica, shock, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and as a fragrance. Extensively employed in all types of soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, etc, especially toilet waters and colognes. Employed as a flavouring agent in most categories of food as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... lavender, true
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: New Zealand tea tree, kahikatoa, red manuka, manex.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The Manuka plant is an elegant, bushy evergreen shrub with deep green small spiky leaves that bears small flowers of white to pink in colour. The blossom is produced from September to February and most profusely in the later months. Its size ranges from a creeping plant to a small tree – trees can reach heights of up to 8 metres, especially when found within dense woodland. The leaves and flowers are strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Manuka is the only Leptospermum species native to New Zealand, where it is widely distributed in various climatic and altitudinal zones. The physical characteristics, such as flower and leaf colour, leaf size and shape, branching habit, and foliage density vary considerably among populations. The plant can now be found in Australia where it seems to acclimatize well to varied terrain from marshland to dry mountain slopes. The essential oil is generally harvested from wild plants, as little farming of Manuka is currently undertaken.
OTHER SPECIES: The family Myrtaceae yields many valuable essential oils including eucalyptus, myrtle and tea tree. Another native tree of New Zealand called kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), sometimes called white or tree manuka, although superficially similar to L. scoparium in that both are collectively known as ‘tea trees’, is actually genetically a very distinct species. Kanuka in its typical form can grow into a tree up to 30 metres tall. It is also used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: For centuries, New Zealand Maori have used manuka to treat a wide range of complaints. Early New Zealand records indicate that the plant’s bark, leaves, sap and seed capsules were used in beverages and medicinal preparations. A decoction of the leaves was drunk for urinary complaints and as a febrifuge. The steam from leaves boiled in water was inhaled for head colds. A decoction was prepared from the leaves and bark and the warm liquid was rubbed on stiff muscles and aching joints. The emollient white gum, called ‘pai manuka’, was given to nursing babies and also used to treat scalds and burns. Chewing the bark is said to have a relaxing effect and enhance sleep. It is said that Captain James Cook used the leaves of the plant as a tea to combat scurvy during long explorations of the southern hemisphere; later, early European settlers of New Zealand adopted Captain Cook’s use of the plant as a tea.
Recently, scientists have confirmed that manuka oil is up to 33 times stronger than tea tree essential oil for protecting against specific strains of bacteria; it is also effective against the MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staph. Aureus) bacteria, which is resistant to normal antibiotics.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antibacterial, antibiotic, antifungal, antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious, antimicrobial, antiseptic, astringent, deodorant, digestive, expectorant, immune stimulant, insecticide, sedative, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves, twigs and branches.
CHARACTERISTICS: A mobile liquid with a distinctive fresh, spicy, herbaceous aroma with a honey-like sweetness. It blends well with bay leaf, bergamot, black pepper, cajuput, cedarwood atlas, cinnamon, clove bud, elemi, ginger, juniper, lavender, nutmeg, peppermint, rose, rosemary, sandalwood, thyme, vetiver and ylang ylang.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The main active constituents of manuka oil are isoleptospermone, ?-pinene, ?-pinene, myrcene, ?-cymene, 1,8-cineole, linalol, methylcinnamate, ?-farnesine, isoleptospermone, leptospermone, sesquiterpenes such as cadina-3, 5-diene and ?-amorphene, and triketones. However, within the species of manuka there are at least nine different chemotypes: oil which contains high levels of triketones, found in the East Cape area of North Island in New Zealand appears to possess the greatest antimicrobial potential. Other chemotypes however are thought to reveal greater anti-inflammatory and analgesic tendencies. It is important to be aware of these various chemotypes when selecting an oil for therapeutic purposes.
SAFETY DATA: Generally it is thought to be non-sensitizing, non-toxic, and non-irritant. It can in some individuals, produce mild irritation but has a low irritancy compared to Australian tea tree oil. Avoid use during pregnancy because of spasmolytic activity.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, abscesses, athlete’s foot skin, bed sores, blisters, boils, burns, carbuncles, cold sores, cracked skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, fungal infections, insect bites and stings, lice, nail infections, oily skin, pimples, ringworm, sores, sunburn, tinea and ulcers.
