Causes As a rule, a person is not conscious of the beating of the heart except when the nervous system is unduly excited. A disorder of the rhythm of the heart (ARRHYTHMIA) may cause palpitations. Sudden emotions, such as fright, or overuse of tobacco, tea, co?ee or alcohol may bring it on. Sometimes it may appear in people with organic heart disease.
Symptoms There may simply be a ?uttering of the heart and a feeling of faintness, or the heart may be felt pounding and the arteries throbbing, causing great distress. The subject may be conscious of the heart missing beats.
Treatment Although these symptoms can be unpleasant, they do not necessarily signify serious disease. Moderate exercise is a good thing. If the person is a smoker, he or she should stop. Tea, co?ee, alcohol or other stimulants should be taken sparingly. If symptoms persist or are severe, the individual should see a doctor and any underlying disorder should be investigated – including by exercise ECG – and treated. The BETA-ADRENOCEPTOR-BLOCKING DRUGS are the most useful drugs in controlling the palpitations of anxiety and those due to some cardiac arrhythmias.... palpitation
The blood pressure is biphasic, being greatest (systolic pressure) at each heartbeat and falling (diastolic pressure) between beats. The average systolic pressure is around 100 mm Hg in children and 120 mm Hg in young adults, generally rising with age as the arteries get thicker and harder. Diastolic pressure in a healthy young adult is about 80 mm Hg, and a rise in diastolic pressure is often a surer indicator of HYPERTENSION than is a rise in systolic pressure; the latter is more sensitive to changes of body position and emotional mood. Hypertension has various causes, the most important of which are kidney disease (see KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF), genetic predisposition and, to some extent, mental stress. Systolic pressure may well be over 200 mm Hg. Abnormal hypertension is often accompanied by arterial disease (see ARTERIES, DISEASES OF) with an increased risk of STROKE, heart attack and heart failure (see HEART, DISEASES OF). Various ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS are available; these should be carefully evaluated, considering the patient’s full clinical history, before use.
HYPOTENSION may result from super?cial vasodilation (for example, after a bath, in fevers or as a side-e?ect of medication, particularly that prescribed for high blood pressure) and occur in weakening diseases or heart failure. The blood pressure generally falls on standing, leading to temporary postural hypotension – a particular danger in elderly people.... blood pressure
Staphylococcal food poisoning occurs after food such as meat products, cold meats, milk, custard and egg products becomes contaminated before or after cooking, usually through incorrect handling by humans who carry S. aureus. The bacteria produce an ENTEROTOXIN which causes the symptoms of food poisoning 1–8 hours after ingestion. The toxin can withstand heat; thus, subsequent cooking of contaminated food will not prevent illness.
Heat-resistant strains of Cl. perfringens cause food poisoning associated with meat dishes, soups or gravy when dishes cooked in bulk are left unrefrigerated for long periods before consumption. The bacteria are anaerobes (see ANAEROBE) and form spores; the anaerobic conditions in these cooked foods allow the germinated spores to multiply rapidly during cooling, resulting in heavy contamination. Once ingested the bacteria produce enterotoxin in the intestine, causing symptoms within 8–24 hours.
Many di?erent types of Salmonella (about 2,000) cause food poisoning or ENTERITIS, from eight hours to three days after ingestion of food in which they have multiplied. S. brendeny, S. enteritidis, S. heidelberg, S. newport and S. thompson are among those commonly causing enteritis. Salmonella infections are common in domesticated animals such as cows, pigs and poultry whose meat and milk may be infected, although the animals may show no symptoms. Duck eggs may harbour Salmonella (usually S. typhimurium), arising from surface contamination with the bird’s faeces, and foods containing uncooked or lightly cooked hen’s eggs, such as mayonnaise, have been associated with enteritis. The incidence of human S. enteritidis infection has been increasing, by more than 15-fold in England and Wales annually, from around 1,100 a year in the early 1980s to more than 32,000 at the end of the 1990s, but has since fallen to about 10,000. A serious source of infection seems to be poultry meat and hen’s eggs.
Although Salmonella are mostly killed by heating at 60 °C for 15 minutes, contaminated food requires considerably longer cooking and, if frozen, must be completely thawed beforehand, to allow even cooking at a su?cient temperature.
Enteritis caused by Campylobacter jejuni is usually self-limiting, lasting 1–3 days. Since reporting of the disease began in 1977, in England and Wales its incidence has increased from around 1,400 cases initially to nearly 13,000 in 1982 and to over 42,000 in 2004. Outbreaks have been associated with unpasteurised milk: the main source seems to be infected poultry.
ESCHERICHIA COLI O157 was ?rst identi?ed as a cause of food poisoning in the early 1980s, but its incidence has increased sharply since, with more than 1,000 cases annually in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s. The illness can be severe, with bloody diarrhoea and life-threatening renal complications. The reservoir for this pathogen is thought to be cattle, and transmission results from consumption of raw or undercooked meat products and raw dairy products. Cross-infection of cooked meat by raw meat is a common cause of outbreaks of Escherichia coli O157 food poisoning. Water and other foods can be contaminated by manure from cattle, and person-to-person spread can occur, especially in children.
Food poisoning associated with fried or boiled rice is caused by Bacillus cereus, whose heat-resistant spores survive cooking. An enterotoxin is responsible for the symptoms, which occur 2–8 hours after ingestion and resolve after 8–24 hours.
Viruses are emerging as an increasing cause of some outbreaks of food poisoning from shell?sh (cockles, mussels and oysters).
The incidence of food poisoning in the UK rose from under 60,000 cases in 1991 to nearly 79,000 in 2004. Public health measures to control this rise include agricultural aspects of food production, implementing standards of hygiene in abattoirs, and regulating the environment and process of industrial food production, handling, transportation and storage.... food poisoning
Paralysis due to brain disease The most common form is unilateral palsy, or HEMIPLEGIA, generally arising from cerebral HAEMORRHAGE, THROMBOSIS or EMBOLISM affecting the opposite side of the BRAIN. If all four limbs and trunk are affected, the paralysis is called quadraplegia; if both legs and part of the trunk are affected, it is called paraplegia. Paralysis may also be divided into ?accid (?oppy limbs) or spastic (rigid).
In hemiplegia the cause may be an abscess, haemorrhage, thrombosis or TUMOUR in the brain. CEREBRAL PALSY or ENCEPHALITIS are other possible causes. Sometimes damage occurs in the parts of the nervous system responsible for the ?ne control of muscle movements: the cerebellum and basal ganglion are such areas, and lack of DOPAMINE in the latter causes PARKINSONISM.
Damage or injury Damage to or pressure on the SPINAL CORD may paralyse muscles supplied by nerves below the site of damage. A fractured spine or pressure from a tumour may have this e?ect. Disorders affecting the cord which can cause paralysis include osteoarthritis of the cervical vertebrae (see BONE, DISORDERS OF), MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS), MYELITIS, POLIOMYELITIS and MENINGITIS. Vitamin B12 de?ciency (see APPENDIX 5: VITAMINS) may also cause deterioration in the spinal cord (see also SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF).
Neuropathies are a group of disorders, some inherited, that damage the peripheral nerves, thus affecting their ability to conduct electrical impulses. This, in turn, causes muscle weakness or paralysis. Among the causes of neuropathies are cancers, DIABETES MELLITUS, liver disease, and the toxic consequences of some drugs or metals – lead being one example.
Disorders of the muscles themselves – for example, muscular dystrophy (see MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF – Myopathy) – can disturb their normal working and so cause partial or complete paralysis of the part(s) affected.
Treatment The aim of treatment should be to remedy the underlying cause – for example, surgical removal of a displaced intervertebral
disc or treating diabetes mellitus. Sometimes the cause cannot be recti?ed but, whether treatable or not, physiotherapy is essential to prevent joints from seizing up and to try to maintain some tone in muscles that may be only partly affected. With temporary paralysis, such as can occur after a STROKE, physiotherapy can retrain the sufferers to use their muscles and joints to ensure mobility during and after recovery. Patients with permanent hemiplegia, paraplegia or quadraplegia need highly skilled nursing care, rehabilitative support and resources, and expert help to allow them, if possible, to live at home.... paralysis
Chronic paronychia occurs with reinfection of the nail bed. This is usually because the person’s hands are regularly immersed in water, making the skin vulnerable to infection. The ?nger should be kept dry and a dry dressing applied accompanied by a course of antibiotics
– FLUCLOXACILLIN or a cephalosporin.... paronychia
Pharmacologists not only research for new drugs, but also look for ways of synthesising them on a large scale. Most importantly, they organise with clinicians the thorough testing of drugs to ensure that these are safe to use, additionally helping to monitor the effects of drugs in regular use so as to identify unforeseen side-effects. Doctors and hospital pharmacists have a special reporting system (‘Yellow Cards’) under which they notify the government’s MEDICINES CONTROL AGENCY of any untoward consequences of drug treatments on their patients (see also MEDICINES).... pharmacology
Phobia is a form of obsession, and not uncommonly one of the features of anxiety. Treatment is behavioural therapy complemented in some patients with ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS. Care is needed, as some sufferers can become psychologically dependent on the drugs used to treat them (see DEPENDENCE). Those who suffer from what can be a most distressing condition can obtain help and advice from the Phobics Society. (See also MENTAL ILLNESS.)... phobia
The disease manifests itself in many ways. It may not be ?nally diagnosed and characterised until the infant is two years old, but may be apparent much earlier – even soon after birth. The child may be spastic or ?accid, or the slow, writhing involuntary movements known as athetosis may be the predominant feature. These involuntary movements often disappear during sleep and may be controlled, or even abolished, in some cases by training the child to relax. The paralysis varies tremendously. It may involve the limbs on one side of the body (hemiplegia), both lower limbs (paraplegia), or all four limbs (DIPLEGIA and QUADRIPLEGIA). Learning disability (with an IQ under 70) is present in around 75 per cent of all children but children with diplegia or athetoid symptoms may have normal or even high intelligence. Associated problems may include hearing or visual disability, behavioural problems and epilepsy.
The outlook for life is good, only the more severely affected cases dying in infancy. Although there is no cure, much can be done to help these disabled children, particularly if the condition is detected at an early stage. Assistance is available from NHS developmental and assessment clinics, supervised by community paediatricians and involving a team approach from experts in education, physiotherapy, occupational therapy and speech training. In this way many of these handicapped children reach adulthood able to lead near-normal lives. Much help in dealing with these children can be obtained from SCOPE (formerly the Spastics Society), and Advice Service Capability Scotland (ASCS).... cerebral palsy
– although lead-containing paints are no longer used for items that children may be in contact with.
Acute poisonings are rare. Clinical features include metallic taste, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, ANOREXIA, fatigue, muscle weakness and SHOCK. Neurological effects may include headache, drowsiness, CONVULSIONS and COMA. Inhalation results in severe respiratory-tract irritation and systemic symptoms as above.
Chronic poisonings cause gastrointestinal disturbances and constipation. Other effects are ANAEMIA, weakness, pallor, anorexia, insomnia, renal HYPERTENSION and mental fatigue. There may be a bluish ‘lead line’ on the gums, although this is rarely seen. Neuromuscular dysfunction may result in motor weakness and paralysis of the extensor muscles of the wrist and ankles. ENCEPHALOPATHY and nephropathy are severe effects. Chronic low-level exposures in children are linked with reduced intelligence and behavioural and learning disorders.
Treatment Management of patients who have been poisoned is supportive, with removal from source, gastric decontamination if required, and X-RAYS to monitor the passage of metallic lead through the gut if ingested. It is essential to ensure adequate hydration and renal function. Concentrations of lead in the blood should be monitored; where these are found to be toxic, chelation therapy should be started. Several CHELATING AGENTS are now available, such as DMSA (Meso-2,3dimercaptosuccinic acid), sodium calcium edetate (see EDTA) and PENICILLAMINE. (See also POISONS.)... lead poisoning
Side-effects of paclitaxel include hypersensitivity, MYELOSUPPRESSION, cardiac ARRHYTHMIA and peripheral NEUROPATHY. Only a minority of patients respond to the drug, but when it works the results are often long-lasting.... paclitaxel
5: VITAMINS.)... pantothenic acid
The contents of the pelvis are the urinary bladder and rectum in both sexes; in addition the male has the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland surrounding the neck of the bladder, whilst the female has the womb, ovaries, and their appendages.
A second meaning is as in renal pelvis – that part of the collecting system proximal to the URETER which collects urine from the renal pyramids (see KIDNEYS).... pelvis
This makes the penis erect and ready for insertion into the woman’s vagina in sexual intercourse. The end of the penis, the glans, is covered by a loose fold of skin – the foreskin or PREPUCE – which retracts when the organ is erect. The foreskin is sometimes removed for cultural or medical reasons.
A common congenital disorder of the penis is HYPOSPADIAS, in which the urethra opens somewhere along the under side; it can be repaired surgically. BALANITIS is in?ammation of the glans and foreskin. (See also REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM; EJACULATION; IMPOTENCE; PRIAPISM.)... penis
Habitat: Not common as a wild plant, except on damp heaths and commons. Frequently seen in cottage gardens. Indigenous to Britain and Europe.
Features ? This member of the mint family grows up to twelve inches high, the stembeing bluntly quadrangular. The one to one and a half inch long, egg-shaped leaves are opposite, on short stalks ; they are slightly serrate and nearly smooth. Purple flowers appear in August. The odour is rather pungent, mint-like but characteristic.Part used ? The whole herb.Action: Carminative, emmenagogue, diaphoretic and stimulant.
An infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint of boiling water, taken warm in teacupful doses frequently repeated, is helpful in hysteria, flatulence and sickness. For children's ailments such as feverish colds, disordered stomach and measles, Pennyroyal infusion may be given in appropriate doses with confidence. Its diaphoretic and stimulant action recommends it for chills and incipient fevers, and the infusion works as an emmenagogue when such ailments retard and obstruct menstruation. The oil of Pennyroyal is a first-rate protection against the bites of mosquitoes, gnats, and similar winged pests. The herb is used to some extent as a flavouring. Although not so popular as other herbs for this purpose, the mint-like flavour and carminative virtues of Pennyroyal should recommend it to cooks as adding to both palatability and digestibility of various dishes.American or Mock Pennyroyal are the names given to the dried leaves and flowering tops of Hedeoma pulegioides. This plant, although quite different in appearance from the European Pennyroyal, has similar medicinal values.... pennyroyalHabitat: Cultivated in gardens.
Features ? Stem two feet high, thick, smooth, branched leaves, pinnate or lobed. Flowers (May) large, red, single, terminal. Transverse section of root is starchy, medullary rays tinged purple. Taste sweet, becoming bitter.Part used ? Root.Action: Tonic, antispasmodic.
Convulsive and spasmodic nervous troubles as chorea and epilepsy. Infusion of 1 ounce powdered root to 1 pint boiling water in wineglassdoses three or four times daily.... peonyAcute peritonitis generally arises because bacteria enter the peritoneal cavity, from penetrating wounds, e.g. stabs, from the exterior or from the abdominal organs. Hence conditions leading to perforation of the STOMACH, INTESTINE, BILE DUCT, URINARY BLADDER, and other hollow organs such as gastric ulcer (see STOMACH, DISEASES OF), typhoid fever (see ENTERIC FEVER), gall-stones (see under GALLBLADDER, DISEASES OF), rupture of the bladder, strangulated HERNIA, and obstructions of the bowels, may lead to peritonitis. Numerous bacteria may cause the in?ammation, most common being E. coli, streptococci and the gonococcus.
The symptoms usually begin with a RIGOR together with fever, vomiting, severe abdominal pain and tenderness. Shock develops and the abdominal wall becomes rigid. If untreated the patient usually dies. Urgent hospital admission is required. X-ray examination may show gas in the peritoneal cavity. Treatment consists of intravenous ?uids, antibiotics and surgical repair of the causative condition. Such treatment, together with strong analgesics is usually successful if started soon enough.... peritonitis
The chief object of perspiration is to maintain an even body temperature by regulating the heat lost from the body surface. Sweating is therefore increased by internally produced heat, such as muscular activity, or external heat. It is controlled by two types of nerves: vasomotor, which regulate the local blood ?ow, and secretory (part of the sympathetic nervous system) which directly in?uence secretion.
Eccrine sweat is a faintly acid, watery ?uid containing less than 2 per cent of solids. The eccrine sweat-glands in humans are situated in greatest numbers on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands, and with a magnifying glass their minute openings or pores can be seen in rows occupying the summit of each ridge in the skin. Perspiration is most abundant in these regions, although it also occurs all over the body.
Apocrine sweat-glands These start functioning at puberty and are found in the armpits, the eyelids, around the anus in association with the external genitalia, and in the areola and nipple of the breast. (The glands that produce wax in the ear are modi?ed apocrine glands.) The ?ow of apocrine sweat is evoked by emotional stimuli such as fear, anger, or sexual excitement.
Abnormalities of perspiration Decreased sweating may occur in the early stages of fever, in diabetes, and in some forms of glomerulonephritis (see KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF). Some people are unable to sweat copiously, and are prone to HEAT STROKE. EXCESSIVE SWEATING, OR HYPERIDROSIS, may be caused by fever, hyperthyroidism (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), obesity, diabetes mellitus, or an anxiety state. O?ensive perspiration, or bromidrosis, commonly occurs on the hands and feet or in the armpits, and is due to bacterial decomposition of skin secretions. A few people, however, sweat over their whole body surface. For most of those affected, it is the palmar and/or axillary hyperhidrosis that is the major problem.
Conventional treatment is with an ANTICHOLINERGIC drug. This blocks the action of ACETYLCHOLINE (a neurotransmitter secreted by nerve-cell endings) which relaxes some involuntary muscles and tightens others, controlling the action of sweat-glands. But patients often stop treatment because they get an uncomfortably dry mouth. Aluminium chloride hexahydrate is a topical treatment, but this can cause skin irritation and soreness. Such antiperspirants may help patients with moderate hyperhidrosis, but those severely affected may need either surgery or injections of BOTULINUM TOXIN to destroy the relevant sympathetic nerves to the zones of excessive sweating.... perspiration
The pituitary gland is the most important ductless, or endocrine, gland in the body. (See
ENDOCRINE GLANDS.) It exerts overall control of the endocrine system through the media of a series of hormones which it produces. The adenohypophysis produces trophic hormones (that is, they work by stimulating or inhibiting other endocrine glands) and have therefore been given names ending with ‘trophic’ or ‘trophin’. The thyrotrophic hormone, or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), exerts a powerful in?uence over the activity of the THYROID GLAND. The ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH) stimulates the cortex of the adrenal glands. GROWTH HORMONE, also known as somatotrophin (SMH), controls the growth of the body. There are also two gonadotrophic hormones which play a vital part in the control of the gonads: these are the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and the luteinising hormone (LH) which is also known as the interstitial-cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) – see GONADOTROPHINS. The lactogenic hormone, also known as prolactin, mammotrophin and luteotrophin, induces lactation.
The neurohypophysis produces two hormones. One is oxytocin, which is widely used because of its stimulating e?ect on contraction of the UTERUS. The other is VASOPRESSIN, or the antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which acts on the renal tubules and the collecting tubules (see KIDNEYS) to increase the amount of water that they normally absorb.... pituitary gland
(2) Raised patch on the skin resulting from the merging or enlargement of papules (see PAPULE; PIMPLES).... plaque
– is caused by the bacterium Yersinis pestis. Plague remains a major infection in many tropical countries.
The reservoir for the bacillus in urban infection lies in the black rat (Rattus rattus), and less importantly the brown (sewer) rat (Rattus norvegicus). It is conveyed to humans by the rat ?ea, usually Xenopsylla cheopis: Y. pestis multiplies in the gastrointestinal tract of the ?ea, which may remain infectious for up to six weeks. In the pneumonic form (see below), human-to-human transmission can occur by droplet infection. Many lower mammals (apart from the rat) can also act as a reservoir in sylvatic transmission which remains a major problem in the US (mostly in the south-western States); ground-squirrels, rock-squirrels, prairie dogs, bobcats, chipmunks, etc. can be affected.
Clinically, symptoms usually begin 2–8 days after infection; disease begins with fever, headache, lassitude, and aching limbs. In over two-thirds of patients, enlarged glands (buboes) appear – usually in the groin, but also in the axillae and cervical neck; this constitutes bubonic plague. Haemorrhages may be present beneath the skin causing gangrenous patches and occasionally ulcers; these lesions led to the epithet ‘Black Death’. In a favourable case, fever abates after about a week, and the buboes discharge foul-smelling pus. In a rapidly fatal form (septicaemic plague), haematogenous transmission produces mortality in a high percentage of cases. Pneumonic plague is associated with pneumonic consolidation (person-to-person transmission) and death often ensues on the fourth or ?fth day. (The nursery rhyme ‘Ringo-ring o’ roses, a pocketful o’ posies, atishoo! atishoo!, we all fall down’ is considered to have originated in the 17th century and refers to this form of the disease.) In addition, meningitic and pharyngeal forms of the disease can occur; these are unusual. Diagnosis consists of demonstration of the causative organism.
Treatment is with tetracycline or doxycycline; a range of other antibiotics is also e?ective. Plague remains (together with CHOLERA and YELLOW FEVER) a quarantinable disease. Contacts should be disinfected with insecticide powder; clothes, skins, soft merchandise, etc. which have been in contact with the infection can remain infectious for several months; suspect items should be destroyed or disinfected with an insecticide. Ships must be carefully checked for presence of rats; the rationale of anchoring a distance from the quay prevents access of vermin. (See also EPIDEMIC; PANDEMIC; NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.)... plague
Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening condition in which the air in the hemithorax is under such pressure that it forces the heart to the other side and compresses the still-in?ated lung on the other side. It must be promptly relieved by inserting a hollow tube into the pleural cavity – a chest drain.
Arti?cial pneumothorax was an operation often performed in the pre-antibiotic days to treat pulmonary tuberculosis. Air was run into the pleural cavity to cause collapse of one lung, which rested it and allowed cavities in it to heal.... pneumothorax
The disorder may, however, occur for no obvious reason and is then called polycythaemia vera. This type develops mainly in people over 40 and about 400 people develop the disorder every year in the United Kingdom. The blood thickens, the sufferer may develop high blood pressure, ?ushing, headaches, itching and an enlarged spleen. A stroke may occur later in the disease process. Treatment of polycythaemia vera is by regular removal of blood by VENESECTION, sometimes in combination with an anticancer drug. Secondary polycythaemia is treated by remedying the underlying cause.
Polycythaemia rubra vera A disorder in which the red blood cells increase in number along with an increase in the number of white blood cells and platelets. The cause is unknown. Severe cases may require treatment with CYTOTOXIC drugs or RADIOTHERAPY.... polycythaemia
The secretion of prolactin is normally kept under tonic inhibition by the secretion of DOPAMINE which inhibits prolactin. This is formed in the HYPOTHALAMUS and secreted into the portal capillaries of the pituitary stalk to reach the anterior pituitary cells. Drugs that deplete the brain stores of dopamine or antagonise dopamine at receptor level will cause HYPERPROLACTINAEMIA and hence the secretion of milk from the breast and AMENORRHOEA. METHYLDOPA and RESERPINE deplete brain stores of dopamine and the PHENOTHIAZINES act as dopamine antagonists at receptor level. Other causes of excess secretion of prolactin are pituitary tumours, which may be minute and are then called microadenomas, or may actually enlarge the pituitary fossa and are then called macroadenomas. The most common cause of hyperprolactinaemia is a pituitary tumour. The patient may present with infertility – because patients with hyperprolactinaemia do not ovulate – or with amenorrhea and even GALACTORRHOEA.
BROMOCRIPTINE is a dopamine agonist. Treatment with bromocriptine will therefore control hyperprolactinaemia, restoring normal menstruation and ovulation and suppressing galactorrhoea. If the cause of hyperprolactinaemia is an adenomatous growth in the pituitary gland, surgical treatment should be considered.... prolactin
Development of such mechanical and biomechanical devices points the way to a much wider use of e?ective prostheses, enabling people who would previously have died or been severely handicapped to lead normal or near normal lives. The technical hazards that have already been overcome provide a sound foundation for future successes. Progress so far in producing prostheses should also ensure that organ replacement is free from the serious ethical problems that surround the use of genetic manipulation to cure or prevent serious diseases (see ETHICS).
Limbs These are best made to meet the individual’s requirements but can be obtained ‘o? the shelf’. Arti?cial joints normally comprise complex mechanisms to stimulate ?exion and rotation movements. Leg prostheses are generally more useful than those for arms, because leg movements are easier to duplicate than those of the arm. Modern electronic circuitry that enables nerve impulses to be picked up and converted into appropriate movements is greatly improving the e?ectiveness of limb prostheses.
Eyes Arti?cial eyes are worn both for appearance and for psychological reasons. They are made of glass or plastic, and are thin shells of a boat-shape, representing the front half of the eye which has been removed. The stump which is left has still the eye-muscles in it, and so the arti?cial eye still has the power of moving with the other. A glass eye has to be replaced by a new one every year. Plastic eyes have the advantage of being more comfortable to wear, being more durable, and being unbreakable. Research is taking place aimed at creating a silicon chip that stimulates the visual cortex and thus helps to restore sight to the blind.
Dental prostheses is any arti?cial replacement of a tooth. There are three main types: a crown, a bridge and a denture. A crown is the replacement of the part of a tooth which sticks through the gum. It is ?xed to the remaining part of the tooth and may be made of metal, porcelain, plastic or a combination of these. A bridge is the replacement of two or three missing teeth and is usually ?xed in place. The replacement teeth are held in position by being joined to one or more crowns on the adjacent teeth. A denture is a removable prosthesis used to replace some or all the teeth. The teeth are made of plastic or porcelain and the base may be of plastic or metal. Removable teeth may be held more ?rmly by means of implants.
Heart The surgical replacement of stenosed or malfunctioning heart-valves with metal or plastic, human or pig valves has been routinely carried out for many years. So too has been the insertion into patients with abnormal heart rhythms of battery-driven arti?cial pacemakers (see CARDIAC PACEMAKER) to restore normal function. The replacement of a faulty heart with an arti?cial one is altogether more challenging. The ?rst working attempt to create an arti?cial heart took place in the early 1980s. Called the Jarvik-7, it had serious drawbacks: patients had to be permanently connected to apparatus the size of an anaesthetic trolley; and it caused deaths from infection and clotting of the blood. As a result, arti?cial hearts have been used primarily as bridging devices to keep patients alive until a suitable donor heart for transplantation can be found. Recent work in North America, however, is developing arti?cial hearts made of titanium and dacron. One type is planted into the chest cavity next to the patient’s own heart to assist it in its vital function of pumping blood around the body. Another replaces the heart completely. Eventually, it is probable that arti?cial hearts will replace heart transplants as the treatment of choice in patients with serious heart disorders.