Circulation, muscles and joints: Aches and pains, muscular tension, sprains and stiffness in joints, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Coughs, cold, ’flu congestion, as well as asthma and hayfever.
Immune system: Tonic
Nervous system: Nervous debility.
OTHER USES: The essential oil is much used in phyto-cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations mainly for its potent antimicrobial properties. Commercial development of the essential oil has led to a range of products for the topical treatment of various conditions including joint pain, eczema and psoriasis. The oil is also used in perfumes and soaps. The scented flowers of the shrub attract bees, which are used for making the popular manuka honey.... manuka
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Marjorana hortensis, knotted marjoram.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender bushy perennial plant (cultivated as an annual in colder climates), up to 60 cms high with a hairy stem, dark green oval leaves and small greyish white flowers in clusters or ‘knots’. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, Egypt and North Africa. Major oil-producing countries include France, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anaphrodisiac, antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cordial, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypotensive, laxative, nervine, sedative, stomachic, tonic, vasodilator, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried flowering herb. An oleoresin is also produced in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or amber coloured mobile liquid with a warm, woody, spicy camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavender, rosemary, bergamot, chamomile, cypress, cedarwood, tea tree and eucalyptus.
OTHER SPECIES: There is a great deal of confusion regarding the various species of marjoram or oregano. The most common types are the pot or French marjoram (Origanum onites or Marjorana onites), which is a hardier plant than the sweet marjoram and of a spreading nature; the Spanish marjoram or oregano (Thymus mastichina) and the wild or common marjoram or oregano (Origanum vulgare) which is used to produce the so-called ‘oregano oil’. See entries on common oregano, Spanish oregano and also the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional culinary herb and folk remedy. It was used by the ancient Greeks in their fragrances, cosmetics and medicines; the name oregano derives from a Greek word meaning ‘joy of the mountains’. lt is a versatile herb which has a soothing, fortifying and warming effect; it aids digestive and menstrual problems, as well as nervous and respiratory complaints.
It is ‘comforting in cold diseases of the head, stomach, sinews and other parts, taken inwardly or outwardly applied ... helps diseases of the chest, obstructions of the liver and spleen.’. It is also very helpful for muscular and rheumatic pain, sprains, strains, stiff joints, bruises, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinenes, terpineol, sabinenes, linalol, carvacrol, linalyl acetate, ocimene, cadinene, geranyl acetate, citral, eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Not to be used during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains, bruises, ticks.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, lumbago, muscular aches and stiffness, rheumatism, sprains, strains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, PMT.
Immune system: Colds.
Nervous system: Headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: The oil and oleoresin are used as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed in most major food categories, especially meats, seasonings and sauces, as well as soft drinks and alcoholic beverages such as vermouths and bitters.... marjoram, sweet
FAMILY: Piperaceae
SYNONYMS: Piper, pepper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial woody vine up to 5 metres high with heart-shaped leaves and small white flowers. The berries turn from red to black as they mature – black pepper is the dried fully grown unripe fruit.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south west India; cultivated extensively in tropical countries. Major producers are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and Madagascar. It is also distilled in Europe and America from the imported dried fruits.
OTHER SPECIES: The so-called white pepper is the dried ripe fruit with the outer pericarp removed. Not to be confused with cayenne pepper or paprika from the capsicum species, which are used to make an oleoresin.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both black and white pepper have been used in the East for over 4000 years for medicinal and culinary purposes. In Chinese medicine, white pepper is used to treat malaria, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, stomach ache and other digestive problems. In Greece it is used for intermittent fever and to fortify the stomach. ‘The mendicant monks of India who cover daily considerable distances on foot, swallow 7–9 grains of pepper a day. This gives them remarkable endurance.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant (nervous, circulatory, digestive), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the black peppercorns, dried and crushed. (‘Light’ and ‘heavy’ oils are produced by the extraction of the low or high boiling fractions respectively.) An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction, mainly for flavour use.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white to pale olive mobile liquid with a fresh, dry-woody, warm, spicy scent. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, spices and florals (in minute quantities).