Liver Arti?cial livers work in a similar way to kidney dialysis machines (see DIALYSIS). Blood is removed from the body and passed through a machine where it is cleaned and treated and then returned to the patient. The core of the device comprises several thousand ?exible membrane tubules on which live liver cells (from pigs or people) have been cultured. There is an exchange of biological molecules and water with the ‘circulating’ blood, and the membrane also screens the ‘foreign’ cells from the patient’s immune system, thus preventing any antagonistic immune reaction in the recipient.
Nose The making of a new nose is the oldest known operation in plastic surgery, Hindu records of such operations dating back to 1,000 BC. Loss of a nose may be due to eroding disease, war wounds, gun-shot wounds or dog bites. In essence the operation is the same as that practised a thousand years before Christ: namely the use of a skin graft, brought down from the forehead. Alternative sources of the skin graft today are skin from the arm, chest or abdomen. As a means of support, the new nose is built round a graft of bone or of cartilage from the ear.... prosthesis
Psychoanalysis aims at discovering these repressed memories, which are responsible for the diversion of mental power and of which the affected person usually is only dimly aware or quite unaware. The fundamental method of psychoanalytical treatment is the free expression of thoughts, ideas and fantasies on the part of the patient. To facilitate this, the analyst uses techniques to relax the patient and maintains a neutral attitude to his or her problems. In the course of analysis the patient will re-explore his or her early emotional attitudes and tensions.
The fundamental conception of psychoanalysis, although hard to prove by orthodox scienti?c methods and therefore challenged by some psychiatrists, has been widely adopted and developed by other schools of psychology. Freud’s work changed the attitudes of the scienti?c community and the public to the problems of the neurotic, the morbidly anxious, the fearful and to the mental and emotional develoment of the child.... psychoanalysis
Psychosurgery is now rare in Britain. The Mental Health Act 1983 requires not only consent by the patient – con?rmed by an independent doctor, and two other representatives of the Mental Health Act Commission – but also that the Commission’s appointed medical representative also advise on the likelihood of the treatment alleviating or preventing a deterioration in the patient’s condition.... psychosurgery
In girls, puberty is marked by the onset of MENSTRUATION and development of the BREASTS. The latter is usually the ?rst sign of puberty to appear, and may occur from nine years onwards; most girls show signs of breast development by the age of 13. The time from the beginning of breast development to the onset of menstruation is usually around two years but may range from six months to ?ve years. The ?rst sign of puberty in boys is an increase in testicular and penile size (see TESTICLE; PENIS) between the age of ten and 14. The LARYNX enlarges in boys, so that the voice – after going through a period of ‘breaking’ – ?nally assumes the deep manly pitch. Hair appears on the pubis and later in the armpits in both boys and girls, whilst in the former it also begins to grow on the upper lip, and skin eruptions are not uncommon on the face (see ACNE).
The period is one of transition from a physical and mental point of view. Puberty is not to be regarded as a physiological ‘coming of age’, for full development is usually achieved in the early 20s.... puberty
day of the puerperium. (See also PREGNANCY AND LABOUR.)
Management The mother should start practising exercises to help ensure that the stretched abdominal muscles regain their normal tone. There is no need for any restriction of diet, but care must be taken to ensure an adequate intake of ?uid, including at least 580 ml (a pint) of milk a day.
Milk, as already stated, appears copiously on the third day, but this is preceded by a secretion from the breast, known as colostrum, which is of value to the newborn child. The child should therefore be put to the breasts within 6–8 hours of being born. This also stimulates both the breasts and the natural changes taking place during this period. Suckling is bene?cial for both child and mother and encourages bonding between the two.... puerperium
The cause of the pulsation lies in the fact that, at each heartbeat, 80–90 millilitres of blood are driven into the AORTA, and a ?uid wave, distending the vessels as it passes, is transmitted along the ARTERIES all over the body. This pulsation falls away as the arteries grow smaller, and is ?nally lost in the minute capillaries, where a steady pressure is maintained. For this reason, the blood in the veins ?ows steadily on without any pulsation. Immediately after the wave has passed, the artery, by virtue of its great elasticity, regains its former size. The nature of this wave helps the doctor to assess the state of the artery and the action of the heart.
The pulse rate is usually about 70 per minute, but it may vary in health from 50 to 100, and is quicker in childhood and slower in old age than in middle life; it is low (at rest) in physically ?t athletes or other sports people. Fever causes the rate to rise, sometimes to 120 beats a minute or more.
In childhood and youth the vessel wall is so thin that, when su?cient pressure is made to expel the blood from it, the artery can no longer be felt. In old age, however, and in some degenerative diseases, the vessel wall becomes so thick that it may be felt like a piece of whipcord rolling beneath the ?nger.
Di?erent types of heart disease have special features of the pulse associated with them. In atrial FIBRILLATION the great character is irregularity. In patients with an incompetent AORTIC VALVE the pulse is characterised by a sharp rise and sudden collapse. (See HEART, DISEASES OF.)
An instrument known as the SPHYGMOGRAPH registers the arterial waves and a polygraph (an instrument that obtains simultaneous tracings from several di?erent sources such as radial and jugular pulse, apex beat of the heart and ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)) enables tracings to be taken from the pulse at the wrist and from the veins in the neck and simultaneous events in the two compared.
The pressure of the blood in various arteries is estimated by a SPHYGMOMANOMETER. (See BLOOD PRESSURE.)... pulse
Chronic pyelonephritis may start in childhood, and the usual cause is back ?ow of urine from the bladder into one of the ureters – perhaps because of a congenital deformity of the valve where the ureter drains into the bladder. Constant urine re?ux results in recurrent infection of the kidney and damage to its tissue. Full investigation of the urinary tract is essential and, if an abnormality is detected, surgery may well be required to remedy it. HYPERTENSION and renal failure may be serious complications of pyelonephritis (see also KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF).... pyelonephritis
A related condition, congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, occurs in babies (commonly boys) about 3–5 weeks old, and surgery produces a complete cure.... pyloric stenosis
common pain pathways in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. (See also PAIN.)... referred pain
Aetiology. Injury, virus infection, cold, stroke. Recovery usually spontaneous. Herpes Simp. Alternatives. Chamomile, Wood Betony, Bryonia, Black Cohosh, Barberry, Asafoetida, Lobelia, Rosemary, Valerian, Sage. Echinacea has been used with convincing results internally and externally.
Tea. Equal parts. Chamomile, Wood Betony. Sage. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup 3 times daily.
Decoctions. Black Cohosh, Rosemary, Valerian, Echinacea.
Tablets/capsules. Black Cohosh. Ginseng. Echinacea. Valerian.
Powders. Formula. Rosemary 1; Echinacea 2; Valerian 1. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Tinctures. Formula. Echinacea 2; Rosemary 1; Black Cohosh 1; Pinch Tincture Capsicum. 1-2 teaspoons 3 times daily.
Evening Primrose oil. 4 × 500mg capsules daily.
Aromatherapy. 10 drops Oil Juniper to eggcup Almond oil; gentle massage affected side of face. Diet. Lacto-vegetarian.
Vitamin E. (400iu daily). ... bell’s palsy
Disorders are (1) hypoparathyroidism and (2) hyperparathyroidism. See entries. ... parathyroid glands
Symptoms: Severe itching. Thickened skin with shiny red patches which later become brown and scaly. Distinguish from psoriasis. Nails ridged and split.
Alternatives. Relief from itching by use of antihistamines: Garlic, Goldenseal, Ephedra, Lobelia.
Teas. Nettles, Boneset, Chickweed, Heartsease, Yucca.
Decoctions. (1) Combine: equal parts: Burdock, Sarsaparilla, Passion flower. OR (2) Combine: equal parts: Echinacea, Blue Flag root, Sarsaparilla. Half an ounce (14g) to 1 pint (500ml) water gently simmered 20 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup thrice daily.
Cold infusion. One heaped teaspoon Barberry (Berberis Vul) to cup cold water. Steep overnight. Half-1 cup thrice daily.
Powders, Liquid Extracts or Tinctures. Equal parts: Wild Yam, Blue Flag root, Fringe Tree bark. Powders: 500mg. Liquid Extracts: 30-60 drops in water. Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons in water. Thrice daily before meals.
Mouth ulcers: Rinse mouth with Goldenseal and Myrrh drops, in water.
Topical. Ointment or pulp from any one: Aloe Vera, Comfrey, Chickweed, Houseleek, Marshmallow. Vaginal lesion. Aloe Vera pulp or gel.
Diet. Avoid citrus fruits and milk.
Vitamins. A. B-complex, B12, C. E. F. PABA.
Minerals. Dolomite. Zinc. Cod Liver oil: one dessertspoon daily. ... lichen planus
Some authorities believe cause is vitamin and mineral deficiency – those which promote bone health being calcium and magnesium (dolomite). Supplementation helps cases but evidence confirms that some pet-owners are at risk – a virus from cats and dogs possibly responsible. The prime candidate is one exposed to canine distemper. Dogs are involved twice as much as cats. The virus is closely related to the measles virus in humans.
Symptoms. Limbs deformed, hot during inflammatory stage. Headaches. Dull aching pain in bones. Deafness from temporal bone involvement. Loss of bone rigidity. Bowing of legs.
Surgical procedures may be necessary. Appears to be a case for immunisation of dogs against distemper.
Alternatives. Black Cohosh, Boneset, Cramp bark, Bladderwrack, German Chamomile, Devil’s Claw, Helonias, Oat husks, Prickly Ash, Sage, Wild Yam.
Tea. Oats (mineral nutrient for wasting diseases) 2; Boneset (anti-inflammatory) 1; Valerian (mild analgesic) 1; Liquorice quarter. Mix. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Decoction. Cramp bark 1; White Willow 2. Mix. 4 heaped teaspoons to 1 pint (500ml) water gently simmered 20 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup thrice daily.
Tablets/capsules. Cramp bark, Devil’s Claw, Echinacea, Helonias, Prickly Ash, Wild Yam.
Formula. Devil’s Claw 1; Black Cohosh 1; Valerian 1; Liquorice quarter. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Action enhanced when taken in cup of Fenugreek tea. Thrice daily. Every 2 hours acute cases.
Practitioner’s analgesic. Tincture Gelsemium: 10 drops in 100ml water. Dose: 1 teaspoon every 2 hours (inflammatory stage).
Topical. Comfrey root poultice.
Diet. High protein, low salt, low fat. Oily fish.
Supplements. Daily. Vitamin C (500mg); Vitamin D (1000mg); Calcium citrate (1 gram); Dolomite (1 gram); Beta-Carotene (7500iu). Kelp. ... paget’s disease
Treatment Oral steroids, if started early, increase the rate of recovery, which occurs in over 90 per cent of patients, usually starting after two or three weeks and complete within three months. Permanent loss of function with facial contractures occurs in about 5 per cent of patients. Recurrence of Bell’s palsy is unusual.... bell’s palsy
Habitat: Throughout India.
English: Bryony.Ayurvedic: Lingini, Shivalingi, Chitraphalaa.Siddha/Tamil: Iyaveli, Iyaviraali.Folk: Lingadonda (Telugu).Action: Seeds—anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic. Used for vaginal dysfunctions, as a fertility promoting drug. Powdered seeds, also roots, are given to help conception in women. Plant is also used in venereal diseases.... bryophyllum pinnatum
A tin-like metal, cadmium accumulates in the body. Long-term exposure can lead to EMPHYSEMA, renal failure (see KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF) and urinary-tract CALCULI. Acute exposure causes GASTROENTERITIS and PNEUMONITIS. Cadmium contamination of food is the most likely source of poisoning. The EU Directive on the Quality of Water for Human Consumption lays down 5 milligrams per litre as the upper safe level.... cadmium poisoning
Severe poisoning from ingestion of fungi is very rare, since relatively few species are highly toxic and most species do not contain toxic compounds. The most toxic species are those containing amatoxins such as death cap (Amanita phalloides); this species alone is responsible for about 90 per cent of all mushroom-related deaths. There is a latent period of six hours or more between ingestion and the onset of clinical effects with these more toxic species. The small intestine, LIVER and KIDNEYS may be damaged – therefore, any patient with gastrointestinal effects thought to be due to ingestion of a mushroom should be referred immediately to hospital where GASTRIC LAVAGE and treatment with activated charcoal can be carried out, along with parenteral ?uids and haemodialysis if the victim is severely ill. In most cases where effects occur, these are early-onset gastrointestinal effects due to ingestion of mushrooms containing gastrointestinal irritants.
Muscarine is the poisonous constituent of some species. Within two hours of ingestion, the victim starts salivating and sweating, has visual disturbances, vomiting, stomach cramps, diarrhoea, vertigo, confusion, hallucinations and coma, the severity of symptoms depending on the amount eaten and type of mushroom. Most people recover in 24 hours, with treatment.
‘Magic’ mushrooms are a variety that contains psilocybin, a hallucinogenic substance. Children who take such mushrooms may develop a high fever and need medical care. In adults the symptoms usually disappear within six hours.
Treatment If possible, early gastric lavage should be carried out in all cases of suspected poisoning. Identi?cation of the mushroom species is a valuable guide to treatment. For muscarine poisoning, ATROPINE is a speci?c antidote. As stated above, hospital referral is advisable for people who have ingested poisonous fungi.... fungus poisoning
In England and Wales, the age of consent for heterosexual and homosexual sex is 16 years; in Northern Ireland, 17 years; and in Scotland the age of consent for heterosexual sex is 12 for a girl and 14 for a boy. However, girls are protected by Section 5 of the Criminal Law (Consolidation) Act 1995 which makes it an o?ence to have sexual intercourse with a girl aged under
16. For girls under 13, the maximum sentence is life-imprisonment, and between 13 and 16, two years’ imprisonment. Homosexual consent in Scotland is 16.
Paedophiles suffer from personality problems rather than overt psychoses (see PSYCHOSIS) and the origins of their behaviour may lie in their own early sexual experiences. Their behaviour often has features of an addiction.
It is of note that most underaged sex is between family members such as stepfather and daughter rather than with a stranger or predatory paedophile.
(See CHILD ABUSE.)... paedophilia
Pansey, Pansi, Pansie, Pansee, Panzi, Panzy, Panzie, Panzee, Pansea, Panzea... pansy
Caution is needed when treating patients with bronchopulmonary disease or liver impairment; and intramuscular injection near the sciatic nerve should be avoided, as it may cause severe CAUSALGIA. Adverse effects include rashes; pain and sterile ABSCESS after intramuscular injection; rectal irritation after ENEMA.... paraldehyde
A pedicle is also found occurring between a tumour and its tissue of origin, and the term is used in anatomy to refer to any slim tubular process.... pedicle
Peniah, Penea, Peniya, Peneah, Peniyah... penia
Penicillin is a beta-lactam antibiotic, one of a group of drugs that also includes CEPHALOSPORINS. Drugs of this group have a four-part beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure and they act by interfering with the cell-wall growth of mutliplying bacteria.
Among the organisms to which it has been, and often still is, active are: streptococcus, pneumococcus, meningococcus, gonococcus, and the organisms responsible for syphilis and for gas gangrene (for more information on these organisms and the diseases they cause, refer to the separate dictionary entries). Most bacteria of the genus staphylococcus are now resistant because they produce an enzyme called PENICILLINASE that destroys the antibiotic. A particular problem has been the evolution of strains resistant to methicillin – a derivative originally designed to conquer the resistance problem. These bacteria, known as METHICILLINRESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS (MRSA), are an increasing problem, especially after major surgery. Some are also resistant to other antibiotics such as vancomycin.
An important side-e?ect of penicillins is hypersensitivity which causes rashes and sometimes ANAPHYLAXIS, which can be fatal.
Forms of penicillin These include the following broad groups: benzylpenicillin and phenoxymethyl-penicillin; penicillinase-resistant penicillins; broad-spectrum penicillins; antipseudomonal penicillins; and mecillinams. BENZYLPENICILLIN is given intramuscularly, and is the form that is used when a rapid action is required. PHENOXYMETHYLPENICILLIN (also called penicillin V) is given by mouth and used in treating such disorders as TONSILLITIS. AMPICILLIN, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, is another of the penicillins derived by semi-synthesis from the penicillin nucleus. It, too, is active when taken by mouth, but its special feature is that it is active against gram-negative (see GRAM’S STAIN) micro-organisms such as E. coli and the salmonellae. It has been superceded by amoxicillin to the extent that prescriptions for ampicillin written by GPs in the UK to be dispensed to children have fallen by 95 per cent in the last ten years. CARBENICILLIN, a semi-synthetic penicillin, this must be given by injection, which may be painful. Its main use is in dealing with infections due to Pseudomonas pyocanea. It is the only penicillin active against this micro-organism which can be better dealt with by certain non-penicillin antibiotics. PIPERACILLIN AND TICARCILLIN are carboxypenicillins used to treat infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus spp. FLUCLOXACILLIN, also a semi-synthetic penicillin, is active against penicillin-resistant staphylococci and has the practical advantage of being active when taken by mouth. TEMOCILLIN is another penicillinase-resistant penicillin, e?ective against most gram-negative bacteria. AMOXICILLIN is an oral semi-synthetic penicillin with the same range of action as ampicillin but less likely to cause side-effects. MECILLINAM is of value in the treatment of infections with salmonellae (see FOOD POISONING), including typhoid fever, and with E. coli (see ESCHERICHIA). It is given by injection. There is a derivative, pivmecillinam, which can be taken by mouth. TICARCILLIN is a carboxypenicillin used mainly for serious infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, though it is also active against some gram-negative bacilli. Ticarcillin is available only in combination with clarulanic acid.... penicillin
Habitat: Damp places by water courses. Largely cultivated, especially in the U.S.A., for its oil, which is probably the most used of all the volatile oils. Features ? Stem quadrangular, purplish, reaching three or four feet high. Leaves stalked, serrate, very slightly hairy, about two and a half inches by one inch.
Characteristic taste and smell. Part used ? Herb.Action: Carminative, stomachic, stimulant.
In flatulence, colic and nausea. Usually combined with other remedies when a complete stomachic is needed. Particularly suitable for children. Dose, wineglassful of ounce to pint infusion.... peppermintUses Phenothiazines should be prescribed and used with care. The drugs di?er in predominant actions and side-effects; selection depends on the extent of sedation required and the susceptibility of the patient to extrapyramidal side-effects. The di?erences between the drugs, however, are less important than the variabilities in patients’ responses. Patients should not be prescribed more than one antipsychotic drug at a time. In the short term these therapeutically powerful drugs can be used to calm disturbed patients, whatever the underlying condition (which might have a physical or psychiatric basis). They also alleviate acute anxiety and some have antidepressant properties, while others worsen DEPRESSION (see also MENTAL ILLNESS).... phenothiazines
Action Physostigmine produces the same e?ect as stimulation of the PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: i.e. it constricts the pupil of the eye, stimulates the gut, increases the secretion of saliva, stimulates the bladder, and increases the irritability of voluntary muscle. In poisonous doses it brings on a general paralysis.
Uses It is used in medicine in the form of eye drops or ointment to treat GLAUCOMA.... physostigmine
Pityriasis alba is a mild form of chronic eczema (see DERMATITIS) occurring mainly in children on the face and in young adults on the upper arms. It is characterised by round or oval ?aky patches which are paler than the surrounding skin due to partial loss of MELANIN pigment. The appearance is more dramatic in dark-skinned or suntanned subjects. Moisturising cream often su?ces, but 1 per cent HYDROCORTISONE cream is more e?ective.
Pityriasis rosea is a common self-limiting eruption seen mainly in young adults. It usually begins as a solitary red ?aky patch (often misdiagnosed as ringworm). Within a week this ‘herald patch’ is followed by a profuse symmetrical eruption of smaller rose-pink, ?aky, oval lesions on the trunk and neck but largely sparing the limbs and face. Itching is variable. The eruption usually peaks within 3 weeks and fades away leaving collarettes of scale, disappearing within 6–7 weeks. It rarely recurs and a viral cause is suspected but not proved. It is not contagious and there is no speci?c treatment, but crotamiton cream (Eurax) may relieve discomfort.... pityriasis
The condition is caused by an imbalance between LUTEINISING HORMONE (LH) and FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH); this imbalance stops OVULATION and varies the TESTOSTERONE output of the ovaries. The treatment may be with CLOMIPHENE; with a PROGESTOGEN drug; with LUTEINISING HORMONE-RELEASING HORMONE (LHRH); or with oral contraceptives (see under CONTRACEPTION – Non-barrier methods). The treatment chosen depends on the severity of the disease and whether the woman wants to conceive. Rarely a section of ovarian tissue is surgically removed.... polycystic ovary syndrome
Their removal is generally easy, as they are simply twisted o?, or cut o?, by some form of snare or ligature. (The tissue removed should be checked for malignant cells.) Those which are situated in the interior of the bladder or bowels, and whose presence is usually recognised because blood appears in the urine or stools, require a more serious operation – usually an endoscopic examination (see ENDOSCOPE).... polypus
Ben: Dalim;
Tam: Madalai, Madalam;Mal: Urumampazham, Matalam, Talimatala m, Matalanarakam; Kan :Dalimbe;Tel: Dadima; Mar: Dalimba;Guj: Dadam; Ass: DalinImportance: Pomegranate has long been esteemed as food and medicine and as a diet in convalescence after diarrhoea. The rind of the fruit is highly effective in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, dyspepsia, colitis, piles and uterine disorders. The powdered drug boiled with buttermilk is an efficacious reme dy for infantile diarrohoea. The root and stem bark are good for tapeworm and for strengthening the gums. The flowers are useful in vomiting, vitiated conditions of pitta, ophthalmodynia, ulcers, pharyngodynia and hydrocele. An extract of the flowers is very specific for epistaxis. The fruits are useful in anaemia, hyperdipsia, pharyngodynia, ophthalmodynia, pectoral diseases, splenopathy, bronchitis and otalgia. The fruit rind is good for dysentery, diarrhoea and gastralgia. Seeds are good for scabies, hepatopathy and splenopathy. The important preparations using the drug are Dadimadighrtam, Dadimastaka churnam, Hinguvacadi churnam, Hingvadi gulika, etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994, Warrier et al, 1995).Distribution: Pomegranate is a native of Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. It is found growing wild in the warm valleys and outer hills of the Himalaya between 900m and 1800m altitude. It is cultivated throughout India, the largest area being in Maharastra.Botany: Punica granatum Linn. belongs to the family Punicaceace. It is a large deciduous shrub up to 10m in height with smooth dark grey bark and often spinescent branchlets. Leaves are opposite, glabrous, minutely pellucid-punctuate, shining above and bright green beneath. Flowers are scarlet red or sometime yellow, mostly solitary, sometimes 2-4 held together. Stamens are numerous and inserted on the calyx below the petals at various levels. Fruits are globose, crowned by the persistent calyx. Rind is coriaceous and woody, interior septate with membraneous walls containing numerous seeds. Seeds are angular with red, pink or whitish, fleshy testa (Warrier et al, 1995).Agrotechnology: Pomegranate is of deciduous nature in areas where winters are cold, but on the plains it is evergreen. A hot dry summer aids in the production of best fruits. Plants are grown from seeds as well as cuttings. Mature wood pieces cut into lengths of about 30cm are planted for rooting. The rooted plants are planted 4.5-6m apart. When planted close, they form a hedge which also yields fruits. Normal cultivation and irrigation practices are satisfactory for the pomegranate. An application of 30-45kg of FYM annually to each tree helps to produce superior quality fruits. The pomegranate may be trained as a tree with a single stem for 30-45cm or as a bush with 3 or 4 main stems. In either case suckers arising from the roots and similar growths from the trunk and main branches are removed once a year. Shortening of long slender branches and occasional thinning of branches should be done. The fruit has a tough rind and hence transportation loss is minimum (ICAR, 1966).Properties and activity: Pomegranate fruit rind gives an ellagitannin named granatin B, punicalagin, punicalin and ellagic acid. Bark contains the alkaloids such as iso-pelletierine, pseudopelletierine, methyl isopelletierine, methyl pelletierine, pelletierine as well as iso-quercetin, friedelin, D- mannitol and estrone. Flowers give pelargonidin-3, 5-diglucoside apart from sitosterol, ursolic acid, maslinic acid, asiatic acid, sitosterol- -D-glucoside and gallic acid. Seeds give malvidin pentose glycoside. Rind gives pentose glycosides of malvidin and pentunidin. Fluoride, calcium, magnesium, vitamin C and phosphate are also reported from fruits. Leaves give elligatannins-granatins A and B and punicafolin.Rind of fruit is astringent, fruit is laxative. Bark of stem and root is anthelmintic, and febrifuge. Rind of fruit and bark of stem and root is antidiarrhoeal. Pericarp possesses antifertility effect. Fixed oil from seeds are antibacterial. Bark, fruit pulp, flower and leaf are antifungal. Aerial part is CNS depressant, diuretic and hypothermic. The flower buds of pomegranate in combination with other plants showed excellent response to the patients of Giardiasis (Mayer et al, 1977; Singhal et al, 1983).... pomegranateThe organs from which the portal vein collects the blood are the large and small intestines, the stomach, spleen, pancreas, and gall-bladder.... portal vein
The haemagglutination inhibition test This, and the subsequent tests to be mentioned, are known as immunological tests. They are based upon the e?ect of the urine from a pregnant woman upon the interaction of red blood cells, which have been sensitised to human gonadotrophin, and anti-gonadotrophin serum. They have the great practical advantage of being performed in a test-tube or even on a slide. Because of their ease and speed of performance, a result can be obtained in two hours.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) This is the basis of many of the pregnancy-testing kits obtainable from pharmacies. It is a highly sensitive antibody test and can detect very low concentrations of human chorionic gonadotrophin. Positive results show up as early as ten days after fertilisation – namely, four days before the ?rst missed period.
Ultrasound The fetal sac can be detected by ULTRASOUND from ?ve weeks, and a fetal echo at around six or seven weeks (see also PRENATAL SCREENING OR DIAGNOSIS).... pregnancy tests
The term is also used for the symptoms or signs with which a patient ?rst brings to a doctor.... presentation
Habitat: Flourishes in moist places throughout the United States, from which country the medicinal berries and bark are imported.
Features ? A shrub varying between ten and fifteen feet in height with alternate branches covered with strong, sharp prickles, the leaves are pinnate, with lanceolate leaflets, the flowers green and white. Small, blue-black berries enclosed in a grey shell grow in clusters on the top of the branches. The bark is about one- twelfth of an inch thick, and has corky, conical spines nearly one inch in height. Fractures show green in the outer part and yellow in the inner. The taste is very pungent, causing salivation, and there is little odour.Part used ? Berries and bark, the berries being considered the more effective.Action: Stimulant, alterative, nervine and diaphoretic.
An infusion of the berries, or the crushed or powdered bark, is made in the proportion of 1/2 ounce to 1 pint of boiling water, the dose being one tablespoonful four times daily. The infusion should be allowed to stand in a covered vessel for two hours before use.In the treatment of chronic rheumatic trouble this medicine is given a prominent place, and it is also widely used wherever a general stimulant is needed. The powdered bark is applied directly to indolent ulcers. As an external application for rheumatism. Coffin recommends 1 ounce of the pulverised bark to 4 ounces of Olive oil, heated, the part to be well rubbed with this liniment night and morning.... prickly ashPrymrose, Primula, Primulia, Primrosa, Prymrosa... primrose
– for example, LACTOBACILLUS or bi?dobacterium. Not all probiotics have the same properties or e?ectiveness. To be e?ective, a probiotic must survive passage through the stomach – an acid environment – and successfully colonise in the intestines, even when antibiotics are present. Research suggests that probiotics ameliorate the symptoms of childhood and travellers’ DIARRHOEA, reducing the period of acute symptoms – particularly if the infection is caused by one of the ROTAVIRUSES.... probiotics
Treatment varies, depending (amongst other things) on the severity of the condition. In the acute phase, rest in bed is advisable, along with ANALGESICS. Later, exercise and physiotherapy are helpful, and in some cases manipulation of the spine brings relief by allowing the herniated, or prolapsed, disc to slip back into position. The injection of a local anaesthetic into the spine (epidural ANAESTHESIA) is yet another measure that often helps the more chronic cases. If those measures fail, surgery to remove the prolapsed disc may be necessary, but the patient’s condition should be carefully reviewed before surgery is considered since success is not certain. An alternative form of treatment is the injection into the disc of chymopapain, an ENZYME obtained from the paw-paw, which dissolves the disc.... prolapsed intervertebral disc
Fever, an o?ensive-smelling post-partum vaginal discharge (lochia) and pain in the lower abdomen are the main features. Untreated, the women may develop SALPINGITIS, PERITONITIS and septicaemia. Antibiotics are used to treat the infection and any retained placental tissue must be removed.... puerperal sepsis
Static lung volumes and capacities can be measured: these include vital capacity – the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly and completely after a maximum deep breath; forced vital capacity is a similar manoeuvre using maximal forceful exhalation and can be measured along with expiratory ?ow rates using simple spirometry; total lung capacity is the total volume of air in the chest after a deep breath in; functional residual capacity is the volume of air in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration, with all respiratory muscles relaxed.
Dynamic lung volumes and ?ow rates re?ect the state of the airways. The forced expiratory volume (FEV) is the amount of air forcefully exhaled during the ?rst second after a full breath – it normally accounts for over 75 per cent of the vital capacity. Maximal voluntary ventilation is calculated by asking the patient to breathe as deeply and quickly as possible for 12 seconds; this test can be used to check the internal consistency of other tests and the extent of co-operation by the patient, important when assessing possible neuromuscular weakness affecting respiration. There are several other more sophisticated tests which may not be necessary when assessing most patients. Measurement of arterial blood gases is also an important part of any assessment of lung function.... pulmonary function tests
Maria Treben’s Facial Pack: of any of the following – Thyme, Mullein, Chamomile or Yarrow. Fill small muslin bag and steep in boiling water. Ring out. Apply as hot as possible.
Internal: Chamomile tea. ... facial pain
Treatment. See entries for specific disorders. Teas, powders, tinctures, liquid extracts, or essential oils – see entry of appropriate remedy.
The following are brief indications for action in the absence of a qualified practitioner. Flatulence (gas in the intestine or colon), (Peppermint). Upper right pain due to duodenal ulcer, (Goldenseal). Inflamed pancreas (Dandelion). Gall bladder, (Black root). Liver disorders (Fringe Tree bark). Lower left – diverticulitis, colitis, (Fenugreek seeds). Female organs, (Agnus Castus). Kidney disorders, (Buchu). Bladder, (Parsley Piert). Hiatus hernia (Papaya, Goldenseal). Peptic ulcer, (Irish Moss). Bilious attack (Wild Yam). Gastro-enteritis, (Meadowsweet). Constipation (Senna). Acute appendicitis, pain central, before settling in low right abdomen (Lobelia). Vomiting of blood, (American Cranesbill). Enlargement of abdominal glands is often associated with tonsillitis or glandular disease elsewhere which responds well to Poke root. As a blanket treatment for abdominal pains in general, old-time physicians used Turkey Rhubarb (with, or without Cardamom seed) to prevent griping.
Diet: No food until inflammation disperses. Slippery Elm drinks. ... abdominal pain
People who have an antisocial personality lack a sense of guilt and cannot tolerate frustration.
They may have problems with relationships and are frequently in trouble with the law.
Behaviour therapy, and various forms of psychotherapy, may help to improve integration.
In general, the effects of this disorder decrease with age.... antisocial personality disorder
OENOTHERA BIENNIS, commonly known as the evening primrose. The oil contains an anti-inflammatory substance called gamolenic acid, and is believed by some to be of benefit in treating eczema and premenstrual syndrome.... evening primrose oil
Mercury has an affinity for the central nervous system. Soon it concentrates in the kidney causing tubular damage. A common cause is the mercurial content (50 per cent) in the amalgam fillings in teeth which, under certain conditions, release a vapour. Fortunately, its use in dentistry is being superceded by an alternative composite filling.
A common cause of poisoning was demonstrated in 1972 when 6,000 people became seriously ill (600 died) from eating bread made from grain treated with a fungicide containing methylmercury. For every fungus in grain there is a mercuric compound to destroy it. The seed of all cereal grain is thus treated to protect its power of germination.
Those who are hypersensitive to the metal should as far as possible avoid button cells used in tape recorders, cassette players, watch and camera mechanisms. As the mercury cells corrode, the metal enters the environment and an unknown fraction is converted by micro organisms to alkylmercury compounds which seep into ground waters and eventually are borne to the sea. When cells are incinerated, the mercury volatilises and enters the atmosphere. (Pharmaceutical Journal, July 28/1984)
Mercury poisoning from inhalation of mercury fumes goes directly to the brain and pituitary gland. Autopsies carried out on dentists reveal high concentrations of mercury in the pituitary gland. (The Lancet, 5-27-89,1207 (letter))
Treatment. For years the common antidote was sulphur, and maybe not without reason. When brought into contact sulphur and mercury form an insoluble compound enabling the mercury to be more easily eliminated from the body. Sulphur can be provided by eggs or Garlic.
Old-time backwoods physicians of the North American Medical School used Asafoetida, Guaiacum and Echinacea. German pharmacists once used Bugleweed and Yellow Dock. Dr J. Clarke, USA physician recommends Sarsaparilla to facilitate breakdown and expulsion from the body.
Reconstructed formula. Echinacea 2; Sarsaparilla 1; Guaiacum quarter; Asafoetida quarter; Liquorice quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Chelation therapy.
Formula. Tinctures. Skullcap 2-15 drops; Pleurisy root 20-45 drops; Horehound 5-40 drops. Mercurial salivation. Thrice daily. (Indian Herbology of North America, by Alma Hutchens) Dental fillings: replace amalgam with safe alternative – ceramic, etc. Evidence of a link between tooth fillings containing mercury and ME has caused the use of dental amalgam to be banned in Sweden. ... mercury poisoning
There are over 50 strains of human papillomavirus.
Infection with some of these strains is thought to be a causative factor in cervical cancer and anal cancer.... human papillomavirus
adolescents and obese people. It is not serious and usually clears up on its own. In severe cases, applying a mixture of salicylic acid and soft paraffin and scrubbing with a loofah may help.... keratosis pilaris
Klumpke’s paralysis is caused by injury to the 1st thoracic nerve (one of the spinal nerves) in the brachial plexus, which is usually the result of dislocation of the shoulder.... klumpke’s paralysis
Once used for lithotomy, the position is still used for pelvic examinations and some types of pelvic surgery.... lithotomy position
In severe injuries, there may be damage to both the upper and the lower nerve roots of the brachial plexus, producing complete paralysis of the arm.
Paralysis may be temporary if the stretching was not severe enough to tear nerve fibres.
Nerve roots that have been torn can be repaired by nerve grafting, a microsurgery procedure.
If a nerve root has become separated from the spinal cord, surgical repair will not be successful.
Apart from injuries, the brachial plexus may be compressed by the presence of a cervical rib (extra rib).... brachial plexus
Pancreatectomy may be performed to treat pancreatitis or localized cancer of the pancreas (see pancreas, cancer of).
Rarely, it is performed to treat insulinomas.
Pancreatectomy may lead to diabetes mellitus and malabsorption.... pancreatectomy
Temperament, intelligence, emotion, and motivation are important aspects.
The development of personality seems to depend on the interaction of heredity and environment.... personality
The thumb and big toe have 2 phalanges; all the other fingers and toes have 3.... phalanges
The term is also used in relation to the manufacture and sale of drugs.... pharmaceutical
Side effects include nausea, dizziness, tremor, and overgrown and tender gums.... phenytoin
PUVA combines the use of long-wave ultraviolet light with a psoralen drug, which sensitizes the skin to light. This is used to treat psoriasis and other skin diseases such as vitiligo. Psoriasis may also be treated using short-wave ultraviolet light, sometimes combined with the application of coal tar.
Visible blue light is used to treat neonatal jaundice (see jaundice, neonatal), which is due to high levels of the pigment bilirubin in the blood. In phototherapy, bilirubin is converted into a harmless substance that can be excreted. To maximize exposure, the baby is undressed and placed under the lights in an incubator to keep him warm.phrenic nerve One of the pair of main nerves supplying the diaphragm. Each phrenic nerve carries motor impulses to the diaphragm, and plays a part in controlling breathing. Injury to, or surgical cutting of, 1 of the nerves results in paralysis of 1 half of the diaphragm.... phototherapy
There are many abnormalities of pigmentation.
Patches of pale skin occur in psoriasis, pityriasis alba, pityriasis versicolor, and vitiligo.
Albinism is caused by generalized melanin deficiency.
Phenylketonuria results in a reduced melanin level, making sufferers pale-skinned and fair-haired.
Areas of dark skin may be caused by disorders such as eczema or psoriasis, pityriasis versicolor, chloasma, or by some perfumes and cosmetics containing chemicals that cause photosensitivity.
Permanent areas of deep pigmentation, such as freckles and moles (see naevus), are usually due to an abnormality of melanocytes.
Acanthosis nigricans is characterized by dark patches of velvet-like, thickened skin.
Blood pigments may lead to abnormal colouring.
Excess of the bile pigment bilirubin in jaundice turns the skin yellow, and haemochromatosis turns the skin bronze.... pigmentation
They are common in elderly people, and may be removed for cosmetic reasons.... pinguecula
Pioglitazone acts by reducing peripheral insulin resistance.
Side effects may include gastrointestinal disturbances, weight gain, and anaemia.... pioglitazone
Symptoms usually occur suddenly and depend on how much of the placenta has separated from the wall of the uterus. They include slight to heavy vaginal bleeding, which can be severe haemorrhaging in complete separation; cramps in the abdomen or backache; severe, constant abdominal pain; and reduced fetal movements. If the bleeding does not stop, or if it starts again, it may be necessary to induce labour (see
A small placental abruption is usu-tal. In more severe
ergency caesarean section is often necessary to save the the life of the fetus. A blood transfusion required.
placenta praevia Implantation of the placenta in the lower part of the uterus, near or over the cervix. Placenta praevia occurs in about 1 in 200 pregnancies. It varies in severity from marginal placenta praevia, when the placenta reaches the edge of the cervical opening, to complete placental praevia, when the entire opening of the cervix is covered. Mild placenta praevia may have no adverse effect. More severe cases often cause painless vaginal bleeding in late pregnancy. If the bleeding is slight and the pregnancy still has several weeks to run, bed rest in hospital may be all that is necessary. The baby will probably be delivered by caesarean section at the 38th week. If the bleeding is heavy or if the pregnancy is near term, an immediate delivery is carried out. placenta, tumours of See choriocarcinoma; hydatidiform mole.... placental abruption
The condition is usually evident from a physical examination, but ultrasound scanning may be needed.
In mild cases, only rest is needed.
In more severe cases, amniotic fluid may be withdrawn using a needle.
In late pregnancy, induction of labour may be performed.... polyhydramnios
There are 6 types of porphyria. Acute intermittent porphyria usually appears in early adulthood, causing abdominal pain, and often limb cramps, muscle weakness, and psychiatric disturbances. The patient’s urine turns red when left to stand. Barbiturate drugs, phenytoin, oral contraceptives, and tetracyclines precipitate attacks.
Variegate porphyria has similar effects but also causes blistering of sun-exposed Protoporphyria usually causes skin symptoms after exposure to sunlight, as does porphyria cutanea tarda. In this type, wounds are slow to heal, and urine is sometimes pink or brown. Many cases are precipitated by liver disease. The rarest and most serious form, congenital erythropoietic porphyria, causes red discoloration of urine and the teeth, excessive hair growth, severe skin blistering and ulceration, and haemolytic anaemia. Death may occur in childhood. Diagnosis is made from abnormal levels of porphyrins in the urine and faeces. Treatment is difficult. Avoiding sunlight and/or precipitating drugs is the most important measure. Acute intermittent porphyria, variegate porphyria, and hereditary coproporphyria may be helped by administration of glucose or haematin. Cases of porphyria cutanea tarda may be helped by venesection.... porphyria
Most mothers first get the “blues” 4–5 days after childbirth and may feel miserable, irritable, and tearful. The cause is hormonal changes, perhaps coupled with a sense of anticlimax or an overwhelming sense of responsibility for the baby. With reassurance and support, the depression usually passes in 2–3 days. In about 10–15 per cent of women, the depression lasts for weeks and causes a constant feeling of tiredness, difficulty in sleeping, loss of appetite, and restlessness. The condition usually clears up of its own accord or is treated with antidepressant drugs.
Depressive psychosis usually starts 2–3 weeks after childbirth, causing severe mental confusion, feelings of worthlessness, threats of suicide or harm to the baby, and sometimes delusions.
Hospital admission, ideally with the baby, and antidepressant drugs are often needed.... postnatal depression
Common causes include natural disasters, violence, rape, torture, serious physical injury, and military combat.
Symptoms, which may develop many months after the event, include recurring memories or dreams of the event, a sense of personal isolation, and disturbed sleep and concentration.
There may be a deadening of feelings, or irritability and feelings of guilt, sometimes building up to depression.
Most people recover, in time, with emotional support and counselling.... post-traumatic stress disorder
Prazosin is also used to treat urinary symptoms resulting from an enlarged prostate gland (see prostate, enlarged).
Side effects include dizziness and fainting, nausea, headache, and dry mouth.... prazosin
There are 3 types of such conditions.
In the 1st, there are no tumours present but the condition carries an increased risk of cancer.
In the 2nd, there are noncancerous tumours that tend to become cancerous or are associated with the development of cancerous tumours elsewhere.
The 3rd type comprises disorders which have irregular features from the beginning but do not always become fully cancerous.... precancerous
The hormones may cause a premature growth spurt followed by early fusion of the bones. As a result, affected children may initially be tall but, if untreated, final height is often greatly reduced.
The child’s pattern of pubertal development is assessed by a doctor. Blood tests are performed to measure hormone levels. Ultrasound scanning of the ovaries and testes, and CT scanning of the adrenal glands or brain, may also be carried out, depending on the underlying cause suspected.
Treatment is of the underlying cause, and hormone drugs may be given to delay puberty and increase final height.... precocious puberty
A normal pregnancy lasts around 40 weeks from the first day of the woman’s last menstrual period. It is divided into 3 stages (trimesters) of 3 months each. For the first 8 weeks of pregnancy, the developing baby is called an embryo; thereafter it is called a fetus.
In the 1st trimester the breasts start to swell and may become tender. Morning sickness is common. The baby’s major organs have developed by the end of this stage. During the 2nd trimester, the mother’s nipples enlarge and darken and weight rises rapidly. The baby is usually felt moving by 22 weeks. During the 3rd trimester, stretch marks and colostrum may appear, and Braxton Hick’s contractions may be felt. The baby’s head engages at about 36 weeks.
Common, minor health problems during pregnancy include constipation, haemorrhoids, heartburn, pica, swollen ankles, and varicose veins. Other common disorders include urinary tract infections, stress incontinence (see incontinence, urinary), and candidiasis.Complications of pregnancy and disorders that affect it include antepartum haemorrhage; diabetic pregnancy; miscarriage; polyhydramnios; pre-eclampsia; prematurity; and Rhesus incompatibility. (See also childbirth; fetal heart monitoring; pregnancy, multiple.)... pregnancy
It consists of the encouragement of good oral hygiene, fluoride treatment, and scaling.... preventive dentistry
It is also used as an antiemetic drug, and sometimes as a premedication.
Possible adverse effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, and drowsiness.... promethazine
Possible adverse effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, and retention of urine.... propantheline
It may also be used to reduce the risk of further heart damage after myocardial infarction.
It relieves symptoms of hyperthyroidism and anxiety, and can prevent migraine attacks.
Possible adverse effects are typical of other beta-blocker drugs.... propranolol
The term also describes a rare childhood condition in which congenital abnormality of the lower half of the tibia leads to spontaneous fracture.... pseudarthrosis
The underlying cause is unknown; in rare cases, it is a complication of diabetes mellitus, hyperparathyroidism, and haemochromatosis.
Symptoms are similar to gout.
Diagnosis is from a sample of joint fluid.
Treatment is with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).... pseudogout
scrotum resembling labia. (See also hermaphroditism, sex determination.)... pseudohermaphroditism
Psychodrama is often carried out with a partner or in a group; music, dance, and mime are often used.... psychodrama
Infection is most often due to extensive tooth decay (see caries, dental) or dental fractures (see fracture, dental).
Pulpotomy prevents further degeneration of the pulp.
If treatment is unsuccessful, rootcanal treatment may be required.... pulpotomy
Pyloroplasty may be performed as part of the surgery for a peptic ulcer, or to prevent tightening of the pyloric muscles after vagotomy.... pyloroplasty
The 1st symptoms appear during or after adolescence and include night blindness.
Tests show a ring-shaped area of blindness which, over some years, extends to destroy an increasing area of the visual field, though central vision is retained, often for many years.
Opthalmoscopy reveals several masses of black pigment corresponding to the areas of visual loss.
Affected individuals and their parents should have genetic counselling.... retinitis pigmentosa
The phrase “sick role” describes the type of passive behaviour expected and allowed of a patient; people with social or emotional problems may unconsciously adopt this role to gain sympathy and understanding.... role-playing
The weakness may last for minutes, hours, or even days, but there is no lasting effect.
The cause is thought to be temporary damage to the motor cortex (the area of the brain that controls movement).... todd’s paralysis
Habitat: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Tehri-Garhwal and other areas of northern India, at altitudes of 2,100-3,600 m.
English: Pindrow-Fir, Silver-Fir, The West-Himalayan Low-Level Fir.Ayurvedic: Taalisha (related sp.).Folk: Badar, Morinda, Raisalla, Ransla.Action: Uses similar to those of A. webbiana.
Terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides and steroids of the leaf were found to have mast cell stabilizing action in rats. Terpenoids and flavonoids offered bronchoprotection against his- tamine challenge in guinea pigs. The ulcer protective action of petroleum ether, benzene and chloroform fraction has been attributed to steroidal contents. Terephthalic acid demethyl ester (TADE), isolated from the leaf, exhibited protection against inflammation and bronchospasm in guinea pigs. Ethanolic extract of leaves showed significant anxiolytic effects on all the paradigms of anxiety, barbiturate hypnosis potentiation.Pindrolactone, a lanostane-based triterpene lactone, isolated from the leaves, showed mild activity against Gram-positive bacteria but exhibited potent antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria E. coli.... abies pindrowHabitat: Throughout the country, ascending to an altitude of about 1,050 m in the outer Himalayas.
English: Indian Wild Liquorice, Jequirity, Crab's Eye, Precatory Bean.Ayurvedic: Gunjaa, Gunjaka, Chirihintikaa, Raktikaa, Chirmi- ti, Kakanti, Kabjaka, Tiktikaa, Kaakananti, Kaakchinchi. (Not to be used as a substitute for liquorice.)Unani: Ghunghchi, Ghamchi.Siddha/Tamil: Kunri.Folk: Chirmiti, Ratti.Action: Uterine stimulant, abortifa- cient, toxic. Seeds—teratogenic. A paste of seeds is applied on vitiligo patches.
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India has indicated the use of seeds in baldness.Seeds contain abrin, a toxalbumin, indole derivatives, anthocyanins, ste- rols, terpenes. Abrin causes agglutination of erythrocytes, haemolysis and enlargement of lymph glands. A non- toxic dose of abrin (1.25 mcg/kg body weight), isolated from the seeds of red var., exhibited a noticeable increase in antibody-forming cells, bone marrow cellularity and alpha-esterase-positive bone marrow cells.Oral administration of agglutinins, isolated from the seeds, is useful in the treatment of hepatitis and AIDS.The seed extract exhibited antischis- tosomal activity in male hamsters.The methanolic extract of seeds inhibited the motility of human spermatozoa.The roots contain precol, abrol, gly- cyrrhizin (1.5%) and alkaloids—abra- sine and precasine. The roots also contain triterpenoids—abruslactone A, methyl abrusgenate and abrusgenic acid.Alkaloids/bases present in the roots are also present in leaves and stems.A. fruticulosus Wall. Ex Wight and Arn. synonym A. pulchellus Wall., A. laevigatus E. May. (Shveta Gunjaa) is also used for the same medicinal purposes as A. precatorius.Dosage: Detoxified seed—1-3 g powder. Root powder—3-6 g. (API Vols. I, II.)... abrus precatoriusHabitat: Throughout India; ascending to 1,700 m in the Himalayas.
Ayurvedic: Lataakhadira, Aadaari, Ari.Siddha/Tamil: Indan, Indu. Iyak Koluntu (tender leaves).Folk: Aila.Action: Bark—antibilious, antiasth- matic. Leaf—stomachic, styptic (for bleeding gum), antiseptic (for scalding of urine). A decoction of young leaves is taken for body pain, headache and fever.
The bark contains tannin 9%, lupe-ol and alpha-spinasterol. Stem yields sitosterol.... acacia pennataHabitat: Native to tropical Africa; common along the west coast of India.
English: Baobab, Monkey Bread tree, African calabash.Ayurvedic: Sheet-phala, Ravanaam- likaa, Gorakshi, Panchparni.Unani: Gorakh Imli.Siddha/Tamil: Papparapuli.Folk: Gorakh Imli; Gorakh Chinchaa.Action: Cooling, refrigerant (allays burning sensation). Leaves— diaphoretic (used as a prophylactic against fevers). Fruit—antidysen- teric, antiseptic, antihistaminic.
The fruit pulp is a source of vitamin C (175.0-445.4 mg/100 g); dried pulp contains calcium and vitamin B1. Furfural (9.6%) is obtained after distillation of the fruit. In Africa, dried leaves provide much of the dietary calcium. Aqueous extract of the bark is used for treating sickle cell anaemia.An infusion of the leaves and flowers is given in respiratory disorders. (Powdered leaves prevented crisis in asthma induced by histamine in guinea pigs.) Dried fruit pulp also gives relief in bronchial asthma, allergic dermatitis and urticaria.Family: Leguminosae; Mimosaceae.Habitat: The western Ghats, the Andamans and sub-Himalayan tract; also cultivated.
English: Coral Wood, Red Wood.Ayurvedic: Rakta Kanchana, Rakta Kambala.Siddha/Tamil: Anai-gundumani.Folk: Ghumchi (bigger var.).Action: Astringent and styptic (used in diarrhoea, haemorrhage from the stomach, haematuria), anti-inflammatory (in rheumatic affections, gout). Seeds— anticephalgic; also used for the treatment of paralysis. A decoction is given in pulmonary affections.
The seed contains an anti-inflammatory active principle, O-acetyletha- nolamine. The leaves contain octa- cosanol, dulcitol, glucosides of beta- sitosterol and stigmasterol. The bark contains sitgmasterol glucoside.... adenanthera pavoninaThe windpipe leads into the chest and divides above the heart into two bronchi, one of which goes to each lung, in which it splits into ?ner and ?ner tubes (see LUNGS). The larynx is enclosed in two strong cartilages: the thyroid (of which the most projecting part, the Adam’s apple, is a prominent point on the front of the neck), and the cricoid (which can be felt as a hard ring about an inch below the thyroid). Beneath this, the trachea – which is sti?ened by rings of cartilage so that it is never closed, no matter what position the body is in – can be traced down until it disappears behind the breastbone.... air passages
Habitat: All over India.
Ayurvedic: Shveta Shirisha (bark- white or greenish-white).Action: Bark—a decoction is given in rheumatism and haemorrhage.
The bark contains beta-sitosterol and yields 12-17% tannins.An oleanolic acid saponin, proceric acid saponin mixture from seeds and root saponin exhibit spermicidal activity.... albizia proceraHabitat: The drier parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
English: Camel Thorn, Persian Manna Plant.Ayurvedic: Yavaasaka, Yavaasa, Yaasa, Duhsparshaa, Duraalab- haa, Kunaashak. Substitute for Dhanvayaasa. Yaasa-sharkaraa (Alhagi-manna).Unani: Jawaansaa. Turanjabeen (Alhagi-manna).Siddha/Tamil: Punaikanjuri, Kan- chori.Action: Laxative, antibilious, diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant. Leaves—used for fever, headache, rheumatism. Flowers—blood coagulant, used for piles. Alhagi- manna—expectorant, antiemetic, laxative.