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes (70–80 per cent): thujene, pinene, camphene, sabinene, carene, myrcene, limonene, phellandrene, and sesquiterpenes (20–30 per cent) and oxygenated compounds.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, irritant in high concentration due to rubefacient properties. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains.
Circulation muscles and joints: Anaemia, arthritis, muscular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, poor muscle tone (muscular atonia), rheumatic pain, sprains, stiffness.
Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections and viruses.
OTHER USES: Used in certain tonic and rubefacient preparations. Used for unusual effects in perfumery work; for example, with rose or carnation in oriental or floral fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are used extensively in the food industry, as well as in alcoholic drinks.... pepper, black
FAMILY: Zingiberaceae
SYNONYMS: Z. montanum, Z. cassumunar ‘Roxburgh’, Z. purpureum ‘Roscoe’, cassumunar ginger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The root of this tropical perennial plant is tuberous, with long fleshy fibres and jointed appendages, much like ginger but slightly larger. The fresh rhizome, which is yellow inside, has a cool, green, camphoraceous, spicy-warm scent. The stem is made of green leaf sheathes which are grass-like with brownish-purple pointed shoots bearing pale yellow flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Thailand, Indonesia and India: it is now commonly found throughout Asia. Since plai is an important medicinal plant in Thailand, there are many regions where plai is cultivated and there are now at least three native varieties or sub-species found in Thailand.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several sub-species (and essential oil chemotypes) of plai depending on the location of the plant from which it has been extracted. Essential oil produced from rhizomes grown in the north-west region is the most typical from Thailand and contains almost as much terpinen-4-ol as tea tree oil. Terpinen-4-ol has been well researched, and is to known to activate white blood cells: it also has significant antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties. Oil produced from the central region contains more sabinene. Zingiber cassumunar is a close relative of ginger and galangal, both of which are used to produce essential oils.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Zingiber cassumunar is widely used in folklore remedies as a single plant or as component of herbal recipes in Thailand and many Asian countries for the treatments of conditions, such as inflammation, sprains and strains, rheumatism and muscular pain. Although it is derived from the same plant family as ginger (Zingiber officinale), it does not possess the classic warming effect common to ginger. Instead, plai has a cooling action on inflamed areas, making it an excellent choice for treating injuries, post-operative pain and all types of muscular and joint pain such as torn muscles and ligaments as well as conditions such as arthritis and rheumatism. For this reason, plai has long been regarded by Thai massage therapists as one of the most essential oils to have at their disposal. Although generally diluted with a carrier oil, it can be applied directly to the skin when treating areas of severe pain or inflammation that are close to the surface of the skin. It is reported to ease pain for up to 16–20 hours – it is even used by Thai boxers for pain relief!
Used in skin care, the oil exhibits good antioxidant properties and is used in Thai culture to treat stretch marks and scars; also to heal wounds. Plai herbal compound is used traditionally in the form of a poultice and decoction for the treatment of a range of digestive disorders including colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, nausea heartburn. Zingiber cassumunar is also a traditional Thai remedy for respiratory conditions, including asthma, catarrh, colds and coughs, fever and influenza.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antioxidant, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antihistamine, antineuralgic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, antiviral, carminative, digestive, diuretic, febrifugal, laxative, rubefacient, rejuvenating, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the fresh rhizome (roots) of the Plai plant (Zingiber cassumunar).