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of dried whole plant in gout and haemorrhagic disorders.The aerial parts contain flavonoids, tannins, sterols, triterpenes, saponins and anthroquinones.The proanthocyanidins derived from the plant possess hypolipidemic and antiatherosclerotic properties. The compounds prevented an increase in rat serum cholesterol and triglycerides, and they decreased the manifestation of atherosclerosis.A polymeric proanthocyanidin, extracted from the plant, improved energy metabolism and increased the work capacity in rats.Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts produced positive inotropic effect on rabbit heart.Dosage: Whole plant—20-50 g for decoction. (API Vol. II.) Decoction—50-100 ml. (CCRAS.)... alhagi pseudalhagiHabitat: Native to the Mediterranean region; cultivated in India.
English: Leek.Folk: Vilaayati Piyaaz. Praan (Kashmir). Seemevangayam (Tamil Nadu).Action: Expectorant; used as a substitute for garlic.
Leek is poor in volatile oil content in comparison with garlic, but it contains sufficient amounts of non-toxic sapo- nins, which perhaps give it expectorant properties.The bulbs contain several thiosul- phinates, and also potentially anticar- cinogenic flavonoids, quercetin and kaempferol.... allium porrumHabitat: Native to China; cultivated in Himalayan regions; grows in tropical and semi-tropical regions and temperate climates.
English: Peach tree.Ayurvedic: Aaruka.Unani: Aaaduu, Khokh.Action: Leaves and bark—expectorant (used in cough, whooping cough, and chronic bronchitis), sedative, stomachic, demulcent, antiscorbutic, diuretic. Fresh leaves—anthelmintic. Powder of leaves—styptic (externally). Fruit— stomachic, antiscorbutic.... amygdalus persica
Habitat: Native to the Mediterranean region; cultivated in Algeria.
English: Spanish, Pellitory, Pyrethrum Root.Ayurvedic: Aakaarakarabha, Aakallaka, Aakulakrit, Agragraahi.Unani: Aaqarqarhaa.Siddha/Tamil: Akkiraakaaram.Action: Stimulant, cordial, rubefa- cient.A gargle of infusion is prescribed for relaxed vulva. Root— used for toothache, rheumatic and neuralgic affections and rhinitis. Roots, along with the root of Witha- nia somnífera and Vitis vinifera, are used in epilepsy.
Along with other therapeutic applications, Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of the root in sciatica, paralysis, hemiplegia and amenorrhoea.The root contains anacycline, isobu- tylamide, inulin and a trace ofessential oil.The local anaesthetic activity of the alcoholic (2%) extract of the root was found to be comparable to that of xy- locaine hydrochloride (2%) in dental patients.Use of the drug in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus reduces the dose of insulin. It decreased the plasma glucose and serum cholesterol levels after oral administration for 3-6 weeks. (The plant is mixed with Helleborus nigar in a ratio of 1:3.) The plant extract inhibited tobacco-induced mutagenesis by 47.5% at a concentration of 1 mg/plate.Dosage: Root—500 mg to 1 g powder. (CCRAS.)... anacyclus pyrethrumHabitat: Throughout India, from Himachal Pradesh to Assam and Mizoram, and all over southern India.
English: Creat.Ayurvedic: Kaalmegha, Bhuunimba, Bhuuminimbaka, Vishwambharaa, Yavtikta, Kalpanaatha, Kiraata-tikta (var.).Unani: Kiryaat.Siddha/Tamil: Nilavembu.Action: Hepatoprotective, cholin- ergic, antispasmodic, stomachic, anthelmintic, alterative, blood purifier, febrifuge. It acts well on the liver, promoting secretion of bile. Used in jaundice and torpid liver, flatulence and diarrhoea of children, colic, strangulation of intestines and splenomegaly; also for cold and upper respiratory tract infections.
Key application: As bitter tonic, febrifuge and hepatoprotective. (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Kaalmegha, officinal in IP, consists of dried leaves and tender shoots, which yield not less than 1% andro- grapholide on dry-weight basis.Several active constituents have been identified from the leaf and rhizome, including andrographolide, deoxyan- drographolide and other diterpenes.Andrographolide exhibited strong choleretic action when administered i.p. to rats. It induces increase in bile flow together with change in physical properties of bile secretion. It was found to be more potent than sily- marin.Andrographolide was found to be almost devoid of antihepatitis-B virus surface antigen-like activity (when compared with picroliv.)The leaf and stem extracts of Kaal- megha/andrographolide given s.c. or orally did not change blood sugar level of normal or diabetic rats.Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibited antidiarrhoeal activity against E. coli enterotoxins in animal models.Clinical evidence of effectiveness of andrographis in humans is limited to the common cold. Preliminary evidence suggests that it might increase antibody activity and phagocytosis by macrophages, and might have mast cell-stabilizing and antiallergy activity. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)The herb is contraindicated inbleed- ing disorders, hypotension, as well as male and female sterility (exhibited infertility in laboratory animals).Dosage: Whole plant—5-10 ml juice; 50-100 ml decotion; 1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... andrographis panicultataHabitat: The sub-Himalayas tracts, Sikkim, Assam, Bengal, western Ghats and the Andamans.
Ayurvedic: Rohitaka, Daadima- chhada, Daadima-pushpaka, Plihaghna. Tecoma undulata G. Don., Bignoniaceae, is also equated with Rohitaka.Siddha/Tamil: Malampuluvan.Action: Bark—strongly astringent, used in the diseases of the liver and spleen, and for tumours, enlarged glands. Seed oil—used in muscular pains and rheumatism. All parts of the plant exhibit pesticidal activity. Seed extract—antibacterial, antifungal.
An aqueous extract of the bark, when injected i.p. in normal guinea pigs, showed reduction in absolute lymphocyte count and an increase in spleen weight. The bark appears to be an effective immunosuppressive drug similar to prednisolone.The stembark contains a limonoid, ammorinin and a saponin, poriferas- terol-3-rhamnoside.... aphanamixis polystachyaHabitat: Throughout the hotter parts of India. Also, commonly grown as a hedge plant in gardens.
English: Common Yellow Nail Dye Plant.Ayurvedic: Sahachara, Baana, Kurantaka, Kuranta, Koranda, Korandaka, Shairiya, Pita-saireyaka(yellow-flowered var.). Also equated with Vajradanti.Unani: Piyaabaansaa.Siddha/Tamil: Chemmulli.Folk: Piyaabaasaa, Jhinti, Kat- saraiyaa.Action: Leaf—juicegiveninstomach disorders, urinary affections; mixed with honey and given to children with fever and catarrh; leaf juice is applied to lacerated soles of feet in the rainy season, mixed with coconut oil for pimples. Leaves and flowering tops—diuretic. Bark—diaphoretic and expectorant. Roots—paste is applied over boils and glandular swellings. Plant (Vajradanti)—antidontalgic, used for bleeding gums in Indian medicine. Ash, obtained from the whole plant, mixed with honey, is given in bronchial asthma.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends oil extract of the plant for arresting greying of hair.The leaves and flowering tops are diuretic, rich in potassium salts. Leaves and stems showed presence of iridoid glucosides, barlerin and acetylbarlerin. Flowers gave the flavonoid glycoside, scutellarein-7-neohesperidoside. The presence of beta-sitosterol is reported in the plant.In the south, Nila Sahachara is equated with Ecbolium linneanun Kurz. (known as Nilaambari), and Shveta Sa- hachara with Justica betonica Linn.Ecbolium linneanun plant is used for gout and dysuria; the root is prescribed for jaundice.Dosage: Whole plant—50-100 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)... barleria prionitisHabitat: The Himalayas, and distributed in Northern India, Assam, Khasi Hills. Also cultivated in gardens.
English: Camel's Foot tree, Pink Bauhinia, Butterfly tree, Geramium tree, Orchid tree.Ayurvedic: Kovidaara, Rakta Kaanchanaara.Unani/Siddha: Sivappu mandaarai.Siddha: Mandarai.Folk: Koilaara, Khairwaal, Kaliaar, Rakta Kanchan.Action: Bark—astringent, antidiar- rhoeal. Flower buds and flowers, fried in purified butter, are given to patients suffering from dysentery. Extract of stems are used internally and externally for fractured bones. Plant is used in goitre. It exhibited antithyroid-like activity in experimental animals.
The flowers contain astragalin, iso- quercitrin and quercetin, also antho- cyanins. Seeds contain chalcone gly- cosides.... bauhinia purpureaHabitat: Throughout India in gardens, waste places and tea plantations.
Folk: Phutium (Gujarat), Kuri (Garhwal).Action: Plant—cytotoxic. Leaf— applied to ulcers and swollen glands.
The plant contains a number of poly- acetylenes which are toxic to bacteria, fungi and human fibroblast cells. Phenylheptatriyne is the major constituent of the leaves and stems.B. pilosa Linn. var. minor (Blume) Sherff, synonym B. pilosa Linn. var. bi- pinnata Hook. f. in part, gave phytos- terin-B, which like insulin, showed hy- poglycaemic activity both in normal and diabetic rats. B. pilosa auct. non Linn., synonym B. chinensis Willd., is used for leprosy, fistulae, pustules, tumours.... bidens pilosaHabitat: Bihar, West Bengal and Assam, up to 900 m.
Ayurvedic: Godhaapadi.Siddha/Tamil: Kattuppirandai.Action: Leaves—astringent and refrigerant (used for ulcers, diarrhoea, uterine and other fluxes).
Aerial parts—diuretic, spasmolytic.... cayratia pedataHabitat: Cultivated in gardens throughout India.
English: Barbados Pride, Peacock Flower.Ayurvedic: Padangam, Ratnagandhi, Krishnachuudaa.Siddha/Tamil: Mayirkonrai, Nalal.Folk: Guleturaa, Sankeshwara.Action: Leaves—laxative, antipyretic. Used in Eastern India as a substitute for senna. Dried and powdered leaves are used in erysipelas. Flowers—anthelmintic. Also used for cough and catarrh. Root—a decoction is prescribed in intermittent fevers. Bark— emmenagogue, abortifacient.
The plant contains a flavonoid, my- ricitroside. The leaves, flowers and fruits contain tannins, gums, resin, benzoic acid. Presence of cyanidin- 3,5-diglucoside is also reported from the flowers, hydrocyanic acid from the leaves. The root contains caesalpin type diterpenoids along with sitosterol.The leaves have displayed anticancer activity in laboratory animals. A diter- penoid, isolated from the root, also showed anticancer activity.In Pakistan, the leaf and flower extract exhibited activity against Grampositive bacteria.... caesalpinia pulcherrimaHabitat: An evergreen shrub distributed in West and Central India.
English: Swallow-Wart, Milk Weed, (purple-flowered), King's Crown.Ayurvedic: Alarka, Surya, Su- uryaahvya, Vikirna, Vasuka, Tapana, Tuulaphala, Kshirparna, Arkaparna, Aasphota.Unani: Aakh, Madaar, Ashar.Siddha/Tamil: Vellerukku, Erukku.Action: The plant is used against bronchial asthma (especially flowers with black pepper). Leaves—used for treating chronic cases of dyspepsia, flatulence, constipation and mucus in stool. Seed oil— geriatric and tonic. Leaves, flowers and root-bark oil—antimicrobial (maximum activity in leaves). The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the root and leaf in asthma and dyspnoea; stem bark in diseases of the spleen.
Root bark contains benzoylline- olone and benzolisolineolone. Root, stem and leaves, also latex contain beta-amyrin. Flowers contain evanidin 3-rhamnoglucoside. The plant contains a cardenolide, proceragenin, an antibacterial principle.The latex is given for treating epilepsy, also in painful, joints and swellings. The latex exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-and formalin- induced rat paw oedema model.The herb can alter menstrual cycle and temporarily inhibit ovulation. Cardiac glycosides may be additive when combined with Digoxin. (Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage: Leaf—250-750 mg powder; root—1-3 g for decoction (API Vol. I); stem bark—0.5-1 g powder (API Vol. III). Milky juice—500 mg to 1 g (CCRAS.)Action: Anti-inflammatory. Root— hypocholesterolaemic. Poisonous to human beings in mature stages.
The flowers contain flavonoids, 7- rhamnosides, 3-glucosides and 3-glu- co-7-rhamnosides of kaempferol and quercetin. Roots gave triterpenoid glycosides, which decreased serum cholesterol and total protein and increased blood sugar equivalent to bu- tadione in rats.EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibits CNS depressant and hypotensive activity in rat.... calotropis proceraHabitat: Throughout the Deccan Peninsula, from Gujarat and Maharashtra southwards, and in Bihar and Orissa.
English: Wild Jasmine.Folk: Kaari.Siddha/Tamil: Karai, Kadan Karai, Nalla Karai, Kudiram.Action: Leaves and fruits— astringent, antispasmodic; used against cough. A decoction of the root and leaves is given in flu. Bark—antidysenteric.
The plant contains mannitol (0.5%) and alkaloids. Canthium umbellatum Wight is also known as Kaari.... canthium parviflorumHabitat: Throughout India as a weed in cultivated areas and waste places, particularly in the temperate regions up to an altitude of 4,200 m.
English: Shepherd's Purse, St. James's Wort.Folk: Mumiri.Action: The herb or its juice extracts are employed to check menorrhagia and haemorrhages from renal and genitourinary tract. Also used in diarrhoea and dysentery and as a diuretic.
Key application: In symptom-based treatment of mild menorrhagia and metrorrhagia. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported antihaem- orrhagic action.Aerial parts contain flavonoids, polypeptides, choline, acetylcholine, histamine and tyramine.The extract of dried or green plant causes strong contraction of the small intestines and uterus of guinea pigs. A quarternary ammonium salt has been isolated from the herb which is reported to be responsible for its pharmacological activity.Young leaves contain vitamin A (5,000 IU/100 g) and ascorbic acid (91 mg/100 g); among other constituents are hesperidin and rutin, which reduced permeability of blood vessel walls in white mice. A neoplasm inhibitory substance has been identified as fumaric acid. An inhibitory effect of the extracts of the herb on Ehrlich solid tumour in mice was found to be due to the fumaric acid.Major constituent of the essential oil is camphor.... capsella bursa-pastorisAlthough there are numerous possible sources of electrical interference with pacemakers, the overall risks are slight. Potential sources include anti-theft devices, airport weapon detectors, surgical diathermy, ultrasound, and short-wave heat treatment. Nevertheless, many pacemaker patients lead active and ful?lling lives.... cardiac pacemaker
Habitat: Native to West Indies and Central America; now cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and South India.
English: Papaya, Papaw.Ayurvedic: Erand-karkati, Papitaa.Unani: Papitaa Desi.Siddha/Tamil: Pappaali, Pappayi.Action: Ripe fruit—stomachic, digestive, carminative, diuretic, galactagogue. Useful in bleeding piles, haemoptysis, dysentery and chronic diarrhoea. Seeds— emmengagogue, abortifacient, vermifuge. Juice of seeds is administered in enlarged liver and spleen, and in bleeding piles.
Key application: Papain, the enzyme mixture extracted from raw papain (latex of Carica papaya), has been included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E. Experiment-based as well as clinical research indicate that papain may be effective (in the treatment of inflammations) in high doses (daily dose 1500 mg corresponding to 2520 FIP units).Unripe fruit—emmengagogue and abortifacient. Latex—applied topically on eczema, ringworm, psoriasis, corns, warts, sloughing wounds, carbuncles and eschar of burns.Green parts of the plant and seed contain an alkaloid carpaine. Seeds also contain carpasemine.Latex contain enzymes—papain and chymopapain and alkaloids carpaine and pseudocarpaine. A proteinaceous material from latex showed anticoagulant activity; in higher doses it is heart depressant and as a spasmogen on smooth muscle of guinea pig ileum. An alkaloid solution showed depressant action on heart, blood pressure and intestine.The anthelmintic action of seeds against Ascaris lumbricoides is due to carpasemine.Papain, an enzyme mixture prepared from the fruit, seeds and leaf, hydrolyses polypeptides, amides and esters, particularly when used in an alkaline environment, and is used in digestive disorders.Papain inhibits platelet aggregation, which may further increase the risk of bleeding in patients also taking anticoagulants. Concurrent administration of cyclophosphamide with papain caused sever damage to lung tissues in rats. (Sharon M. Herr.)Chymopapin C is an immunosup- pressive enzyme from plant extract. Carpaine, extracted from the plant, exhibited anti-tubercular activity, also antitumour in vitro, and hypotensive.Dosage: Leaf—40-80 ml infusion; latex—3-6 g (CCRAS.)... carica papayaHabitat: West and South India. Often found planted around villages and temples.
English: Kapok, White Silk Cotton.Ayurvedic: Kuuta-Shaalmali, Shveta Shaalmali.Siddha/Tamil: Ielavum (Tamil).Action: Gum—laxative, astringent, demulcent (given in painful micturition). Unripe fruit—astringent. Root—diuretic, antidiabetic, an- tispasmodic (used in dysentery). Flowers—laxative; used in lochi- orrhoea. Unripe pods—used in vertigo and migraine. Seed oil— used in rheumatism.
The plant contains linarin (acacetin 7-rutinoside). Seeds contain fatty acids, diglycerides and phospholipids. Leaves are considered a good source of iron and calcium. Stem-bark extract—antimicrobial.... ceiba pentandraHabitat: The Himalayan terai from Punjab to Assam, and South India and the Andamans.
Folk: Dillenia. Agai (Bihar), Agachi (Maharashtra).Action: See D. indica.
The bark contains 6% tannin.... dillenia pentagynaHabitat: Sub-Himalayan tract up to 2,000 m and South Indian hills.
English: Staff tree, Intellect tree.Ayurvedic: Jyotishmati, Paaraavat- padi. Kangunikaa, Kanguni, Vegaa, Maalkaanguni, Svarnalatikaa, Kaakaandaki, Katuveekaa.Unani: Maalkangani.Siddha/Tamil: Vaaluluvai.Action: Seeds—nervine and brain tonic, diaphoretic, febrifugal, emetic. Seed-oil—used for treating mental depression, hysteria and for improving memory; also used for scabies, eczema, wounds, rheumatic pains, paralysis. A decoction of seeds is given in gout, rheumatism, paralysis and for treating leprosy and other skin diseases. Leaves— antidysenteric, emmenagogue. Root—a paste of root-bark is applied to swollen veins and pneumonic affections.
Key application: As a tranquilizer (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia) and brain tonic (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India). The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of ripe seed in leucoderma and vitiligo.The seeds are reported to contain the alkaloids, celastrine and paniculatine, which are the active principles of the drug.In experimental animals, the drug showed lowering of leptazol toxicity, motor activity and amphetamine toxi- city, and raising the capacity for learning process. It showed significant CNS depressant effect and a clear synergism with pentobarbital. The seed extract showed hypolipidaemic effect and prevented atherogenesis in rabbits.The seed oil showed tranquillizing effect and hastened the process of learning in experimental animals. It produced fall in blood pressure in anaesthetized dog, depressed the heart of frog, and was found to be toxic to rats.In addition to the seed, 70% alcoholic extract of the plant showed sedative, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic, anti-ulcerogenic effect in experimental animals.Methanolic extract of flowers showed both analgesic and anti- inflammatory activities experimentally.Dosage: Ripe seed, devoid of capsule wall—1-2 g; oil—5-15 drops. (API Vol. II.)... celastrus paniculatusHabitat: Native to Europe.
Unani: Daarunaj Aqrabi.Action: Used in nervous depression, melancholia and as a constituent of cardiac tonic preparations.
The plant contains photoactive thio- phenes, in amounts reported to be toxic. Roots and aerial parts yield sesquiterpene alcohol, paralianchol and its aetophenone derivatives.... doronicum pardalianchesHabitat: Throughout India except Jammu & Kashmir and northeastern India as a weed.
Ayurvedic: Suuryaavart.Folk: Nilakanthi.Action: Ash of root—bechic. Leaf— depurative. Seed—cathartic.
Roots contain xanthone glycosides and a chromone glycoside. Seeds gave oil rich in linoleate. The plant contains 9.0% tannin.... chrozophora plicataHabitat: The tropical and subtropical parts of India.
English: Velvet-Leaf Pareira, Pareira Brava.Ayurvedic: Paathaa, Ambashthaa, Varatiktaaa, Vriki, Aviddhakarni, Piluphalaa, Shreyashi.Bigger var., Raaja Paathaa, is equated with Stephania hernandifolia Walp.)Unani: Paathaa.Siddha/Tamil: Paadakkizhangu, Appatta.Action: Root astringent, an- tispasmodic (used for cramps, painful menstruation), analgesic, antipyretic, diuretic, antilithic and emmenagogue. Prescribed for diarrhoea, dysentery, piles, urogenital affections (cystitis, nephritis, menorrhagia) Root paste is applied topically on scabies and eruptions on the body. Also used for preventing miscarriage.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia attributed blood purifying properties to the root and indicated it in lactal disorders.Hayatine (dl-beberine) is the principal alkaloid of the root. Its derivatives, methiodide and methochloride are reported to be potent neuromus- cular-blocking agents.Not to be confused with Abuta grandiflora, a South American medicinal plant.Dosage: Root—3-6 g powder. (API Vol. I.) the plant hastens fracture-healing by reducing the total convalescent period by 33% in experimental rats and dogs; it aids in recovery of the strength of the bones up to 90% in 6 weeks.Dosage: Stem—10-20 ml juice. (API Vol. III.)... cissampelos pareiraHabitat: Cultivated as a hedge plant.
Folk: Durantaa.Action: Antifungal (topically).
The leaves contain a saponin and fruits an alkaloid analogous to narco- tine. Macerated fruits, which even in dilutions of 1 : 100 parts of water, is lethal to mosquito larvae (the action is less marked on Culicine larvae.... duranta plumieriChronic bronchitis is typi?ed by chronic productive cough for at least three months in two successive years (provided other causes such as TUBERCULOSIS, lung cancer and chronic heart failure have been excluded). The characteristics of emphysema are abnormal and permanent enlargement of the airspaces (alveoli) at the furthermost parts of the lung tissue. Rupture of alveoli occurs, resulting in the creation of air spaces with a gradual breakdown in the lung’s ability to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide from it (see LUNGS). Asthma results in in?ammation of the airways with the lining of the BRONCHIOLES becoming hypersensitive, causing them to constrict. The obstruction may spontaneously improve or do so in response to bronchodilator drugs. If an asthmatic patient’s airway-obstruction is characterised by incomplete reversibility, he or she is deemed to have a form of COPD called asthmatic bronchitis; sufferers from this disorder cannot always be readily distinguished from those people who have chronic bronchitis and/ or emphysema. Symptoms and signs of emphysema, chronic bronchitis and asthmatic bronchitis overlap, making it di?cult sometimes to make a precise diagnosis. Patients with completely reversible air?ow obstruction without the features of chronic bronchitis or emphysema, however, are considered to be suffering from asthma but not from COPD.
The incidence of COPD has been increasing, as has the death rate. In the UK around 30,000 people with COPD die annually and the disorder makes up 10 per cent of all admissions to hospital medical wards, making it a serious cause of illness and disability. The prevalence, incidence and mortality rates increase with age, and more men than women have the disorder, which is also more common in those who are socially disadvantaged.
Causes The most important cause of COPD is cigarette smoking, though only 15 per cent of smokers are likely to develop clinically signi?cant symptoms of the disorder. Smoking is believed to cause persistent airway in?ammation and upset the normal metabolic activity in the lung. Exposure to chemical impurities and dust in the atmosphere may also cause COPD.
Signs and symptoms Most patients develop in?ammation of the airways, excessive growth of mucus-secreting glands in the airways, and changes to other cells in the airways. The result is that mucus is transported less e?ectively along the airways to eventual evacuation as sputum. Small airways become obstructed and the alveoli lose their elasticity. COPD usually starts with repeated attacks of productive cough, commonly following winter colds; these attacks progressively worsen and eventually the patient develops a permanent cough. Recurrent respiratory infections, breathlessness on exertion, wheezing and tightness of the chest follow. Bloodstained and/or infected sputum are also indicative of established disease. Among the symptoms and signs of patients with advanced obstruction of air?ow in the lungs are:
RHONCHI (abnormal musical sounds heard through a STETHOSCOPE when the patient breathes out).
marked indrawing of the muscles between the ribs and development of a barrel-shaped chest.
loss of weight.
CYANOSIS in which the skin develops a blue tinge because of reduced oxygenation of blood in the blood vessels in the skin.
bounding pulse with changes in heart rhythm.
OEDEMA of the legs and arms.
decreasing mobility.
Some patients with COPD have increased ventilation of the alveoli in their lungs, but the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are normal so their skin colour is normal. They are, however, breathless so are dubbed ‘pink pu?ers’. Other patients have reduced alveolar ventilation which lowers their oxygen levels causing cyanosis; they also develop COR PULMONALE, a form of heart failure, and become oedematous, so are called ‘blue bloaters’.
Investigations include various tests of lung function, including the patient’s response to bronchodilator drugs. Exercise tests may help, but radiological assessment is not usually of great diagnostic value in the early stages of the disorder.
Treatment depends on how far COPD has progressed. Smoking must be stopped – also an essential preventive step in healthy individuals. Early stages are treated with bronchodilator drugs to relieve breathing symptoms. The next stage is to introduce steroids (given by inhalation). If symptoms worsen, physiotherapy – breathing exercises and postural drainage – is valuable and annual vaccination against INFLUENZA is strongly advised. If the patient develops breathlessness on mild exertion, has cyanosis, wheezing and permanent cough and tends to HYPERVENTILATION, then oxygen therapy should be considered. Antibiotic treatment is necessary if overt infection of the lungs develops.
Complications Sometimes rupture of the pulmonary bullae (thin-walled airspaces produced by the breakdown of the walls of the alveoli) may cause PNEUMOTHORAX and also exert pressure on functioning lung tissue. Respiratory failure and failure of the right side of the heart (which controls blood supply to the lungs), known as cor pulmonale, are late complications in patients whose primary problem is emphysema.
Prognosis This is related to age and to the extent of the patient’s response to bronchodilator drugs. Patients with COPD who develop raised pressure in the heart/lung circulation and subsequent heart failure (cor pulmonale) have a bad prognosis.... chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd)
Habitat: Throughout India, common in Uttar Pradesh.
Ayurvedic: Ashoka-rohini (non- classical).Siddha/Tamil: Unamkodi.Action: Bark—anticholerin. Ripe fruit eaten in constipation. Pounded root prescribed internally in fever. Bark is used in cholera.
EtOH (50%) extract of aerial parts exhibit diuretic and hypotensive activity.... erycibe paniculataHabitat: Pasture lands of Deccan from Konkan southwards.
English: Salep (var.).Folk: Sataavari (Maharashtra).Action: Tuber—used for scrofulous glands.... eulophia pratensis
Habitat: Khasi Hills, submountain- ous Himalayan ranges in Garhwal, Kumaon in U.P., Maland areas of South, Pachmarhi (Madhya Pradesh), Sikkim and Western Ghats.
English: Citron.Ayurvedic: Maatulunga, Lunga, Maatulaka, Mahaalunga, Bijpuura, Bijaahva.Unani: Turanj.Siddha/Tamil: Kadaranrathai, Naarthankai, Thurinjippazham.Folk: Bijoraa.Action: Fruit—antiscorbutic, refrigerant, astringent, carminative, stomachic, antibacterial. Used for dyspepsia, bilious vomiting, cold, fever, hiccough. Root— anthelmintic. Flowers and buds— astringent.
The peel contains coumarins, limet- tin, scoparone, scopoletin and um- belliferon; besides nobiletin, limonin,Family: Rutaceae.Habitat: Native to the West Indies. Commercialized in the USA. Cultivated mainly in Punjab.
English: Grapefruit, 'Marsh' Grapefruit.Folk: Chakotraa. Chima Bombili- maas (Tamil Nadu).Action: Young leaves—decoction is used to relieve cold or headache. Fruit—used for developing resistance against colds and influenza.
Grapefruit is rich in vitamins, minerals, potassium and pectin, which balance the acid reaction in the stomach and stimulate appetite. Half grapefruit contains vitamin A 318 IU, vitamin C 46.8 mg, niacin 0.2 mg, potassium 158 mg. The fruit contains beta- carotene and cartenoid lycopene. Ly- copene is especially noted for reducing the risk of prostate cancer. The fruit juice contains furanocoumarins, including bergamottin, also naringin, naringenin, limonin, quercetin, kaem- pferol and obacunone.For drug interactions with grapefruit juice, see Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.Grapefruit is not to be confused with grape (Vitis vinifera).... citrus paradisiHabitat: The sub-Himalayan tract from Garhwal to Sikkim; also in Chakrata range.
Folk: Ratanjot (var.), Rowana. Surasi is a doubtful synonym.Action: Bark—anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic; used in veterinary medicine for wounds and sprains.
Aerial parts contain coumarins— clausmarins A and B. Coumarins exhibit spasmolytic activity. The root also contains coumarins. Root and stem bark of Clausena excavata Burm. f. Eastern sub-Himalayan tract, Orissa and Bihar) also contain coumarins— clausenin and clausenidin. The root bark exhibits antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria.A related species, C. anisata (Willd.) Oliver, is reported from Uttar Pradesh. Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts exhibited spasmolytic activity. The fu- ranocoumarins, anisolactone, xantho- toxol, indicolactone, imperatorin and 2', 3'-epoxy-anisolactone have been isolated from the extract.In West African traditional medicine, the decoction of the root is given to control convulsions in children. The anticonvulsant agent has been found to be heliettin, extracted from the stem bark and roots.... clausena pentaphyllaHabitat: A fungous parasite on a number of grasses particularly in rye, cultivated in the Nilgiris and at Chakrohi farm in Jammu.
English: Ergot of Rye. Fungus of Rye.Ayurvedic: Annamaya, Sraavikaa.Unani: Argot.Siddha/Tamil: Ergot.Action: Uterine stimulant. Oxy- tocic, abortifacient, parturient, vasoconstrictor, haemostatic. Used in obstetrics (difficult childbirth, for exciting uterine contractions in the final stages of parturition). Also used after abortion for removal of the placenta. It is no more employed in internal haemorrhages, as it has been found to raise blood pressure in pulmonary and cerebral haemorrhage. Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.
The fungus gave indole alkaloids. The ergometrine or ergonovine group includes ergometrine and ergometri- nine. The ergotamine group includes ergotamine and ergotaminine. The er- gotoxine group includes ergocristine, ergocristinine, ergocryptine, ergo- cryptinine, ergocornine and ergo- corninine. The fungus also contains histamine, tyramine and other amines, sterols and acetylcholine.The alkaloids of ergot are being used independently (not as a herbal medicine). Ergotamine is used to relieve migrainous headaches as it is a vasoconstrictor and has antisero- tonin activity. Ergometrine is used after childbirth in the third stage of labour and for post-partum haemorrhage, as it is a powerful uterine stimulant, particularly of the puerperal uterus. (Both the constituents are used under medical supervision). Er- gocornine significantly inhibited the development of induced mammary tumours in rats. The derivatives of ergot alkaloids are known to have suppressing effect on human breast cancer in initial stages. This activity is linked to prolactin inhibitory action.The extract is toxic at 1.0-3.9 g, ergot alkaloids at 1 g in adults, 12 mg in infants. (Francis Brinker).Dosage: Whole plant—10-30 ml infusion. (CCRAS.)... claviceps purpureaHabitat: Western Himalayas from Garhwal, westwards to Kashmir.
Ayurvedic: Saatala, Saptalaa. (Substitute).Action: Purgative, emetic. Root— used in fistulous sores.
Prostratin, isolated from the roots of var. cornigeria Hook. f., was found to be pro-inflammatory.... euphorbia pilosaHabitat: Throughout India, in the drier parts.
Ayurvedic: Agnimantha, Tarkaari, Vikraantaa, Jayanti, Jai, Jayaa, Ganikaarikaa, Vaijayanti, Bigger var. is equated with Premna integri- folia Linn., Shriparni, Naadeyi.Siddha/Tamil: Tazhuthaazhai.Folk: Laghu Arni.Action: Plant parts used in dyspepsia, stomachache, colic, cholera, dysentery, postnatal fever, during convalscence from measles. Root and bark—bitter tonic, used in debility and nervous disorders.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of root in dysuria and retention of urine.Flavonoids, scutellarein and pec- tolinarin, have been isolated from the leaves. Stems gave d-mannitol, beta- sitosterol, its glucosides and ceryl alcohol. The roots contain ceryl alcohol, clerodin, clerosterol and clerodendrin A.The ethanolic extract of leaves exhibited hepatoprotective activity. The aqueous extract of leaves exhibited in vitro anthelmintic activity. The plant also exhibited antidiabetic activity.Dosage: Root—12-24 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)... clerodendrum phlomidisClinical psychologists are involved in health care in the following ways: (1) Assessment of thoughts, emotions and behaviour using standardised methods. (2) Treatment based on theoretical models and scienti?c evidence about behaviour change. Behaviour change is considered when it contributes to physical, psychological or social functioning. (3) Consultation with other health-care professionals about problems concerning emotions, thinking and behaviour. (4) Research on a wide variety of topics including the relationship between stress, psychological functioning and disease; the aetiology of problem behaviours; methods and theories of behaviour change. (5) Teaching other professionals about normal and dysfunctional behaviour, emotions and functioning.
Clinical psychologists may specialise in work in particular branches of patient care, including surgery, psychiatry, geriatrics, paediatrics, mental handicap, obstetrics and gynaecology, cardiology, neurology, general practice and physical rehabilitation. Whilst the focus of their work is frequently the patient, at times it may encompass the behaviour of the health-care professionals.... clinical psychology
Habitat: Throughout India, Ascending To 2,000 M In The Himalayas.
Ayurvedic: Shankhapushpi, Shankhaahvaa, Kshirapushpi, Maangalya Kusuma (White- Flowered). Blue-Flowered Var., Vishnukraanti, Vishnukraantaa, Vishnugandhi Is Equated With Evolvulus Alsinoides Linn.Unani: Sankhaahuli (Blue-Flowered)Siddha/Tamil: Sivakraandi (White- Flowered), Vishnukraandi (Blue- Flowered).Action: Plant—Brain Tonic, Tranquilizer Used In Nervine Disorders, Mental Aberration, Anxiety Neurosis, Internal Haemorrhages, Spermatorrhoea. Also Astringent, Antidysenteric, Antispasmodic, Antiphlogistic, Febrifuge, Alterative. Flowers—Styptic, Used For Uterine Bleeding. Leaf—Antiasthmatic, Used In Chronic Bronchitis. Root— Used In Gastric And Duodenal Ulcers, Uterine Affections And For Promoting Fertility.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia Of India Recommends The Plant For Epilepsy. The Plant Contains Sankhpushpine Alkaloids.The Alcoholic (50%) Extract Of The Plant, When Administered To Rats (Through Gastric Intubation At Different Intervals), Has Shown Enhanced Neuropeptide Synthesis Of The Brain. It Induces An Increase In Brain Protein Content And Increases Acquisition Efficiency.Evolvulus Alsinoides Contains Pen- Tatriacontane, Triacontane And Beta- Sitosterol.Shankhapushpi Syrup (A Compound Containing C. Pluricaulis, Centella Asiatica, Nardostachys Jatamansi, Nepeta Hindostana, Nepeta Elliptica And Onos- Ma Bracteatum), When Administered With Phenytoin, A Modern Antiepilep- Tic Drug, Reduced Not Only Antiepileptic Activity Of Phenytoin But Also Lowered Plasma Phenytoin Levels.Dosage: Whole Plant—3-6 G Powder. (Api Vol. III.)... convolvulus pluricaulisHabitat: Wild on wastelands of Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan; in dry districts of Bellary in the South.
English: Wild Cucumber.Ayurvedic: Indravarruni (var.).Folk: Khar-indraayana.Action: Emetic, purgative. Toxic.
Fruit pulp—a bitter resinous body, myriocarpin, produces nausea and is slightly purgative.The fruit contain cucurbitacin B,C,D and Q1, and propheterosterol and its acetate. Cucurbitacin Q1 is an anti- tumour agent. Amino acids from the fruits are leucine, iso-leucine, pheny- lalanine, valine, tryptophan, tyrosine, proline, alanine threonine, glycine, arginine, crystine and aspartic acid.... cucumis prophetarumHabitat: Native to N. Mexico and eastern U.S.A. Now commonly cultivated in Northern India.
English: Pumpkin, Marrow.Unani: Safed Kaddu, Kumhraa.Siddha: Suraikayi (Tamil).Action: See C. maxima.
Key application: Seeds—in irritated bladder condition, micturition problems of benign prostatic hyperplasia stages 1 and 2. (German Commission E, The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) In childhood enuresis noctruna. (Expanded Commission E.)The roasted and fresh seeds yield 32.2 and 38.0% of fatty oil respectively. The oil filled capsules were administered to patients suffering from hypertrophy of the prostate. Results showed that the frequent urge to urinate decreased and the urine residues were minimized.The oil consists of the glycerides of linoleic 45, oleic 25, palmitic and stearic acids 30%. Sterols have been isolated.... cucurbita pepoTreatment Administration of oxygen when available is the most important ?rst-aid management. Rescuers should be trained, must not put themselves at risk, and should use protective clothing and breathing apparatus. In unconscious victims, establish a clear airway and give 100 per cent oxygen. If breathing stops and oxygen is unavailable, initiate expired-air resuscitation. If cyanide salts were ingested, mouth-to-mouth contact must be avoided and a mask with a one-way valve employed instead. Some commercially available ?rst-aid kits contain AMYL NITRATE as an antidote which may be employed if oxygen is unavailable.
Once in hospital, or if a trained physician is on the scene, then antidotes may be administered. There are several di?erent intravenous antidotes that may be used either alone or in combination. In mild to moderate cases, sodium thiosulphate is usually given. In more severe cases either dicobalt edetate or sodium nitrite may be used, followed by sodium thio-sulphate. Some of these (e.g. dicobalt edetate) should be given only where diagnosis is certain, otherwise serious adverse reations or toxicity due to the antidotes may occur.... cyanide poisoning
Habitat: Sub-tropical Himalaya from Himachal Pradesh to Aruna- chal Pradesh at 500-2,500 m.
Ayurvedic: Kshudra-Paashaana- bheda, Shilaa-valkaa, Shilaa- pushpa.Action: Leaf—antilithic. Used for stones in kidney and bladder.
The leaves contain a number of chal- cones, quinochalcones and flavanones. Pediflavone has also been isolated from young leaves.... didymocarpus pedicellataHabitat: Native to West Europe. Cultivated in Tangmarg and Kishtawar in Kashmir, Darjeeling and the Nilgiris.
English: Digitalis, Foxglove.Ayurvedic: Hritpatri, Tilapushpi (non-classical). (Purple var.)Action: Main source of digoxin for the pharmaceutical industry. Digitalis glycosides increase the force of contraction of heart without increasing the oxygen consumption and slow the heart rate when auricular fibrillation is present. To be used only under strict medical supervision.
Not used as a herbal drug.... digitalis purpureaHabitat: Native to tropical Asia; distributed throughout India.
Ayurvedic: Vaaraahikanda (var., dry pieces are sold as Vidaarikanda).Folk: Kaantaalu.Action: Tubers contain 71.0780.77% carbohydrates, 8.68-15.93% albuminoids. Tubers are used to disperse swellings.... dioscorea pentaphylla
Habitat: The Himalaya from Nepal to Bhutan, up to 1,500 m, also in Naga Hills.
Ayurvedic: Neelaalu.Action: Tuber—antiphthiriac.
The rhizomes are used as a hair wash for killing lice. They contain diogenin (on dry basis) 2.5%. Also obtained are steroidal sapogenins, sito- sterol glucoside, prazerigenin-A gluco- side, prazerigenin-A bioside and 9,10- dihydrophenanthrenes.... dioscorea prazeriSocial services are provided by local-authority social-services departments. They include: practical help in the home (usually through home helps or aids to daily living); assistance in taking advantage of available educational facilities; help with adaptations to the disabled person’s house; provision of meals (‘Meals on Wheels’ or luncheon centres); and help in obtaining a telephone. Many of these facilities will involve the disabled person in some expense, but full details can be obtained from the local social-services department which will, if necessary, send a social worker to discuss the matter in the disabled person’s home. Owing to lack of funds and sta?, many local-authority social-services departments are unable to provide the full range of services.
Aids to daily living There is now a wide range of aids for the disabled. Full details and addresses of local o?ces can be obtained from: Disabled Living Foundation and British Red Cross.
Aids to mobility and transport Some car manufacturers make specially equipped or adapted cars, and some have o?cial systems for discounts. Details can be obtained from local dealers. Help can also be obtained from Motability, which provides advice.... disabled persons
Habitat: Native to East Africa and Saudi Arabia.
English: Dragon's Blood.Ayurvedic: Khoonkharaabaa, Heeraadokhi.Unani: Dammul-Akhwain.Family: Araceae.Habitat: Maharashtra and Karnata- ka; cultivated in the South.
Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Karunayikki- langu.Folk: Jangali Suuran.Action: Root—antidiarrhoeal, anti-inflammatory (prescribed for haemorrhoids), antispasmodic (used in asthma), emmenagogue, abortifacient.... dracontium polyphyllum
Habitat: Throughout India, up to 2,438 m.
Ayurvedic: Brahma-suvarchalaa (doubtful synonym).Folk: Mukhjali. (Drosera burmannii Vahl is also known as Mukhjali.)Action: Resin from plant—used in bronchitis and whooping cough. Plant—antisyphyilitic. Bruised leaves, mixed with salt are applied for treating blisters.
Key application: Drosera rotundifo- lia—in dry cough and coughing fits, as bronchoantispasmodic. (German Commission E.).The leaves contain napthaquinones, plumbagin (0.5%), droserone (3-hy- droxyplumbagin) and hydroxydro- serone (0.01%), and the flavonoids, quercetin, gossypetin, gossypin and isogossypitrin. The antispasmodic action of the herb has been attributed to naphthoquinones. Plumbagin is antimicrobial in vitro against some Gram-positive and Gram-negativebac- teria, influenza virus, pathogenic fungi and parasitic protozoa, and is active against some species of Leishmania. In large doses plumbagin is cytotoxic, but in small doses exhibits immunostimu- lating activity in vitro.A related species, Drosera indica Linn., is found in Deccan peninsula, particularly in the West coast. Plum- bagone, isolated from the plant, depresses the isolated intestine of the guinea-pig and suppresses the effect of acetylcholine. In Indo-China, a maceration of the plant is applied topically to corns.In Western herbal, Sundew is obtained from the aerial parts of Drosera rotundifolia which grows throughout Europe.... drosera peltataThe other dangers of administering drugs in pregnancy are the teratogenic effects (see TERATOGENESIS). It is understandable that a drug may interfere with a mechanism essential for growth and result in arrested or distorted development of the fetus and yet cause no disturbance in the adult, in whom these di?erentiation and organisation processes have ceased to be relevant. Thus the e?ect of a drug upon a fetus may di?er qualitatively as well as quantitatively from its e?ect on the mother. The susceptibility of the embryo will depend on the stage of development it has reached when the drug is given. The stage of early di?erentiation – that is, from the beginning of the third week to the end of the tenth week of pregnancy – is the time of greatest susceptibility. After this time the risk of congenital malformation from drug treatment is less, although the death of the fetus can occur at any time.... drugs in pregnancy
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... indian medicinal plantsEustachian catheters are small catheters that are passed along the ?oor of the nose into the Eustachian tube in order to in?ate the ear.
Nasal catheters are tubes passed through the nose into the stomach to feed a patient who cannot swallow – so-called nasal feeding.
Rectal catheters are passed into the RECTUM in order to introduce ?uid into the rectum.
Suprapubic catheters are passed into the bladder through an incision in the lower abdominal wall just above the pubis, either to allow urine to drain away from the bladder, or to wash out an infected bladder.
Ureteric catheters are small catheters that are passed up the ureter into the pelvis of the kidney, usually to determine the state of the kidney, either by obtaining a sample of urine direct from the kidney or to inject a radio-opaque substance preliminary to X-raying the kidney. (See PYELOGRAPHY.)
Urethral catheters are catheters that are passed along the urethra into the bladder, either to draw o? urine or to wash out the bladder.
It is these last three types of catheters that are most extensively used.... endotracheal catheters are used to pass
Habitat: Native to Amercia. Grows in Southern and Eastern India.
English: Jalap.Unani: Jalaapaa.Action: Tuber—drastic hydr- agogue cathartic, acts briskly, causes watery evacuations. Overdoses produce hypercatharsis. Contraindicated in inflammatory conditions of the bowels. (The roots of Operculina turpethum synonym Ipomoea turpethum are used as a substitute for jalap.)... exogonium purga
Habitat: Native to Arabia and Persia.
English: Sagapenum.Unani: Sakbeenaj, Sakbekh.Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat: Native to Central Asia.
English: Musk Root.Folk: Sumbul, Sambala.Action: Used as a sedative in hysteria and other nervous disorders. Also used as a mild gastrointestinal stimulant. Formerly used for asthma, bronchitis and amenorrhoea.
Ferula sumbul contains 0.2-0.4% volatile oil; 5-15% resin; hydroxy- coumarins including umbelliferone; sumbulic and angelic acids.... ferula persicaHabitat: On river banks, by the side of lakes, ponds. Native to Great Britain.
English: Yellow Flag.Folk: Paashaanabheda (Gujarat).Action: Cathartic and acrid. Used in dysmenorrhoea and leucorrhoea. Juice of the root—used for obstinate coughs and convulsions.
Rhizomes contain a glycoside, irisin, iridin or irisine, reportedly present, with myristic acid.... iris pseudacorusHabitat: Western Ghats, West Coast from Konkan to Kerala; abundant in the rainy season.
Ayurvedic: Parpata (substitute).Action: The plant contains naphthofuranones, justicidin A, B, C, D, G and H, and diphyllin, which are used for the treatment of osteoporosis. The flowers contain peonidine glucoside. Essential oil— antifungal.... justicia procumbens
Habitat: North-western India and Rajasthan, from Kashmir eastward to Nepal, ascending to 1,000 m.
English: Indian Fig.Ayurvedic: Phalgu, Anjiri.Siddha: Manjimedi (Telugu).Action: Fruit—demulcent and laxative. Latex is applied on pimples. Ripe fruits—hypotensive.
Leaves gave bergapten and beta- sitosterol.... ficus palmataHabitat: Sandy coasts of India.
Ayurvedic: Gojihvaa, Golomikaa. (Gaozabaan, used in Unani medicine, is equated with Bor- aginaceae sp.)Folk: Vana-gobhi; Paathri (Maharashtra).Action: Plant—galactagogue, soporific, diuretic, aperient.... launaea pinnatifida
Habitat: Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh.
Ayurvedic: Kaakoli, Madhuraa, Kshira, Vayhasthaa, Karnikaa, Vaayasoli.Action: Tuberous root—used as a tonic in emaciation and as a source of energy, after dry roasting.
Dosage: Tuberous root—3-6 g. (API, Vol. III.)... lilium polyphyllumTreatment This is urgent. If the skin has been contaminated with the lysol, it must be washed with water, and any lysol-contaminated clothing must be taken o?. Do not make the victim vomit if he or she has swallowed a corrosive substance such as lysol or phenol. Call an ambulance and say what the victim has taken. See APPENDIX 1: BASIC FIRST AID.... lysol poisoning
Habitat: At high altitudes in Tamil Nadu; up to 2,700 m on the Himalayas.
English: Fumitory.Ayurvedic: Parpata, Parpata- ka, Varatikta, Renu, Kavacha, Sukshmapatra.Unani: Shaahtaraa.Siddha/Tamil: Thura.Folk: Pittapaaparaa.Action: Detoxifying, laxative, diuretic, diaphoretic.
The plant contains isoquinoline alkaloids-including protopine, sangui- narine, cryptopine, d-bicuculline, fu- maridine, fumaramine. The leaves contain kaempferol and quercetin glycosides.Dosage: Whole plant-1-3 g (API Vol. IV); 3-35 g powder; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... fumaria parvifloraHabitat: Forests of northeast Bengal, sporadic in NEFA, Manipur and upper Assam
Ayurvedic: Amlavetasa. Vetasaamla.Folk: Thaikala (Bengal).Action: Antiscorbutic, astringent, cooling, cardiotonic, emollient. Used in anorexia, dyspepsia, colic, liver and spleen diseases difficult micturition. Cough and other respiratory disorders, ulcers and skin diseases.
Dry fruits (pericarp) contain the benzophenones, pedunculol, garcinol and cambogin.The heartwood gave benzophenone and xanthone.Dosage: Fruit—5-10 ml juice. (CCRAS.)... garcinia pedunculataHabitat: Throughout India, up to 1,000 m on the hills.
English: Grey Downy Balsam.Ayurvedic: Paaranki, Kharpata. (Kinkiraata, Karnikaara, Mri- galindika are doubtful synonyms.)Siddha/Tamil: Karre Vembu, Arunelli.Folk: Ghogar, Toon.Action: Fruit—stomachic. Leaf— astringent, antiasthmatic. Bark— antidiabetic.
The leaves and stem bark contain sterols, sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol; fatty acids; aliphatic compounds; a mixture of long chain esters; along with tannins and waxes. The leaves also contain garu- garin and amentoflavone. Gum-resin contains alpha-amyrin, butyrospermol and dammarandiol.Aqueous and ethanolic extract of the leaves exhibit anti-inflammatory and antiallergic activities.... garuga pinnataHabitat: Cultivated in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
English: West Indian Cherry.Folk: Vallari (Telugu), Simeyaranelli (Kannada).Action: See Malpighia glabra.
Fruits contain ascorbic acid in high concentration (green fruits contain up to 3,000 mg/100 g). 3-methyl-3- buten-1-ol has been identified as major volatile constituent of the fruit.... malpighia punicifoliaMost GPs work in groups of self-employed individuals, who contract their services to the local Primary Care Trust (PCT) – see below. Those in full partnership are called principals, but an increasing number now work as non-principals – that is, they are employees rather than partners in a practice. Alternatively, they might be salaried employees of a PCT. The average number of patients looked after by a full-time GP is 1,800 and the average duration of consultation about 10 minutes. GPs need to be able to deal with all common medical conditions and be able to recognise conditions that require specialist help, especially those requiring urgent action.
Until the new General Medical Services Contract was introduced in 2004, GPs had to take individual responsibility for providing ‘all necessary medical services’ at all times to their patient list. Now, practices rather than individuals share this responsibility. Moreover, the contract now applies only to the hours between
8.00 a.m. and 6.30 p.m., Mondays to Fridays; out-of-hours primary care has become the responsibility of PCTs. GPs still have an obligation to visit patients at home on weekdays in case of medical need, but home-visiting as a proportion of GP work has declined steadily since the NHS began. By contrast, the amount of time spent attending to preventive care and organisational issues has steadily increased. The 2004 contract for the ?rst time introduced payment for speci?c indicators of good clinical care in a limited range of conditions.
A telephone advice service, NHS Direct, was launched in 2000 to give an opportunity for patients to ‘consult’ a trained nurse who guides the caller on whether the symptoms indicate that self-care, a visit to a GP or a hospital Accident & Emergency department, or an ambulance callout is required. The aim of this service is to give the patient prompt advice and to reduce misuse of the skills of GPs, ambulance sta? and hospital facilities.
Training of GPs Training for NHS general practice after quali?cation and registration as a doctor requires a minimum of two years’ post-registration work in hospital jobs covering a variety of areas, including PAEDIATRICS, OBSTETRICS, care of the elderly and PSYCHIATRY. This is followed by a year or more working as a ‘registrar’ in general practice. This ?nal year exposes registrars to life as a GP, where they start to look after their own patients, while still closely supervised by a GP who has him- or herself been trained in educational techniques. Successful completion of ‘summative assessment’ – regular assessments during training – quali?es registrars to become GPs in their own right, and many newly quali?ed GPs also sit the membership exam set by the Royal College of General Practitioners (see APPENDIX 8: PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS).
A growing number of GP practices o?er educational attachments to medical students. These attachments provide experience of the range of medical and social problems commonly found in the community, while also o?ering them allocated time to learn clinical skills away from the more specialist environment of the hospital.
In addition to teaching commitments, many GPs are also choosing to spend one or two sessions away from their practices each week, doing other kinds of work. Most will work in, for example, at least one of the following: a hospital specialist clinic; a hospice; occupational medicine (see under OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH, MEDICINE AND DISEASES); family-planning clinics; the police or prison services. Some also become involved in medical administration, representative medicopolitics or journalism. To help them keep up to date with advances and changes in medicine, GPs are required to produce personal-development plans that outline any educational activities they have completed or intend to pursue during the forthcoming year.
NHS GPs are allowed to see private patients, though this activity is not widespread (see PRIVATE HEALTH CARE).
Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) Groups of GPs (whether working alone, or in partnership with others) are now obliged by the NHS to link communally with a number of other GPs in the locality, to form Primary Care Trusts (PCTs). Most have a membership of about 30 GPs, working within a de?ned geographical area, in addition to the community nurses and practice counsellors working in the same area; links are also made to local council social services so that health and social needs are addressed together. Some PCTs also run ambulance services.
One of the roles of PCTs is to develop primary-care services that are appropriate to the needs of the local population, while also occupying a powerful position to in?uence the scope and quality of secondary-care services. They are also designed to ensure equity of resources between di?erent GP surgeries, so that all patients living in the locality have access to a high quality and uniform standard of service.
One way in which this is beginning to happen is through the introduction of more overt CLINICAL GOVERNANCE. PCTs devise and help their member practices to conduct CLINICAL AUDIT programmes and also encourage them to participate in prescribing incentive schemes. In return, practices receive payment for this work, and the funds are used to improve the services they o?er their patients.... general practitioner (gp)
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... medicinal plants glossaryHabitat: Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. Cultivated in gardens.
Ayurvedic: Vana-nimbuukaa, Ashwa-shaakhota.Siddha/Tamil: Konji, Amam, Kula-pannai.Folk: Bana-Nimbu, Paanal (Kerala).Action: Plant—bechic, anti- anaemic, antirheumatic. Root— anti-inflammatory. Leaf—used in Jaundice and liver disorders, eczema and other skin affections. Leaf and root—vermifuge, febrifuge. A paste of the wood is applied externally to pimples.
Leaf extract from a Sri Lankan plant yielded the alkaloids arborine, skim- mianine and arborinine. The steam distillate of leaves showed significant antifungal activity.... glycosmis pentaphyllaHabitat: A native to Polynesia; introduced into Indian gardens.
English: Caricature Plant.Folk: Kaalaa-aduusaa (Maharashtra). Ysjudemaram (Tamil Nadu).Action: Leaves—emollient and resolvent; applied to swellings and ulcers. (Used as a substitute for Adhatoda vasica).... graptophyllum picum
Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab, Sind, Rajasthan and Western India, down to the Nilgiri Hills.
Ayurvedic: Gaangeru(ki). Substitute for Gulshakari (Naagabalaa).Siddha/Tamil: Achhu.Folk: Gangeran.Action: See G. hirsuta.
The stem bark contains triterpe- noids.Dosage: Root—10-20 ml juice; 50100 ml decotion. (CCRAS.)... grewia populifoliaHabitat: North-eastern Indian hills.
Action: Leaf—used for ringworm of the scalp.
A acetylenic glucoside, isolated from the leaf, showed antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus.... microglossa pyrifoliaHabitat: Eastern Himalaya, Sikkim, Assam, and Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Action: Plant—emollient, resolvent. Used as a poultice in erysipelas and for tumours in the breast. Root—used both externally and internally for enhancing blood circulation especially when blue spots and blotches result from blows. The powdered root, mixed with tea, is given to parturient women. Leaves—used for poulticing pimples. The juice is used asa gargle for inflammations of the throat.... gynura pseudo-china
If you’re looking for a special herbal tea, you can try pipsissewa tea. It has a pleasant taste, slightly bitter, like most herbal teas, but also a bit sweet. Also, it comes with many health benefits. Read to find out more!
About Pipsissewa Tea
Pipsissewa tea is made from the pipsissewa plant, also known as Umbellate Wintergreen or Prince’s pine. It is a small, evergreen perennial plant, usually found in the dry woodlands or sandy soils of Southern Canada and northern United States.
The plant can grow up to 30cm tall. It usually has 4 evergreen, shiny leaves with a toothed margin; they’re arranged one opposite the other on the stem. It has 4-8 flowers, either pink or white, which bloom during summer.
The pipsissewa plant is used to make root beer. It can also be used to flavor candies and soft drinks.
How to prepare Pipsissewa Tea
You only need a few minutes to prepare a cup of pipsissewa tea. Put a tablespoon of herbs in the cup, then pour freshly boiled water over it. Let it steep for 2-4 minutes; then, strain the drink. Sweeten it with milk or honey, if you wish.
Pipsissewa Tea Benefits
Pipsisewa, as a plant, contains many important constituents which are also transferred to the pipsissewa tea. Some of them are hydroquinones (for example, arbutin), flavonoids, triterpenes, methyl salicylate, phenols, essential oils, and tannins. They have many health benefits.
Pipsissewa teais often recommended in the treatment for infections of the urinary tract, such as cystitis, painful urination, bladder and kidney stones, kidney inflammation, prostatitis, gonorrhea, and urethritis. It can also be used to treat arthritis, gout and rheumatism.
Drinking pipsissewa tea will help your body expel various infectious microorganisms. It can increase sweating in order to treat fever diseases. It is also often included in the treatment for ailments of the respiratory tract, such as colds, whooping cough, and bronchitis.
Pipsissewa tea can be used topically, as well. It can be used with blisters, tumors, and swellings. Also, you can use it as an eye wash if you’ve got sore eyes.
Pipsissewa Tea Side Effects
It is not well-known if pipsissewa tea can affect women during pregnancy or breast feeding. However, it’s considered safe not to drink it, just in case it might affect the baby.
It is best not to drink pipsissewa tea if you’re taking medication for the intestine, or if you’ve got iron deficiency.
Drinking a large amount of pipsissewa tea can also lead to a few side effects. The symptoms you might get are: diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, headaches, and loss of appetite.
You’ll definitely enjoy drinking pipsissewa tea, both for its pleasant taste and because of the health benefits it has.
... have a cup of pipsissewa teaHabitat: Temperate Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Shimla at 2,000-3,000 m.
English: Common St. John's wort.Unani: Heufaariqoon, Bassant, Balsaan.Action: Antidepressant, sedative, relaxing nervine, anti-inflammatory. Used in anxiety, stress, depression, menopausal nervousness, menstrual cramps, neuralgia and rheumatism.
Key application: Psychovegetative disturbances, depressive moods, anxiety and or nervous unrest. Externally, oil preparation for treatment and post-therapy of acute and contused injuries, myalgia and first degree burns. (German Commission E, ESCOP, British Herbal Pharmocopoeia.)The herb contains hypericin and pseudohypericin (0.0095 to 0.466% in the leaves and as much as 0.24% in the flowers), rutin, quercetin, hyperoside, methylhesperidin, caffeic, chloro- genic, p-coumaric, ferulic, p-hydroxy- benzoic and vanillic acids.Plant's standardized extract (0.3% hypericin) shows antidepressant activity by inhibiting MAO.A biflavonoid, amentoflavone, isolated from the plant, exhibited anti- inflammatory and antiulcerogenic activity.Alcoholic extract of the plant shows in vivo hepatoprotective activity in rodents.The oily extract of the flowers have been found effective in wound-healing due to the antibiotically active acyl- phlorogucinol, hyperforin.The aerial parts show significant antibacterial activity against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.A lyophilized infusion from the aerial parts exhibited antiviral activity and inhibited reproduction of different strains of influenza virus types A and B both in vivo and in vitro.The whole herb is effective against many viral infections.... hypericum perforatumHabitat: Native to South America; cultivated in some Indian gardens. In northern India, grows in Lucknow.
English: Mate Tea, Yerba Mate. Paraguay Tea.Action: Stimulant to brain and nervous system, mild antispasmod- ic, eliminates uric acid. Used for physical exhaustion, rheumatism, gout and nervous headache. (A national drink of Paraguay and Brazil.) Causes purging and even vomiting in large doses.
Key application: In physical and mental fatigue. (German Commission E, WHO.) In fatigue, nervous depression, psychogenic headache especially from fatigue, rheumatic pains. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) German Commission E reported analeptic, positively inotropic, positively chronotropic, glycogenolytic, lipolytic and diuretic properties.The leaves contain xanthine derivatives, including caffeine (0.2-2%), theobromine (0.3-00.5%), theophylline (absent in some samples), polyphe- nolics, tannins and chlorogenic acid, vanillin, vitamin C, volatile oil. Used in the same way as tea, due to its caffeine and theobromine content.Mate is a world famous tea and is commonly consumed in several South American countries.The flavour constituents exhibited moderate to weak broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against several Gram-positive bacteria. Some components are bactericidal, particularly against the most carcinogenic bacteria, Streptococcus mutans.... ilex paraguariensisHabitat: The hills in India.
Ayurvedic: Nili (related species).Siddha/Tamil: Nirinji.Action: Root—used for cough. Powder of the root applied externally for muscular pain in chest.
Leaves and roots—used for swelling of the stomach.The seeds contain crude protein 27.6, pentosans 8.9 and water soluble gum 12.8%.... indigofera pulchellaFor more prolonged arti?cial ventilation it is usual to use a specially designed machine or ventilator to perform the task. The ventilators used in operating theatres when patients are anaesthetised and paralysed are relatively simple devices.They often consist of bellows which ?ll with fresh gas and which are then mechanically emptied (by means of a weight, piston, or compressed gas) via a circuit or tubes attached to an endotracheal tube into the patient’s lungs. Adjustments can be made to the volume of fresh gas given with each breath and to the length of inspiration and expiration. Expiration is usually passive back to the atmosphere of the room via a scavenging system to avoid pollution.
In intensive-care units, where patients are not usually paralysed, the ventilators are more complex. They have electronic controls which allow the user to programme a variety of pressure waveforms for inspiration and expiration. There are also programmes that allow the patient to breathe between ventilated breaths or to trigger ventilated breaths, or inhibit ventilation when the patient is breathing.
Indications for arti?cial ventilation are when patients are unable to achieve adequate respiratory function even if they can still breathe on their own. This may be due to injury or disease of the central nervous, cardiovascular, or respiratory systems, or to drug overdose. Arti?cial ventilation is performed to allow time for healing and recovery. Sometimes the patient is able to breathe but it is considered advisable to control ventilation – for example, in severe head injury. Some operations require the patient to be paralysed for better or safer surgical access and this may require ventilation. With lung operations or very unwell patients, ventilation is also indicated.
Arti?cial ventilation usually bypasses the physiological mechanisms for humidi?cation of inspired air, so care must be taken to humidify inspired gases. It is important to monitor the e?cacy of ventilation – for example, by using blood gas measurement, pulse oximetry, and tidal carbon dioxide, and airways pressures.
Arti?cial ventilation is not without its hazards. The use of positive pressure raises the mean intrathoracic pressure. This can decrease venous return to the heart and cause a fall in CARDIAC OUTPUT and blood pressure. Positive-pressure ventilation may also cause PNEUMOTHORAX, but this is rare. While patients are ventilated, they are unable to breathe and so accidental disconnection from the ventilator may cause HYPOXIA and death.
Negative-pressure ventilation is seldom used nowadays. The chest or whole body, apart from the head, is placed inside an airtight box. A vacuum lowers the pressure within the box, causing the chest to expand. Air is drawn into the lungs through the mouth and nose. At the end of inspiration the vacuum is stopped, the pressure in the box returns to atmospheric, and the patient exhales passively. This is the principle of the ‘iron lung’ which saved many lives during the polio epidemics of the 1950s. These machines are cumbersome and make access to the patient di?cult. In addition, complex manipulation of ventilation is impossible.
Jet ventilation is a relatively modern form of ventilation which utilises very small tidal volumes (see LUNGS) from a high-pressure source at high frequencies (20–200/min). First developed by physiologists to produce low stable intrathoracic pressures whilst studying CAROTID BODY re?exes, it is sometimes now used in intensive-therapy units for patients who do not achieve adequate gas exchange with conventional ventilation. Its advantages are lower intrathoracic pressures (and therefore less risk of pneumothorax and impaired venous return) and better gas mixing within the lungs.... intermittent positive pressure (ipp)
Packarde, Pakard, Pakarde, Pacard, Pacarde... packard
Pacquitah, Pacquyta, Pacqueta, Paquita, Paqueta, Pakita, Packita... pacquita
Habitat: Throughout India; ascending to 300 m.
Ayurvedic: Shyaamaa, Chhaa- galaantri, Vriddhadaaraka, Vrid- dhadaaru. Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj., synonym A. spiciosa Sweet, Convolvulaceae, is equated with Vriddhadaaru and Vriddhadaaruka, while Ipomoea petaloidea and I. pes-caprae are also known by identical synonyms. Operculina turpethum, synonym I. turpethum is used as a substitute for I. petaloidea.Unani: Shaaraf.Siddha: Nilapoosani.Folk: Bidhaaraa, Nishoth (black var.)Action: Purgative. Used as a supporting herb for diseases of the nervous system.
Dosage: Leaf, root—3-6 g powder; leaf juice—5-10 ml. (CCRAS.)... ipomoea petaloideaHabitat: Cultivated in the Nilgiris and Poona.
English: Jalap.Folk: Jalaapaa.Action: Strong cathartic and purgative. Usually used with carminatives.
Resin from dried root (commercial jalap) contains beta-D-quinovoside of 11-OH-tetradecanoic acid. The glycosi- dal resin is known as "convolvulin'l... ipomoea purgaHabitat: Native of tropical America; found throughout greater part of India, grown in gardens.
English: Tall Morning-Glory.Folk: Karakatiyaa (seeds).Action: Purgative. Seed extract— antibacterial.
The stem contains a soft resin (4.8%), essential oil (0.08%) and tannin. The resin is the active principle, it contains ipuranol, which is identical with sitosterol glucoside, ipurolic acid, d- methyl acetic acid, hydroxylauric acid and glucose.... ipomoea purpureaHabitat: West Bengal, Bihar, Western Central and South India.
English: Torchwood Tree.Ayurvedic: Nevaari, Nevaali, Ishwara, Rangan.Siddha/Tamil: Shulundu-kora, Korivi.Action: Flowers—pounded with milk, for whooping cough. Bark—a decoction for anaemia and general debility. Fruit and root—given to females when urine is highly coloured. The leaves contain ixoral and beta- sitosterol. Leaves and flowers gave flavonoids—rutin and kaempferol- 3-rutinoside; stems gave a flavone glycoside, chrysin 5-O-beta-D- xylopyranoside. The aerial parts contain 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin. The seed oil gave capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, oleic and linoleic acids.... ixora pavetta
Habitat: Indigenous to south-east tropical Africa. Imported into India.
English: Calumba, Colombo.Ayurvedic: Kalambaka. (Coscinium fenestratum Colebr., known as False calumba, is used as a substitute for J. palmata.)Siddha/Tamil: Kolumbu.Action: Root—bitter tonic without astringency, carminative, gastric tonic, antiflatulent, hyptotensive, orexigenic, uterine stimulant, sedative. Used in anorexia, poor digestion, hypochlorhydria, amoebic dysentery and menstrual disorders. Antifungal.
Key application: As appetite stimulant. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The root gave isoquinoline alkaloids 2-3%; palmatine, jaterorrhizine and its dimer bis-jateorrhizine, columbamine; bitters (including chasmanthin and palmanin). Volatile oil contains thymol.The alkaloid jateorrhizine is sedative, hypotensive. Palmatine is a uterine stimulant.As calumba contains very little volatile oil and no tannins, it is free from as- tringency which is common with other bitter herbs.The root alkaloids exhibit narcotic properties and side effects similar to morphine. It is no longer used (in Western herbal) as a digestive aid, and is rarely used as an antidiarrhoeal agent. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... jateorhiza palmataPadget, Padgette, Padgete, Padgeta, Padgetta, Padge... padgett
Padmah, Padmia, Padmini, Padminia, Padmea, Padminea... padma
Habitat: Throughout the warm and moist parts of India, especially abundant in West Bengal.
Ayurvedic: Parnabija, Pattharchuur, Pattharchat, Hemsaagar. (Paashaa- nabheda is a misleading synonym.)Unani: Zakhm-e-Hayaat.Siddha/Tamil: Runakalli.Action: Leaf—anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial. Applied to wounds, burns, boils, swellings.
The methanolic extract of leaves exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity against both exudative and proliferative phases of inflammation. The leaf extract also showed analgesic activity.The leaves gave flavonoids—querce- tin, kaempferol, quercetin-3-diarabi- noside andkaempferol-3-glucoside; also n-hentriacontane, n-tritriacontane, alpha- and beta-amyrin and sitosterol; p-coumaric, ferulic, syringic, caffeic and p-hydroxybenzoic acids.... kalanchoe pinnataHabitat: Native to West Africa, cultivated as a roadside tree.
English: Common Sausage tree.Folk: Jhaar Phaanuus.Action: Bark—antidysenteric, antirheumatic, diuretic. Used in venereal diseases. Fruits— purgative.
The root bark contains monoter- penoids, pinnatal, isopinnatal and iso- kigelinol napthoquinones.The fruit gave a cytostatic compound.In Africa, the root bark is used in the treatment of venereal diseases, haemorrhoids and rheumatism; also as a vermifuge.... kigelia pinnataHabitat: Hills of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
English: Piney.Ayurvedic: Samparni.Siddha/Tamil: Kodapalai, Ma- dayansambrani.Action: Oleo-gum-resin—used in catarrhal conditions of the genitourinary and respiratory tracts; also for treating sores.
The oleo-gum-resin contains mono- terpenes and diterpenes—hardwickiic, kolavic, kolavenic acids and kolavenol.... kingiodendron pinnatumHabitat: Almost throughout India, up to an altitude of 900 m, in the
Ayurvedic: Siddhaka, Siddha, Syandana (provisional synonym).Folk: Dhauraa, Bakli. Chungi (Hyderabad). Lendia (trade).Action: Astringent, fungitoxic.
The bark and leaves contain tannin 7-10 and 16% respectively. The plant contains a pentacyclic triterpene, lag- florin. Aqueous extract of fresh and ethanolic extract of dried and powdered leaves exhibit fungitoxic activity against several fungal pathogens of rice.... lagerstroemia parvifloraPahanah, Pahanna, Pahann, Pahanne, Pahane, Pahan... pahana
Behavioural therapy and cognitive therapy, often carried out by psychologists, attempt to clarify with the patient speci?c features of behaviour or mental outlook respectively, and to identify step-by-step methods that the patient can use for controlling the disorder. Behaviour therapy is commonly used for AGORAPHOBIA and other phobias, and cognitive therapy has been used for depression and anxiety. (See MENTAL ILLNESS.)... long-term supportive psychotherapy
Habitat: Sylhet. (A parasite found on trees.)
Ayurvedic: Bandaaka (var.).Folk: Baandaa.Action: Leaves—used as poultice for sores and ulcers. The twigs contain quercitrin and a wax, which gives melissyl alcohol. The twig ash (8.95%) contains manganese (0.26%).... loranthus pentandrus
Habitat: Throughout tropical regions of India.
English: Kamala tree, Monkey Face tree.Ayurvedic: Kampillaka, Kampilla, Karkash, Raktaanga, Rechan, Chandra.Unani: Kamilla, Kambilaa.Siddha/Tamil: Kapli, Kalupatti.Action: Gland and hair of fruit— purgative, anthelmintic, styptic. Used for the treatment of tapeworm infestation; in scabies, ringworm, herpes. Fruit—hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic, antibacterial.
Capsule hair and glands gave phlo- roglucinol derivatives; rottlerin, isorot- tlerin, iso-allorottlerin (the "red compound") and methylene-b¿s-methyl- phloroacetophenone (the "yellow compound"). The red powder, obtained from capsules, containing largely resinous matter, had lithotropic effect in rats, comparable to drugs used commonly against urinary calculi. Two more compounds designated as kama- lins 1 and 2 have been isolated.The stem bark contains kamaladiol- 3-acetate and friedelin.Dosage: Glands and hairs of the fruit—0.5-1.0 g powder. (API, Vol.I.)... mallotus philippensisHabitat: Native to Europe and West Asia; now cultivated in Himachal Pradesh., Kashmir, Kulu, Kumaon, Assam and in the Nilgiris.
English: Cultivated Apple.Ayurvedic: Sinchitikaa.Folk: Seb, Sev.Action: Bark—anthelmintic, refrigerant, hypnotic, given in intermittent, remittent and bilious fevers. Leaves—inhibit the growth of a number of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
The fruit contains malic (90-95% of the total acids), citric, lactic and succinic acids; (unripe fruit contains quinic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, lactic acid); caffeic acid derivatives, pectins, minerals and vitamins.Edible portion of fresh apple contains thiamine 0.12, riboflavin 0.03, niacin 0.2 and ascorbic acid 2 mg/100 g. The ascorbic acid content varies widely and values up to 40 mg/100 g. Sugars constitute about 80% of the total carbohydrates of ripe fruits—fructose (60), glucose (25) and sucrose (15%). The pectin content of the edible portion varies from 0.14 to 0.96% (as calcium pectate). The uronic acid content of apple pectin varies from 0.5 to 15%.The astringent principles of apple include tannins, tannin derivatives and colouring materials (flavones). The browning of apple slices on exposure to air is due to enzymic oxidation of tannin compounds.Fresh juice contains 0.20-0.80 malic acid, 11.6 total sugars and 0.02100.080% tannin.The seeds contain cyanogenic gly- coside, amygdalin (0.62-1.38%, HCN equivalent, 0.037-00.087%).... malus pumilaAnxiety, phobias and depression are fairly common. For instance, surveys show that up to
2.5 per cent of children and 8 per cent of adolescents are depressed at any one time, and by the age of 18 a quarter will have been depressed at least once. Problems such as OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER, ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER (HYPERACTIVITY SYNDROME), AUTISM, ASPERGER’S SYNDROME and SCHIZOPHRENIA are rare.
Mental-health problems may not be obvious at ?rst, because children often express distress through irritability, poor concentration, dif?cult behaviour, or physical symptoms. Physical symptoms of distress, such as unexplained headache and stomach ache, may persuade parents to keep children at home on school days. This may be appropriate occasionally, but regularly avoiding school can lead to a persistent phobia called school refusal.
If a parent, teacher or other person is worried that a child or teenager may have a mental-health problem, the ?rst thing to do is to ask the child gently if he or she is worried about anything. Listening, reassuring and helping the child to solve any speci?c problems may well be enough to help the child feel settled again. Serious problems such as bullying and child abuse need urgent professional involvement.
Children with emotional problems will usually feel most comfortable talking to their parents, while adolescents may prefer to talk to friends, counsellors, or other mentors. If this doesn’t work, and if the symptoms persist for weeks rather than days, it may be necessary to seek additional help through school or the family’s general practitioner. This may lead to the child and family being assessed and helped by a psychologist, or, less commonly, by a child psychiatrist. Again, listening and counselling will be the main forms of help o?ered. For outright depression, COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY and, rarely, antidepressant drugs may be used.... mental health problems in children
Habitat: Native to Europe; cultivated in Maharashtra, Kashmir and Punjab.
English: Peppermint, Brandy Mint.Ayurvedic: Vilaayati Pudinaa.Action: Oil—digestive, carminative, chloretic, antispasmodic, diuretic, antiemetic, mild sedative, diaphoretic, antiseptic, antiviral, used in many mixtures of indigestion and colic and cough and cold remedies.
Key application: Leaf—internally for spastic complaints of the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder and bile ducts. (German Commission E, ESCOP.) The British Herbal Compendium indicates peppermint leaf for dyspepsia, flatulence, intestinal colic, and biliary disorders.Key application: Oil—as a carminative. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) In spastic discomfort fo the upper gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts, irritable colon, the respiratory tract and inflammation of the oral mucosa. Externally, for myalgia and neuralgia. (German Commission E.) ESCOP indicates its use for irritable bowel syndrome, coughs and colds. Externally, for coughs and colds, rheumatic complaints, pruritus, urticaria, and pain in irritable skin conditions. (ESCOP.)The essential oil has both antibacterial and antifungal properties.The major constituents of the essential oil are: menthol, menthone, pulegone, menthofuran, 1,8-cineole, men- thyl acetate, isomenthone. The leaves contain flavonoid glycosides, erioc- itrin, luteolin 7-O-rutinoside, hesperi- din, isorhoifolin, diosmin, eriodictyol 7-O-glucoside and narirutin, besides rosmarinic acid, azulenes, cholene, carotenes.Peppermint oil relaxed carvachol- contracted guinea-pig tenia coli, and inhibited spontaneous activity in guinea-pig colon and rabbit jejunum. It relaxes gastrointestinal smooth muscle by reducing calcium influx. Peppermint oil reduced gastric emptying time in dyspeptics.The aqueous and ethanolic extracts exhibited antiviral activity against RPV (rinder pest virus), a highly contagious viral disease of cattle.... mentha piperataPalakyka, Palakeka, Palakeeka, Palakieka, Palakeika, Palakeaka... palakika
Habitat: North-eastern parts of India, West Bengal, Western Ghats and Andaman Islands.
Folk: Asar (Bengal); Thengprenke- orong (Assam); Kadambu, Visalam, Kottei (Tamil Nadu); Abhrangu (Karnataka).Action: Plant—stomachic, an- tidysenteric, antisyphilitic, antibacterial (also used for smallpox and eczema).... microcos paniculata
Habitat: All over India, and up to 1,200 m in the outer Himalaya.
English: Kaim.Ayurvedic: Giri-kadamba, Kadamba (var.).Siddha: Chinna-Kadambu.Action: Bark—used for muscular pain. Bark and root—febrifuge, antispasmodic.
Both indole and oxindole alkaloids have been isolated from the plant. (The composition of alkaloids varies with season and from place to place.) The main indole alkaloid reported is akuammigine and oxindole alkaloids have been identified as mitra- phylline, isomitraphylline, pteropo- dine, isopteropodine, speciophylline and uncarine F. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. is the accepted source of Kadamba.... mitragyna parvifoliaAction: All parts of the tree are reported to be used as cardiac and circulatory stimulant. Pods—antipyretic, anthelmintic; fried pods are used by diabetics. Flowers—cholagogue, stimulant, diuretic. Root juice—cardiac tonic, antiepileptic. Used for nervous debility, asthma, enlarged liver and spleen, deep-seated inflammation and as diuretic in calculus affection. Decoction is used as a gargle in hoarseness and sore throat. Root and fruit—antiparalytic. Leaf—juice is used in hiccough (emetic in high doses); cooked leaves are given in influenza and catarrhal affections. Root-bark—antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic. Bark—antifungal, antibacterial. Stem-bark and flower—hypo- glycaemic. Seeds—an infusion, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic and diuretic; given in venereal diseases.