CHARACTERISTICS: The oil is a pale amber colour with a fresh, herbaceous, spicy-green scent and a resinous, slightly floral undertone. It will blends well with black pepper, bergamot, ginger, grapefruit, lemongrass, lime, jasmine, lavender, neroli, petitgrain, rosemary, sandalwood and tea tree.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The main active chemical constituents of the oil are terpinen-4-ol (up to 49 per cent) sabinene (up to 45 per cent), DMPBD (up to per cent), g-terpinene and a-terpinene – depending on the source of the oil.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing. Best to check for any possible sensitization due to variants in chemo-types available.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, cuts, stretch marks, scars, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: All types of aches and pains caused by inflammation, including arthritis and rheumatism, cramp, gout, joint problems, muscle spasm, sprains and strains, torn muscles and ligaments as well as post-operative pain.
Digestive system: Cramps, colic, constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, indigestion, heartburn.
Respiratory system: Asthma, catarrh, chronic colds, bronchitis, congestion, fever, flu, sinusitis.
Genito-urinary system: Menstrual cramps.
Immune system: Stimulates the immune system and boosts vitality.
Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension, stress.
OTHER USES: The fresh rhizome or powdered root is much used in traditional Thai cuisine. The oil is used in the pharmaceutical industry, for example, in mosquito repellant formulations.... plai
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: T. aestivus, T. ilerdensis, T. webbianus, T. valentianus, French thyme, garden thyme, red thyme (oil), white thyme (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial evergreen subshrub up to 45 cms high with a woody root and much-branched upright stem. It has small, grey-green, oval, aromatic leaves and pale purple or white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Spain and the Mediterranean region; now found throughout Asia Minor, Algeria, Turkey, Tunisia, Israel, the USA, Russia, China and central Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Spain but also in France, Israel, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Germany and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous varieties of thyme – the common thyme is believed to have derived from the wild thyme or mother-of-thyme (T. serpyllum), which is also used to produce an essential oil called serpolet, similar in effect to the common thyme oil.
Another species used for the production of the so-called red thyme oil is particularly the Spanish sauce thyme (T. zygis), a highly penetrating oil good for cellulitis, sports injuries, etc. (although, like the common thyme, it is a skin irritant). Other species used for essential oil production include lemon thyme (T. citriodorus), a fresh scented oil good for asthma and other respiratory conditions, safe for children. Spanish marjoram (T. Mastichina) is actually botanically classified as a variety of thyme, with which it shares many common properties, despite its common name. Spanish marjoram contains mainly 1,8-cineole (up to 75 per cent) and linalool (up to 20 per cent), so therapeutically has much in common with eucalyptus, being well suited to treating viral and bacterial respiratory infections. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest medicinal plants employed throughout the Mediterranean region, well known to both Hippocrates and Dioscorides. It was used by the ancient Egyptians in the embalming process, and by the ancient Greeks to fumigate against infectious illness; the name derives from the Greek thymos meaning ‘to perfume’. It is also a long-established culinary herb, especially used for the preservation of meat.
It has a wide range of uses, though in Western herbal medicine its main areas of application are respiratory problems, digestive complaints and the prevention and treatment of infection. In the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is indicated for dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, bronchitis, pertussis, asthma, children’s diarrhoea, laryngitis, tonsillitis and enuresis in children.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiputrescent, antirheumatic, antiseptic (intestinal, pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antitussive, antitoxic, aperitif, astringent, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypertensive, nervine, revulsive, rubefacient, parasiticide, stimulant (immune system, circulation), sudorific, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and flowering tops. 1. ‘Red thyme oil’ is the crude distillate. 2. ‘White thyme oil’ is produced by further redistillation or rectification. (An absolute is also produced in France by solvent extraction for perfumery use.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A red, brown or orange liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, powerful odour. 2. A clear, pale yellow liquid with a sweet, green-fresh, milder scent. It blends well with bergamot, lemon, rosemary, melissa, lavender, lavandin, marjoram, Peru balsam, pine, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thymol and carvacrol (up to 60 per cent), cymene, terpinene, camphene, borneol, linalol; depending on the source it can also contain geraniol, citral and thuyanol, etc.
There are many chemotypes of thyme oil: notably the ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ types (warming and active); the ‘thuyanol’ type (penetrating and antiviral); and the milder ‘linalol’ or ‘citral’ types (sweet-scented, non-irritant).