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the dried root bark in goitre, glycosuria and lipid disorders (also dried seeds), and leaf, seed, root bark and stem bark in internal abscess, piles and fistula-in-ano.The plant contains antibacterial principles, spirochin and pterygosper- min which are effective against both Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative bacteria.The leaves contain nitrile glycosides, niazirin and niazirinin and mustard oil glycosides. The mustard oil glycosides showed hypotensive, bradycardiac effects and spasmolytic activity, justifying the use of leaves for gastrointestinal motility disorders.The roots possess antibacterial, anti- choleric and antiviral properties due to the presence of pterygospermin, Spiro chin and benzylisothiocyanate. The root extract exhibited significant anti- inflammatory activity in carrageenan- induced paw-oedema in rats.The leaves exhibited hypoglycaemic activity, although the plasma insulin level did not alter much.The root and bark showed antifer- tility activity through biphasic action on the duration of the estrous cycle of female rats.Dosage: Leaf—10-20 ml. juice. (API, Vol. III); root bark—2-5 g powder; stem bark—2-5 g powder; seed—5-10 g powder (API, Vol. IV). Leaf, flower, fruit, seed, bark, root— 1-3 g powder; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... moringa pterygospermaPaliulie, Paliuly, Paliuley, Paliulee, Paliulea... paliuli
Habitat: Throughotu India, including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
English: Cowhage, Horse-eye Bean.Ayurvedic: Aatmaguptaa, Kapikac- chuu, Rshabhi, Adhigandhaa, Ajadaaa, Kacchuraa, Laan- guli, Rshyaproktaa, Svaguptaa, Shyaamguptaa, Markati, Kanduraa, Kevaanch, Shuukashimbi.Unani: Konchh.Siddha/Tamil: Poonaikkaali.Action: Seed—astringent, nervine tonic, local stimulant, used in impotence, spermatorrhoea, urinary troubles, leucorrhoea, traditionally used for male virility. Also used in depressive neurosis. Hair on fruit— vermifuge, mild vesicant; used for diseases of liver and gallbladder. Leaf—applied to ulcers. Pod— anthelmintic. Root and fruit—spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic. Root— CNS active.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the seed in impotence and paralysis agitans; the root in vaginal laxity.The seeds contain the alkaloids, mu- cunine, mucunadine, mucunadinine, prurieninine, pruriendine and nicotine, besides beta-sitosterol, gluthione, lecithin, vernolic and gallic acids. They contain a number of bioactive substances including tryptamine, alky- lamines, steroids, flavonoids, cou- marins and cardenolides. L-DOPA is present in the seed as well as in the stem, leaves and roots.Major constituents of the hairs on the pod are amines such as 5-hydroxy- tryptamine (serotonin), and a proteolytic enzyme mucuanain. (Serotonin was present only in pods.)Prurieninine slowed down heart rate, lowered blood pressure and stimulated intestinal peristalsis in experiments carried out on frogs. The spas- molysis of smooth muscles was caused by indole bases.Seed diet produced hypoglycaemic effect in normal rats, however, such diet had insignificant effect on alloxan- treated rats.There is some evidence that Cow- hage might be useful for chlorproma- zine-induced hyperprolactinemia in men. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.) (Males with hy- perprolactinemia frequently face im- potency.) (Cured seeds are used in Indian medicine for male sexual dysfunction.)Mucuna cochinchinensis Cheval.; synonym M. nivea (Roxb.) DC.; Sti- zolobium niveum Kuntze (cultivated in Bengal and Bihar for edible pods and seeds) is known as Lyon Bean (Khamach in Bengal). The pod yielded L-DOPA (0.06%).Dosage: Cured seed—3-6 g (API, Vol. III); root—3-6 g powder for decoction (API, Vol. IV.)... mucuna pruritaHabitat: Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Jalgaon district (Maharashtra), West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
English: Banana, Plantain.Ayurvedic: Kadali, Rambhaa, Sakrtphala, Vaaranaa, Mochaa, Ambusaara, Anshumatiphal.Unani: Kelaa, Mouz.Siddha/Tamil: Vaazhai.Action: Fruit—mild laxative, combats diarrhoea and dysentery, promotes healing of intestinal lesions in ulcerative colitis. Unripe fruit considered useful in diabetes. Fruit powder—used as a food supplement in sprue and other intestinal disorders. Root— anthelmintic.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the fresh rhizome in dysuria, polyuria (in females) and menstrual disorders; the flower in asthma, bleeding disorders, vaginal discharges and leucorrhoea.The pulp of ripe fruit (50 g/rat per day) given daily with standard food pellets prevented increase in blood pressure in deoxycorticosterone-in- duced hypertension in rats. This was found partially related to increased serotonin levels triggered by the high carbohydrate and tryptophan content of the fruit.Dietary fibre prepared from unripe banana exerted an antiatherogenic effect, keeping the levels of cholesterol in serum and aorta low, as also the level of LDL cholesterol in rats fed on cholesterol diet.An anti-ulcerogenic acylsterylgly- coside, sitoindoside IV, has been isolated from unripe banana.A pectin containing hexoses (32.4%) and uronic acid (52.5%) has been isolated from the pith of the stem. The pectin was found to exhibit significant hypolipidaemic and hypoglycaemic activity in rats.The flower extract exhibited hypo- glycaemic activity in rabbits.The pseudostem is reported to possess lithotriptic and antilithic properties. The extract reduced the precursor of oxalate formation, the liver glycolic acid content in hyperoxaluric rats.The benzene extract of the root exhibited significant antibacterial and an- tifungal activity.Dosage: Dried flower—10-20 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... musa paradisiacaPalmyra, Palmera, Palmeira, Palmiera, Palmer, Palmyr, Palma, Pameera, Palmeara... palmira
The most common effects of opioid overdose are vomiting, drowsiness, pinpoint pupils, BRADYCARDIA, CONVULSIONS and COMA. Respiratory depression is common and may lead to CYANOSIS and respiratory arrest. HYPOTENSION occurs occasionally and in severe cases non-cardiogenic pulmonary oedema and cardiovascular collapse may occur. Cardiac ARRHYTHMIA may occur with some opioids. Some opioids have a HISTAMINE-releasing e?ect which may result in an urticarial rash (see URTICARIA), PRURITUS, ?ushing and hypotension. Activated CHARCOAL should be given following overdose and NALOXONE administered to reverse respiratory depression and deep coma.... opioid poisoning
Habitat: Northwestern Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,0003,000 m.
English: Himalayan Paeony.Unani: Ood Saleeb, Ood Gharqi, Phaavaaniaa.Folk: Root—used in nervous affections, uterine diseases, as a blood purifier. Flower—antidiarrhoeal. Seed—emetic, cathartic. Plant— CNS depressant, hypothermic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory.The root contains an essential oil, with salicylaldehyde as the chief component, a fixed oil, benzoic acid and sucrose. The plant gave Gallo tannin and glucogallin.... paeonia emodiHabitat: Indigenous to Great Britain.
English: Paeony.Unani: Ood Saleeb, Ood Gharqi.Action: Root—antispasmodic, sedative, smooth muscle relaxant, vasodilatory, hypotensive, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, em- menagogue, hepatoprotective. Flower—used for diseases of mucous membranes, fissures, anal fissures associated with haemorrhoids, also for ailments of the respiratory tract, nervous conditions and skin diseases. Root— used for arthritis, neuralgia, neurasthenia, migraine, epilepsy, allergic disorders, whooping cough and painful spasms.
The herb gave monoterpene ester glucosides of the pinen-type (including paeoniflorin); anthocyanin including paeonin; tannins (pentagalloyl glucose); flavonoids including kaempferol glycosides.Paeoniflorin shows a smooth muscle relaxant, vasodilatory, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulating and some CNS depressant activity in animal studies. Pentagalloyl glucose exhibited antiviral activity in animal studies in vitro against herpes simplex.German Commission E included Paeony (flower and root) among un- approved herbs. The Pharmacopoeia of People's Republic of China indicates the use of the root in dementia, headache and vertigo. (WHO.)... paeonia officinalisPamelah, Pamella, Pammeli, Pammelie, Pameli, Pamelie, Pamelia, Pamelea, Pamelee, Pameleigh, Pamelina, Pameleena, Pamelyna... pamela
Panchalie, Panchaly, Panchalli, Panchaley, Panchalee, Panchalea, Panchaleigh... panchali
(e.g. etidronate). Those with the disease can obtain help and advice from the National Association for the Relief of Paget’s Disease.... paget’s disease of bone
Cleft palate and hare-lip should be recti?ed by operation, because both are a serious drawback to feeding in early life – while later, harelip is a great dis?gurement, and the voice may be affected. The lip may be dealt with at any time from the neonatal period to a few weeks, depending on the individual surgeon’s view of when the best result is likely to be achieved. Prior to operation, special techniques may be necessary to ensure adequate feeding such as the use of special teats in formula-fed babies. The closure of a large cleft in the palate is a more formidable operation and is better performed when the face has grown somewhat, perhaps at 6–12 months. The operations performed vary greatly in details, but all consist in paring the edges of the gap and drawing the soft parts together across it.
Further operations may be required over the years to improve the appearance of the nose and lip, to make sure that teeth are even, and to improve speech.
Parents of such children can obtain help and advice from the Cleft Lip and Palate Association (CLAPA).... palate, malformations of
Habitat: Native of Malagasy; grown in Indian gardens.
Ayurvedic: Ketaki (related species).Action: Root—a decoction is used for the treatment of venereal... pandanus utilis
Habitat: Western Himalayas, Pithoragarh district of Uttaranchal.
English: Indian Ginseng, Indian Pseudoginseng.Ayurvedic: In Indian medicine, Panax quinquefolium Linn. and Panax schinseng Knees have been equated with Lakshmanaa.Action: Adaptogen, digestive relaxant, old-age revitalizer. Sustains nerves and immune system in physical exhaustion and during convalescence. Antiarrhythmic (used for angina). Activities comparable with Korean ginseng.
Indian pseudoginseng, including subspecies himalaicus and its varieties, variety angustifolius and variety bipinnatifidus, has been found to be a rich source ofoleanolic acid saponins, while dammarane saponins (panaxa- diol and panaxatriol) are present in minor quantities. Panax burkillianus Bennet & Viswan and P. sikkimensis Banerjee are also related to the commercial ginseng.Panax quinquefolium (American Ginseng) has been introduced into India in the Kashmir valley during 1983. It is rich in dammarane saponins. The air-dried roots of the plant, introduced in India, contain total saponin content of 11.5%. The saponins isolated include ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1, pseudoginsenoside F11 and chikusetsu saponin V; the major saponin being ginsenoside Rb1. The saponin fraction of the root yielded panaxadiol, panaxatriol and oleanolic acid.Ginsenosides Rb and Rc are 'diols', while Rg is a 'triol'. ('triol' group is arousing, 'diol' is sedative.) In American ginseng 'diols' predominate.Panax pseudoginseng, equated with Himalayan ginseng (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007), is believed to dilate the coronary vessels, re duce vascular resistance and improve the coronary collateral circulation. It increased blood flow while reducing blood pressure.Panax schiseng, synonym P. ginseng Mey. (Asiatic or Chinese Ginseng) is cultivated in northern China, Korea and Japan.... panax pseudoginsengPancreatic cancer The incidence of pancreatic cancer is rising: around 7,000 cases are now diagnosed annually in the UK, accounting for 1–2 per cent of all malignancies. There is an established association with heavy cigarette-smoking, and the cancer is twice as common in patients with diabetes mellitus as compared with the general population. Cancer of the pancreas is hard to diagnose; by the time symptoms occur the tumour may be di?cult to treat surgically – with PALLIATIVE bypass surgery the only procedure.
Chronic pancreatitis may be painless; it leads to pancreatic failure causing MALABSORPTION SYNDROME and diabetes mellitus, and the pancreas becomes calci?ed with shadowing on X-RAYS. The malabsorption is treated by a low-fat diet with pancreatic enzyme supplements; the diabetes with insulin; and pain is treated appropriately. Surgery may be required.
Acute pancreatitis An uncommon disease of the pancreas which may start gradually or suddenly, usually accompanied by severe abdominal pain which often radiates through to the back. Biliary tract disease and alcohol account for 80 per cent of patients admitted with acute pancreatitis, while other causes include drugs (see AZATHIOPRINE and DIURETICS) and infections such as MUMPS. Patients are acutely ill with TACHYCARDIA, fever and low blood pressure; many go into SHOCK. The condition may be mistaken for a perforated PEPTIC ULCER, except that in acute pancreatitis the blood concentration of AMYLASE is raised. The main complication is the formation of a PSEUDOCYST. Treatment includes intravenous feeding, ANTICHOLINERGIC drugs and ANALGESICS. Regular measurements of blood GLUCOSE, CALCIUM, amylase and blood gases are required. Abdominal ULTRASOUND may identify gall-stones (see under GALL-BLADDER, DISEASES OF). If the patient deteriorates, he or she should be admitted for intensive care as haemorrhagic pancreatic necrosis may be developing. LAPAROTOMY and DEBRIDEMENT may be called for. Mortality is 5–10%.... pancreas, disorders of
Panni, Panie, Pany, Paney, Pannie, Panee, Panea... pani
Panize, Panyz, Panez, Panizia, Panizea... paniz
Pankitah, Pankyta, Panketa, Pankeeta, Pankieta, Pankeita, Pankeata... pankita
Habitat: Sea coast of the Indian Peninsula on both sides, and the Andaman Islands.
English: Screw Pine.Ayurvedic: Ketaka, Ketaki, Suuchikaa pushpaa, Jambuka, Trinshunya, Ketakark, Krakchhada.Unani: Keoraa.Siddha/Tamil: Thazhai, Thalay.Action: Flower—carminative, stomachic, cooling, antiseptic. Used for headache, ulcers, dysuria, scabies and other skin diseases. Root— used for osteoarthritis, leucorrhoea and amenorrhoea; contraindicat- ed during pregnancy. Leaves— used for skin diseases, small pox, scabies, leprosy. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the decoction of the root in abdominal inflammation. Oil and otto—stimulant, antispasmodic, antirheumatic.
The chief constituent of the oil is methyl ether of beta-phenylethyl alcohol. The oil also contains diterpene, d-linalool, phenylethyl acetate, citral, phenylethyl alcohol, ester of phthalic acid, fatty acids and stearoptene.The leaves contain the piperidine alkaloids.Dosage: Root—29-30 g for decoction (API, Vol. I); flower linctus—25-30 ml. (CCRAS.).... pandanus facicularisHabitat: Cultivated mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
English: Common Millet, Proso Millet, Hog Millet.Ayurvedic: Chinaaka, Cheenaa.Unani: Chinaa Ghaas, Faaluudaa.Siddha/Tamil: Panivaragu.Folk: Chenaa, Chi-Tibet.Action: Seeds (grains)—demul- cent; used in diarrhoea. Plant— antigonorrhoeal.
The seedlings contain an alkaloid hordenine (beta-p-hydroxyphenethyl dimethylamine). Saponins afforded diosgenin and yamogenin isolated from the leaves.The grains contain 10-18% of proteins which include prolamin, glutelin and smaller amounts of albumin and globulin. The protein has a biological value of 56% and a digestibility coefficient of 91% at 10% level of protein intake.In Indian medicine, Chinaaka and Kangu (Setaria italica L. Beauv.) are synonyms.(0.015%). The capsules contain morphine, thebine and narcotine and me- conic acid.Other species, commonly grown in Indian gardens, are P. nudicaule Linn. (Iceland Poppy) and P. orientale (Oriental Poppy). P. nudicaule plants with yellow flowers are more cyanogenetic than those with red or white flowers. P. orientate contains 0.16% alkaloids, which include the- baine, isothebaine, protopine, glauci- dine and oripavine. Isothebaine stimulates and later depresses the central nervous system.... panicum miliaceumPanphilah, Panphilla, Panfila, Panfilah, Panfilla... panphila
Panthar, Panthur, Panthir, Panthyr... panther
Habitat: Kashmir and throughout the plains of North India; cultivated in gardens.
English: Corn Poppy, Red Poppy.Ayurvedic: Rakta Posta.Siddha/Tamil: Sivappu, Kasakasa.Folk: Laal Posta, Laal Kaskas.Action: Latex from capsules— narcotic. Petal—expectorant, antitussive, sudorific. Used for diseases of the respiratory tract, for disturbed sleep and as a sedative for the relief of pain. (Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.)
The petals contain cyanidine derivatives. An alkaloid rhoeadine is present in leaves and flowers (0.031%), unripe capsules (0.035%) and in rootsFamily: Papaveraceae.Habitat: Native to Asia; now grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
English: Opium Poppy.Ayurvedic: Ahiphena, Aaphuuka. Post-daanaa (seed).Unani: Afyum. Tukhm-e- khashkhaash (seed).Siddha/Tamil: Kasakasa (seeds).Action: Opium is obsolete as a drug. Narcotic, sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, sudorific, anodyne, antispasmodic. Crushed poppyheads were in use as a topical poultice for crippling pain in terminal diseases. Poppy seed—nutritive, demulcent, emollient, spasmolytic, devoid of narcotic properties. Specific against obstinate constipation, also used in catarrh of the bladder. Poppy seed oil is also free from narcotic properties. Used against diarrhoea, dysentery and scalds.
Opium contains isoquinoline alkaloids; the major one is morphine with narcotine, codeine, papaverine and thebaine. Poppy seeds, used in Indian medicine, do not contain alkaloids. The seeds contain thiamine 420, riboflavin 49, folic acid 30, pantothenic acid 2667 and niacin 1877 mcg/100 g. The seed oil (from Turkey) contains gamma-tocopherol 220, alpha-toco- pherol 40 and beta-tocopherol 20 mcg/ 100 g. Some low-molecular proteins (15% of total protein) have been isolated, along with cysteine, glutamic acid and arginine. The seeds yield a fatty oil (45%) containing palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids.The extract of seeds showed highly significant antisecretory (antidiarr- hoeal activity) against E. coli entero- toxin-induced secretory responses in experimental animals.The triglycerides isolated from seeds showed anti-tumour activity against Ehrlichs ascites in mice.The aqueous extract of seeds showed marked hypoglycaemic activity when administered to glucose-loaded and al- loxan diabetic rats.The seeds were found to increase the activity of carcinogen detoxifying enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase by more than 78% in the stomach, liver and oesophagus in mice.Following Papaver sp. are found in India:P. argemone Linn. (indigenous to the Mediterranean region; commonly grown in gardens in India) contains 0.15% of alkaloids including rhoeadine, protopine, and anthocyanins. Petals are sudorific.P dubium Linn. (North-western Himalaya form Kashmir to Garhwal; as a winter weed in North Indian plains) contains rhoeagenine as the principal alkaloid, besides rhoeadine, protopine. Petals contain cyanidin B and pelargonidin C. Petals are sudorific.P. hybridum Linn. (gardens of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh) is diaphoretic (petals). Plant latex contains alkaloids including berberine, coptisine, pahybrine, papaverrubines A, B, D and E and sanguinarine. Plant also gave glaucine and glucamine.P. nudicaule Linn. (Gulmarg, Kashmir, at altitudes of 3,300-3,600 m), known as Iceland Poppy, gave alkaloids including papaverrubines B and D; leave gave cyanogenic glycosides including dhurrin and triglochinin. The flower and fruit are mild diaphoretic.P. orientale Linn. (indigenous to Mediterranean region; grown in Indian gardens), known as Oriental Poppy, contains 0.16% of alkaloids including thebaine, isothebane, protopine, glaucidine and oripavine. Latex from poppy capsule is narcotic.... papaver somniferumPaprikah, Papryka, Papreka, Papricka, Paprycka, Paprecka, Papreeka, Papreaka, Papreika, Paprieka... paprika
An overdose of paracetamol is a common choice of those attempting to commit suicide. Since the government restricted the number of paracetamol tablets an individual may purchase over the counter, the incidence of people taking the drug in overdose with the intention of taking their lives has fallen sharply.... paracetamol poisoning
Parca, Parcia, Parcee, Parsae, Parsee, Parsia, Parcea... parcae
The most common cause of this condition (hypoparathyroidism) is accidental injury to or removal of the glands during the operation of thyroidectomy for the treatment of Graves’ disease (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF – Thyrotoxicosis). If there is over-production of the parathyroids, there will be an increase of calcium in the blood: this extra calcium is drawn from the bones, causing cysts to form with resulting bone fragility. This cystic disease of bone is known as OSTEITIS FIBROSA CYSTICA. Tumours of the parathyroid glands result in this overactivity of the parathyroid hormone, and the resulting increase in the amount of calcium in the blood leads to the formation of stones in the kidneys. The only available treatment is surgical removal of the tumour. Increased activity of the parathyroid glands, or hyperparathyroidism, may cause stones in the kidneys. (See KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF.)... parathyroid
The preferred route for the infusion of hyperosmolar solutions is via a central venous catheter (see CATHETERS). If parenteral nutrition is required for more than two weeks, it is advisable to use a long-term type of catheter such as the Broviac, Hickman or extra-corporeal type, which is made of silastic material and is inserted via a long subcutaneous tunnel; this not only helps to ?x the catheter but also minimises the risk of ascending infection.
Dextrose is considered the best source of carbohydrate and may be used as a 20 per cent or 50 per cent solution. AMINO ACIDS should be in the laevo form and should contain the correct proportion of essential (indispensable) and non-essential amino acids. Preparations are available with or without electrolytes and with or without fat emulsions.
The main hazards of intravenous feeding are blood-borne infections made possible by continued direct access to the circulation, and biochemical abnormalities related to the composition of the solutions infused. The continuous use of hypertonic solutions of glucose can cause HYPERGLYCAEMIA and glycosuria and the resultant POLYURIA may lead to dehydration. Treatment with INSULIN is needed when hyper-osmolality occurs, and in addition the water and sodium de?cits will require to be corrected.... parenteral nutrition
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Simla to Bhutan and in Lushai and Aka Hills. Haimavati, Shveta-
Action: Plant—sedative, analgesic, haemostatic, anthelmintic.
The rhizome contains a glucoside, alpha-paristyphnin, which exhibited a depressant action on carotid pressure, myocardium, and respiratory movements experimentally. It produced vasoconstriction in kidney, but vasodilation in the spleen and limbs, and stimulated isolated intestines.... paris polyphyllaHabitat: Cultivated in Kashmir hills and the Himalayas.
Ayurvedic: Shaileya, Shaileya- ka, Shilaapushpa, Shilaadaaru, Shailaka, Shilodbhava, Shaila, Shailpushpa. Kaalaanu-saarthaka, Bhuri-charilla, Sthavira, Vrddha, Shitashiva.Unani: Charelaa.Action: Astringent, resolvent, diuretic. Used externally for pain in renal and lumbar regions. Also used as an ingredient in cosmetic preparations.
The lichen contains lecanoric acid and atranorin.Several lichen species contain abundant quantities of usnic acid which exhibits antimicrobial and antifungal activity and is immunologically active in contact dermatitis.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the thallus in dysuria.Dosage: Whole thallus—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... parmelia perlataHabitat: Hedgerows, in better soils.
Features ? Up to six inches in height, the whole plant rather hairy. Leaves small, trifid higher up the stem, palmate lower down. Axillary tufts of small, greenish flowers.Part used ? Herb.Action: Diuretic, demulcent.
A widely-used diuretic acting directly on the parts. The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion may be given in teacupful doses thrice daily in all kidney and bladder irregularities.... parsley piertParthenie, Parthenea, Partheniya, Partheniah, Partheni, Partheny, Partheney, Parthenee, Parthenea... parthenia
Habitat: Tropical and subtropical countries of the world.
English: Congress Grass.Folk: Pichhi, Machhipatri.Action: Anti-amoebic, antidysen- teric, febrifuge, analgesic, emmena- gogue.
The grass was introduced into India during 1950 s (it first appeared in Pune).The grass exhibits in vitro anti- amoebic activity against axenic and polygenic cultures of Entamoeba his- tolytica, comparable to the standard drug for amoebiasis, Metronidazole.Parthenin and some of its derivatives exhibited significant antimalarial activity against a multi drug-resistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum.The main toxic constituent of the grass responsible for causing dermatitis and other forms of allergy are parthenin and coronopilin. Parthenin in present up to 8% in the capitulum and 5% in the leaves.... parthenium hysterophorusHabitat: Throughout the Himalayas.
Folk: Kandur (Jaunsar), Philunaa (Garhwal) Laderi (Kumaon).Action: Bark and twigs—astringent and expectorant.... parthenocissus himalayana
Parvine, Parveen, Parveene, Parvyn, Parvynne, Parvean, Parveane... parvin
Pascaleh, Pascala, Pascaline, Pasclina, Pascalla, Pascalia, Pascha... pascale
Pasitheah, Pasithia, Pasithiya, Pasithee, Pasithi, Pasithie... pasithea
Habitat: Cultivated throughout India.
English: Kodo millet. Ayurvedic: Kodrava, Korduusha. Siddha/Tamil: Varagu. Folk: Kodo.Action: Plant—used as a CNS drug for treating schizophrenia and psychoses.
The plant contains hentriacontanol, hentriacontanone and sitosterol. The grains have often been reported to cause poisoning in men and animals when used as a food; non-poisonous types have been reported from Tamil Nadu.... paspalum scrobiculatumHabitat: Native of Brazil; cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, in North India in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.
English: Purple Granadilla, Passion Fruit.Action: Juice from purple fruit— a good source of ascorbic acid (contains up to 75 mg/100 g), carotene and sugars.
The juice from the yellow variety (equated with Passiflora edulis f. flavi- carpa) contains lesser amounts of ascorbic acid and sugars.The purple Passion fruit contains the C-glucoside, beta-ionyl-beta-D- glucopyranoside. A protease inhibitor (PEPI) has been isolated from the juice. PEPI inhibited trypsin and chy- motrypsin activities, but did not inhibit papain activity. The esters and terpenoids form the major part of fruit components. The terpenoids include a number of monoterpenes (including hydroxylated linalool derivatives), and monoterpene glycosides. Norter- penoid aglycones have also been found.The yellow Passion fruit contains sulfur-containing volatiles, acetates, butanoates and hexanoates of 3-mer- captohexanol. The leaves contain C- glycosylflavonoids.... passiflora edulisHabitat: Native to America; found willd in Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
English: Stinking Passion Flower.Siddha/Tamil: Siru Ponaikalli.Action: Leaves and roots—em- menagogue, antihysteric. Fruits— emetic. A decoction is used for biliousness and asthma (for expelling bile and cough).