SAFETY DATA: Red thyme oil, serpolet (from wild thyme), ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ type oils all contain quite large amounts of toxic phenols (carvacrol and thymol). They can irritate mucous membranes, cause dermal irritation and may cause sensitization in some individuals. Use in moderation, in low dilution only. They are best avoided during pregnancy.
White thyme is not a ‘complete’ oil and is often adulterated. Lemon thyme and ‘linalol’types are in general less toxic, non-irritant, with less possibility of sensitization – safe for use on the skin and with children.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, bruises, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, insect bites, lice, gum infections, oily skin, scabies.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, gout, muscular aches and pains, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, sports injuries.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis, sinusitis, sore throat, tonsillitis.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urethritis.
Immune system: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.
Nervous system: Headaches, insomnia, nervous debility and stress-related complaints – ‘helps to revive and strengthen both body and mind’..
OTHER USES: The oil is used in mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes and cough lozenges. ‘Thymol’ is isolated for pharmaceutical use in surgical dressings, disinfectants etc. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, aftershaves, perfumes, colognes, etc. Extensively employed by the food and drink industry, especially in meat products.... thyme, common
Accumulation of toxins (M,S,B):
Angelica, white birch, carrot seed, celery seed, coriander, cumin, sweet fennel, grapefruit, juniper, lovage, parsley.
Aches and pains (M,C,B):
Ambrette, star anise, aniseed, French basil, West Indian bay, cajeput, calamintha, camphor (white), chamomile (German & Roman), coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, galbanum, ginger, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), niaouli, nutmeg, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), hemlock spruce, thyme, turmeric, turpentine, vetiver.
Arthritis (M,S,C,B):
Allspice, angelica, benzoin, white birch, cajeput, camphor (white), carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, guaiacwood, juniper, lemon, sweet marjoram, mastic, myrrh, nutmeg, parsley, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, Spanish sage, thyme, tumeric, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.
Cellulitis (M,S,B):
White birch, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lemon, parsley, rosemary, thyme.
Debility/poor muscle tone (M,S,B):
Allspice, ambrette, borneol, ginger, grapefruit, sweet marjoram, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, Spanish sage.
Gout (M,S,B):
Angelica, French basil, benzoin, carrot seed, celery seed, coriander, guaiacwood, juniper, lovage, mastic, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, thyme, turpentine.
High blood pressure & hypertension (M,B,V):
cananga, garlic, true lavender, lemon, sweet marjoram, melissa, clary sage, yarrow, ylang ylang.
Muscular cramp & stiffness (M,C,B):
Allspice, ambrette, coriander, cypress, grapefruit, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, thyme, vetiver.
Obesity (M,B):
White birch, sweet fennel, juniper, lemon, mandarin, orange (bitter & sweet).
Oedema & water retention (M,B):
Angelica, white birch, carrot seed, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lavage, mandarin, orange (bitter & sweet), rosemary, Spanish sage.
Palpitations (M):
Neroli, orange (bitter & sweet), rose (cabbage & damask), ylang ylang.
Poor circulation & low blood pressure (M,B):
Ambrette, Peru balsam, West Indian bay, benzoin, white birch, borneol, cinnamon leaf, coriander, cumin, cypress, eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, geranium, ginger, lemon, lemongrass, lovage, neroli, niaouli, nutmeg, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, thyme, violet.
Rheumatism (M,C,B):
Allspice, angelica, star anise, aniseed, Peru balsam, French basil, West Indian bay, benzoin, white birch, borneol, cajeput, calamintha, camphor (white), carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, clove bud, coriander, cypress, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), sweet fennel, silver fir, galbanum, ginger, immortelle, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lovage, sweet marjoram, mastic, niaouli, nutmeg, parsley, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, thyme, turmeric, turpentine, vetiver, violet, yarrow.
Sprains & strains (C):
West Indian bay, borneol, camphor (white), chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), ginger, immortelle, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, thyme, turmeric, vetiver.... circulation, muscles and joints:
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