The plant contains C-glycosides of apigenin and luteolin. Apigenin-8- C-glucoside has been detected in the plant.... passiflora foetidaHabitat: Native of tropical America; grown in Indian gardens.
English: Water-lemon, Jamaica Honey Suckle.Action: Leaves—anthelmintic. Seeds—hypnodil. Fruit—edible. Plant—poisonous (the foliage produces hydrocyanic acid).
The fruit pulp contains pantothenic acid (1.55 mg/100 g); leaves contain 387 mg/100 g vitamin C.... passiflora laurifoliaHabitat: Native of tropical America; grown in Indian gardens.
English: Giant Granadilla.Action: Fruit—edible; contains 64 mg/100 g ascorbic acid; narcotic when eaten in excess. Leaves, the peel and seeds of green fruit, and roots—cyanogenetic. Roots— poisonous.
The root contains an alkaloid Passiflora which is identical with harman from Passiflora incarnata.... passiflora quadrangularisHabitat: Native of South-east America; grown in Indian gardens.
English: Wild Passion Flower, Maypop.Action: Flowering and fruiting dried herb—mild sedative, hypnotic, tranquilizer, hypotensive, vasodilator, antispasmodic, anodyne, anti-inflammatory,
Key application: In nervous restlessness, irritability and difficulty in falling asleep. (German Commission E, ESCOP, The British Herbal Compendium, The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, WHO.) The British Herbal Compendium also indicated it in neuralgia, dysmenorrhoea, and nervous tachycardia.The herb contains flavonoids (up to 2.5%), in particular C-glycosylflavones; cyanogenic glycoside, gynocardine.The alkaloid harman has been isolated, but the presence of harmine, har- maline, harmol and harmalol has been disputed. The alkaloid and flavonoids are reported to have sedative activity in animals. Apigenin exhibits antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory activity.Passion Flower was formerly approved as an OTC sedative in the USA, but it was taken off the market in 1978 because safety and effectiveness had not been proven. An animal study in 1977 suggested that apigenin binds to central benzodi-zepine receptors (possibly causing anxiolytic effects). (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)The drug is used in homoeopathic medicine for epilepsy.The herb exhibits a motility-inhi- biting effect in animal experiments.Passion Flower, used as an adjunct to clonidine, was superior to clonidine for mental symptoms of opiate withdrawal. (Sharon M. Herr.)... passiflora incarnataHigh-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurisation consists of heating the milk at a temperature not less than 71·7 °C (161 °F) for at least 15 seconds, followed by immediate cooling to a temperature of not more than 10 °C (50 °F).
Low-temperature pasteurisation, or ‘holder’ process, consists in maintaining the milk for at least half an hour at a temperature between 63 and 65 °C (145–150 °F), followed by immediate cooling to a temperature of not more that 10 °C (50 °F). This has the e?ect of considerably reducing the number of bacteria contained in the milk, and of preventing the diseases conveyed by milk as referred to above.... pasteurisation
Habitat: Native to Europe; grows in cool climate in India. (Hollow Crown, Student and Large Guernsey are Indian horticultural varieties.)
English: Parsnip.Action: Above ground parts— diuretic, carminative (eaten as a vegetable and salad), used for kidney disorders. Root—used for kidney disorders, fever and as a diuretic and analgesic.
The parsnip is a rich source of coumarins (1.7% dry weight). The coumarin fraction of the fruit extract inhibits growth of cancer cells (HeLa- S3)cultured in the dark. The fruit contains small amounts of photoactive furocoumarins which are phototoxic. (Severe dermatitis results after contact with the furocoumarin in the presence of light.) The fruit contains xantho- toxin (0.1%), imperatorin (0.17%) and bergapten (0.38%). Coumarin, pasti- nacin, isolated from the fruit, showed spasmolytic action.... pastinaca sativaHabitat: Native to Europe. English: Wild Parsnip. Unani: Shaqaaq-ul-Misri.
Action: Root—galactagogue, aphrodisiac, spermatogenetic. An important ingredient of Unani compounds for oligospermia, low sexual drive and debility. Shaqaaq-ul-Misri has also been equated with Trachydium lehmanni Benth. In Kashmir, Eryngium caeru- leum Bieb (Umbelliferae) and in Chak- rata, Polygonatum verticillatum All. (Liliaceae) are known as shaqaaqul (also Dudhaali). Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomes are used in Tibetan medicine for emaciation and senility. The dried rhizomes contain diosgenin.... pastinaca secacul
Patiencia, Paciencia, Pacencia, Pacyncia, Pacincia, Pacienca... patience
Patriece, Patreece, Patreace, Patreice, Patryce... patrice
Patrisha, Patrycia, Patrisia, Patsy, Patti, Patty, Patrizia, Pattie, Padraigin, Pat... patricia
Paulina, Pauline, Paulette, Paola, Pauleta, Pauletta, Pauli, Paulete, Pabla, Paulita, Pavlina, Pavleena, Pavlyna, Pavliena, Pavla... paula
Pavatie, Pavaty, Pavatey, Pavatee, Pavatea... pavati
Habitat: Throughout greater part of India.
Siddha/Tamil: Sithamutti, Mammat- ti, Peraamutti.Action: Plant—purgative, an- thelmintic, febrifuge.
The stem gave a saponin, pavo- phylline, and a keto-ester, methyl 19- ketotetracosanoate.... pavonia zeylanicaHabitat: Found in Konkan and Maharashtra.
English: Lopez Root tree, Wild Orange tree, Forest Pepper.Ayurvedic: Kaanchana, Dahana.Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Milagu, Milagaranai.Folk: Jangali Kaalimirchi, Limri (Maharashtra).Action: Root bark—bitter, febrifuge, diaphoretic, antiperiodic. Infusion used in constitutional debility and convalescence after febrile and other exhausting diseases.
The root gave coumarins, including toddanol, todhanone, toddasin, pimpinellin, toddalolactone; alkaloids, including toddaline, toddalnine.... paullinia asiaticaHabitat: Throughout greater part of India, ascending to an altitude of about 1,500 m in the Himalayas, also recorded from the Andamans.
English: White-Pavetta.Ayurvedic: Papata, Kathachampaa.Siddha/Tamil: Pavattai.Folk: Paapadi (Maharashtra).Action: Root—bitter and aperient. Prescribed in visceral obstructions, renal dropsy and ascites. Leaves— used for fomenting piles and for haemorrhoidal pains. The root bark contains d-mannitol.... pavetta indica
Habitat: North-West India, Bengal and Konkan.
English: Fragrant Sticky Mallow.Ayurvedic: Vaalaka, Baalaka, Baala, Barhishtha, Hrivera, Ambu, Jala, Nira, Paya, Toya, Udichya, Vaari, Muurdhaja. Sugandhbaalaa (also equated with Valeriana Jatamansi). In the South, Celus vettiveroides is equated with Baalaka.Siddha/Tamil: Peraamutti, Kastoori vendai.Action: Plant—anti-inflammatory and spasmolytic. Used in rheumatic affections. Root—stomachic, astringent, demulcent. Used in dysentery, haemorrhages from intestines; ulcers and bleeding disorders.
The roots gave an essential oil containing isovaleric acid, isovaleralde- hyde, armomadendrene, pavonene, alpha-terpinene, azulene and pavo- nenol.The plant exhibits antiparasitic activity against Entamoeba histolytica.... pavonia odorataHabitat: Throughout the plains of India.
English: Caltrops (bigger var.).Ayurvedic: Brihatgokshura, Kshouraka, Trikantaka, Gokantaka, Swaadukantaka, Bhakshantaka.Unani: Khaar-e-khasak Kalaan, Gokharu Kalaan.Siddha/Tamil: Peru-neranji, Annai- neringi.Action: Fruit—used for spermatorrhoea, nocturnal emissions, menstrual irregularities, puerperal diseases, genitourinary disorders, difficult micturition, chronic cystitis, renal calculus. Root— antibilious.
The stem and fruits contain flavo- noids pedalitin and its glucoside (ped- aliin), diometin, dinatin and its derivatives. The fruits contain nonaco- sane, tritriacontane, triacontanoic acid, sitosterol-beta-D-glucoside, rubusic acid, luteolin as major constituents. Leaves and fruits yield phenolic acids which include caffeic, protocatechuic, p-coumaric and ferulic acids. Flowers gave dinatin, quercetin and quercetin- 7-glucoside.Aqueous extract of the fruit is reported to produce in vitro inhibitory effect on crystallization in urinary lithi- asis. The solubility of uric acid in aqueous extract is reported to be 45% more than in water alone.The plant extracts exhibit diuretic activity.Dosage: Fruit, root—3-5 g powder; 50-100 ml. decoction. (CCRAS.)... pedalium murexHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir eastwards at altitudes of 2,000-4,300 m, extending to Sikkim.
English: Lousewort.Folk: Mishran, Michren (Punjab), Lugro-maarpro (Kashmir).Action: Leaves—astringent, haemostatic, diuretic.
The herb is closely related to Eye- bright (Euphrasia officinalis Linn.) of the same family, found in the Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Ku- maon. Eyebright is astringent and bac- teriostatic.... pedicularis pectinataHabitat: Native to West Indies; cultivated as an ornamental.
English: Slipper Plant, Bird-Cactus.Folk: Vilaayati-sher (Maharashtra), Naagaphani, Naagadaman (Madhya Pradesh).Action: Latex—used for warts, leucoderma, venereal diseases. Root—emetic (used in West Indies as Ipecacuanha).
An extract of the air-dried and powdered whole plant contains oc- tacosanol, cycloartenone, oxime and beta-sitosterol.The latex from the stem contains the proteolytic enzyme, pedilanthain. It exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema and was more effective than the control drug phenylbutazone. The enzyme also showed anthelmintic property.The leaves contain n-hentriaconta- nol and dehydrodammaronol-A. The root gave azafrin.... pedilanthus tithymaloidesPelagiah, Pelagea, Pelagiya, Pelageah, Pelagla, Pelaglah, Pelagie, Pelagy, Pelagi, Pelagey, Pelagee, Pelagias, Pelaga... pelagia
Habitat: Throughout Northern and Northwestern India, and in drier regions of Deccan.
English: Wild Rue; Foreign Henna, Syrian Rue.Ayurvedic: Haramal, Isband.Siddha/Tamil: Simaiyaravandi, Simaiyalavinai.Action: Plant—emmenagogue, abortifacient. Seeds—narcotic, hypnotic, antispasmodic, anodyne and emetic; used in asthma, hiccough, colic, neuralgia, hysteria, dysmenorrhoea; used as abortifa- cient (properties similar to ergot, savine and rue). (Dried seeds constitute the drug Harmal of Indian medicine.)
The plant gave flavonoids—kaem- pferol, quercetin and acacetin. Aerial parts and seeds contain alkaloids— harmine, harmaline and harmalol (called harman alkaloids). Harman alkaloids from the seeds have been suggested for use in nervous diseases, and as coronary dilators and embolic. Harmol exhibits hypertensive activity. Harmine, vasicinone, deoxyvasici- none and 8-hydroxy glucosylharmine exhibit antitumour activity.The alkaloids, harmine, harmaline and harmol exhibit antibacterial and antifungal activity.The aqueous extract of seeds exhibited significant antiviral activity in vitro against herpes virus hominis type 1, slight activity was also observed against influenza viruses A and B. The plant extract exhibits significant analgesic activity.... peganum harmalaHabitat: Introduced into India in the Shevroy hills of Tamil Nadu; cultivated largely in the Nilgiri and Palni hills of Tamil Nadu.
English: Geranium.Action: Oil—antifungal.
Geranium oil produced from the plant grown in the temperate region at high altitudes is rich in menthone, cit- ronellol, nerol and geraniol; while the oil produced from the plants grown at lower altitudes is rich in isomenthone, linalool and citronellyl formate.Geranium oil and its constituents are reported to exhibit marginal an- titumour activity.The oil also exhibits in vitro antifun- gal activity.... pelargonium graveolensHabitat: Old walls.
Features ? Up to two feet high, stem reddish, brittle, angular, rather hairy. Leaves alternate, stalked, lanceolate, edges smooth, one to two inches long by half an inch to one inch broad. Numerous pink flowers (June and July), small, axillar.Part used ? Herb.Action: Diuretic, laxative.
Gravel, suppression of urine, and other bladder and kidney disorders. Frequently prescribed in combination with Wild Carrot and Parsley Piert. Wineglass doses of the infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint boiling water.... pellitory-of-the-wallHabitat: Coastal forests of the Andaman Islands.
English: Copper Pod, Rusty Shield-Bearer.Siddha/Tamil: Ivalvagai, Perun- gondrai.Action: Bark—used for dysentery; also used as a constituent of gargles, tooth-powders and lotions for sores and muscular pains.
The bark contains 20.8% of a catechol type of tannin and 9.5% non-tans. The wood and leaves also contain tannin.The pods contain bergenin which exhibits anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema and is found to be equipotent to phenylbutazone.Aqueous extract of leaves and etha- nolic extract of flower exhibit antifun- gal activity.Family: Asclepiadaceae.Habitat: West Bengal, Gujarat and Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Kaakanaasaa, Kaakanaasikaa, Kaakaangi, Kaak- tundphalaa, Shringiritti.Siddha/Tamil: Uppilankodi.Folk: Singarauti (Gujarat). Amarvel.Action: Plant—antifungal, antiseptic, keratolytic; used in various skin conditions.
The plant gave n-octacosanol, alpha- amyrin, friedelin, beta-sitosterol. An appreciable amount of salicyclic acid has been isolated from the plant. The plant also yields a cardiac glycoside.Dosage: Plant—50-100 ml. decoction. (CCRAS.)... peltophorum pterocarpumThe infection may be silent – with no obvious symptoms – or symptoms may be troublesome, for example, vaginal discharge and sometimes a palpable mass in the lower abdomen. If a LAPAROSCOPY is done – usually by endoscopic examination – overt evidence of PID is found in around 65 per cent of suspected cases.
PID may be confused with APPENDICITIS, ECTOPIC PREGNANCY – and PID is a common cause of such pregnancies – ovarian cyst (see OVARIES, DISEASES OF) and in?ammatory disorders of the intestines. Treatment is with a combination of ANTIBIOTICS that are active against the likely pathogens, accompanied by ANALGESICS. Patients may become seriously ill and require hospital care, where surgery is sometimes required if conservative management is unsuccessful. All women who have PID should be screened for sexually transmitted disease and, if this is present, should be referred with their partner(s) to a genito-urinary medicine clinic. Up to 20 per cent of women who have PID become infertile, and there is a seven-to ten-fold greater risk of an ectopic pregnancy occurring.... pelvic inflammatory disease(pid)
Penina, Peninah, Peninna, Penyna, Pennyna, Penine, Penyne... penninah
Habitat: A shrub cultivated as an ornamental throughout the hotter parts of India.
Ayurvedic: Bandhujiva, Bandhuuka, Arkavallabha.Folk: Gul-dupahariaa.Action: Capsule—mucilaginous, used for the diseases of the bowels; a decoction is used as emollient. Root—astringent, antibilious, antiphlegmonous, febrifuge.... pentapetes phoenicea
Habitat: A climber found in Punjab, Delhi, Upper Gangetic Plain, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Ayurvedic: Kaakanaasaa (related species).Folk: Ambarvel, Vanaveri (Punjab).Action: Root—astringent, antigon- orrhoeic, alterative. Plant—emetic, purgative.
An acyclic diterpene ester, cis-phy- tyl-l-palmitate, together with the triter- penes, squalene, n-taraxasterol and taraxasterol, has been isolated from the plant.... pentatropis microphyllaPepitah, Pepitta, Pepitia, Pepitina... pepita
Habitat: Throughout India and hotter parts.
English: Hairknot Plant, Whitlow Plant.Ayurvedic: Uttamaarani, Vrischikaali, Vishaanikaa. Phala- kantaka. Ajashringi is a doubtful synonym.Siddha/Tamil: Utthaamani, Veli- paruthi.Folk: Utaran.Action: Plant—Uterine stimulant, tones up urinary bladder, stimulates gastric secretion, expectorant, emetic. Leaf—used for amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea; externally applied to carbuncles.
The plant gave betaine, a polypep- tide, hentriacontane, lupeol, alpha-and beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol as major constituents. Seeds and stems gave car- denolides—calactin, calotropin, calo- tropagenin, uzarigenin and coroglau- cigenin.The plant extract exhibits stimulating action on uterine and other involuntary muscles. The extracts cause rise in arterial blood pressure, increase in movement and tone of urinary bladder, and stimulation of gastric secretions. An aqueous extract of the leaves shows antibacterial activity against E. coli and Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus.... pergularia extensaHabitat: Hill forests of Sikkim, Northern Bengal and Assam.
Folk: Baarak-kaant (Maharashtra), Goriaa-loti (Assam).Action: Leaves—an infusion is used for asthma and high fever. Pounded leaves are applied in headache. The mucilage in water is used for arresting falling of hair.
The bark contains a non-toxic principle. The root is reported to contain a narcotic alkaloid.... pericampylus glaucusHabitat: Upper Gangetic Plain, Madhya Pradesh.
Siddha/Tamil: Kurinji.Folk: Pandadi (Gujarat).Action: Pounded leaves—rubbed on body during the cold stage of intermittent fever.... perilepta auriculata
Habitat: Throughout the Himalayas up to an altitude of about 3,500 m, and in the hills of Assam.
English: Perilla, Wild Coleus.Folk: Bhanjeer, Ban-tulasi, Ban- jiraa, Bhasindi.Action: Herb—sedative, antispasmodic, antiasthmatic, resolvent.
P. frutescens var. crispa is used in mixtures prescribed for cough and lung affections.Several chemotypes of Perilla have been detected. The Indian type is rich in rosefuran. Other components are perillene, perilla ketone, beta-caryo- phyllene, phellandrene and a few ses- quiterpenoids. Aerial parts gave ethyl linolenate, linolenic acid and beta- sitosterol. The leaves also gave an an- thocyanin, perillanin. The leaves and flowering tops yield essential oils containing perilla ketone as major com- ponent—94% in leaf oils and 47% in inflorescence oils at fruiting stage.Perillaldehyde, a major component of the plant extract, inhibits (moderately) a broad range of both bacteria and fungi. The MeOH extract of var. acuta Kudo is reported to prolong hexobarbital-induced sleep in mice. Dillapiol has been isolated as the active principle from the methanolic extract.... perilla frutescensThe causes of perinatal mortality include extreme prematurity, intrapartum anoxia (that is, di?culty in the birth of the baby, resulting in lack of oxygen), congenital abnormalities of the baby, and antepartum anoxia (that is, conditions in the terminal stages of pregnancy preventing the fetus from getting su?cient oxygen).
The most common cause of perinatal death is some complication of placenta, cord or membranes. The next most common is congenital abnormality. Intrauterine hypoxia and birth asphyxia comprise the third most common cause.... perinatal mortality
Habitat: Punjab and Rajasthan.
Folk: Barri (Punjab).Action: Plant—stomachic; used in cerebral fever. Bark—purgative. Latex—used against tumours and swellings.
The leaves and stems contain 2.2% of resin alcohol, a bitter substance, tannin and small quantities of a glucosidal principle which produces first a decrease and then an increase in blood pressure. The bark contain 8% tannin.... periploca aphyllaHabitat: The Himalayas, from Kashmir to Nepal and Meghalaya, ascending to 1,800 m.
Ayurvedic: Krishna Saarivaa (substitute). (Cryptolepis buchanani is equated with Krishna Saarivaa.)Action: Used in place of Cryptolepis buchanani and Hemidesmus indicus for rheumatism, urinary and skin diseases.
The glycosides locin, plocin, ploci- nin, calocin, calocinin, as well as triter- penoids, have been reported from the twigs.... periploca calophyllaHabitat: Distributed throughout India.
Ayurvedic: Nadikaantaa, Praachibalaa, Sulomshaa, Kaakatik- ta, Kaakajanghaa. (Aatarilaal is a wrong synonym. It is equated with Anthriscus cerefolium Hoffm., used in Unani medicine.)Siddha/Tamil: Chebisa.Action: Plant—febrifuge. The essential oil shows tuberculostatic activity in vitro. It inhibits the growth of various strains of Mycobaterium tuberculosis.
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the dried root in insomnia and for fear-psychosis in children.Dosage: Root—1-5 g powder. (API, Vol III.)... peristrophe bicalyculataPerooze, Perouse, Peroose, Perouza, Perousa... perouze
Habitat: Native to Central America; introduced into India and grown for its fruit in Bangalore, Nandi Hills, Courtallam, Nagarcoil, Shevaroys, lower Palnis and the foothills of the Nilgiris; also in Pune.
English: Avocado, Alligator Pear, Butter Fruit.Action: Fruit—hypocholestero- laemic. Leaf—bacteriostatic; potentially toxic to goats and sheep.
The fruit is highly nutritious. The fruit from Nilgiris contains 22.8% fat, 1.7% protein; also manganese, phosphorus, iron, potassium, vitamin E, vitamin C, beta-carotene, thiamine, ri- boflavin, nicotinic acid and foliate. It is relatively low in sodium and simple sugars.American Avocado is rich in oil (1530 g/100 g fresh fruit) that is mainly monounsaturated and a good source of linoleic acid. Its high fiber content might be responsible for its cholesterol lowering effects.Preliminary evidence suggests that unsaponifiable fractions of Avocado and soybean oils (combination) can inhibit cartilage degradation and promote cartilage repair in osteoarthritic chondrocytes. (Properties of Avocado cited in Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.) Avocado oil is used in cosmetic preparations, soaps and pharmaceuticals. The peel of immature fruit contains antifungal compounds. The fruit pulp is used topically to promote hair growth.... persea americanaHabitat: Bihar and Peninsular India, up to 2,100 m.
English: Machilus.Action: Bark—antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, purgative.
The root gave phytosterols, glyco- sides and alkaloids, the major one being machiline, shown to be identical with dl-coclaurine. Machiline exhibits hypotensive activity.The leaves are used in external applications for ulcers.... persea macranthaFor a diagnosis of PVS to be made, the state should have continued for more than a prede?ned period, usually one month. Half of patients die within 2–6 months, but some can survive for longer with arti?cial feeding. To assess a person’s level of consciousness, a numerical marking system rated according to various functions – eye opening, motor and verbal responses – has been established called the GLASGOW COMA SCALE.
The ETHICS of keeping patients alive with arti?cial support are controversial. In the UK, a legal ruling is usually needed for arti?cial support to be withdrawn after a diagnosis of PVS has been made. The chances of regaining consciousness after one year are slim and, even if patients do recover, they are usually left with severe neurological disability.
PVS must be distinguished from conditions which appear similar. These include the ‘LOCKED-IN SYNDROME’ which is the result of damage to the brain stem (see BRAIN). Patients with this syndrome are conscious but unable to speak or move except for certain eye movements and blinking. The psychiatric state of CATATONIA is another condition in which the patient retains consciousness and will usually recover.... persistent vegetative state (pvs)
(2) A suppository suitably shaped for insertion into the vagina. Made of oil of theobromine or a glycerin basis, they are used for applying local treatment to the vagina.... pessaries
Habitat: Native to America; introduced into India, grown in gardens.
Action: Root—diuretic, antispas- modic, emmenagogue, abortifa- cient. Used for whooping cough, also for rheumatism and nervous diseases. (Long term use in high doses causes brain damage.)
Ethanolic extract of the leaves contains leridal, leridol, 5-O-methylleri- dol and 3-O-rhamnosides of dihydro- kaempferol, dihydroquercetin and my- ricetin. The presence of high nitrate content in the plant has been reported and is considered a risk factor in humans.... petiveria alliaceaHabitat: Native to Europe, now cultivated throughout India.
English: Parsley.Unani: Fitraasaaliyum, Karafs-e- Kohi.Action: Diuretic (used for bladder disorders, painful urination, retention of excess fluid in the tissues), antispasmodic, uterine tonic, emmenagogue, sedative (used for PMS and menopausal hot flushes, also in prostatitis), carminative, expectorant, aperient, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory.
Key application: For flushing out the efferent urinary tract in disorders of the same and in prevention and treatment of kidney gravel. (German Commission E.) Contraindicated in kidney inflammations.The British Herbal Compendium approves the internal use of the herb for flatulent dyspepsia, dysuria and rheumatic conditions.The leaves and roots contain furo- coumarins—psoralen, 5-and 8-meth- oxy psoralen, imperatorin, oxypeuce- danin, iso-pimpinelin. Myristicin has been isolated from the leaf oil. The plant gave flavonoids—apiin, luteolin, apigenin-7-glucoside, luteolin-7-glu- coside among others.Myristicin showed high activity as an inducer of the detoxifying enzyme system, Glutathione S-transferase (GST) in the liver and small intestines of female mice (may be considered as a cancer chemoprotective agent).The flavonoids, particularly api- genin, have been shown to be anti- inflammatory, to inhibit histamine release and to act as a free radical scavenger. Apiole, a constituent of the volatile oil, is reportedly antipyretic and phthalides of the root, seed and leaf are sedative in mice.Both apiole and myristicin exhibit aquaretic and uterine stimulant activity, while sodium retention has been observed. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)In homoeopathy, the herb is used for the treatment urinary disorders—sudden urge to urinate with severe pain, dribbling of urine after urination, gleet discharge and for amenorrhoea and neuralgic dysmenorrhoea.... petroselinum crispumHabitat: Western Ghats and hills of Peninsular India.
Folk: Baaphali (Gujarat), Duku.Action: Fruits—carminative, diuretic, stimulant. An infusion is used for gastric and intestinal troubles.
The seeds and roots gave imperatorin, byakangelicin and osthol. Seeds, in addition, gave phelopterin, colum- bianadin and byakangelicol.... peucedanum grandePharmacists work in hospitals (NHS and private) and in community pharmacies, as well as in the pharmaceutical industry where they conduct research and prepare and test pharmaceutical products. They have particular expertise on the use of drugs: for instance, the way in which one medicinal compound can affect another and their possible adverse effects; and they advise doctors and patients on these aspects. The NHS is also encouraging community pharmacists to o?er the public advice on the treatment of simple illnesses such as coughs, colds, headaches and stomach upsets. Hospital pharmacists are salaried employees of the NHS but community pharmacists enter into contract with the service, the terms of which are negotiated centrally between pharmacists’ representatives and the health departments. Hospital pharmacists are now invited by the COMMITTEE ON SAFETY OF MEDICINES (CSM) to report suspected adverse drug reactions under the ‘Yellow Card’ scheme in the same way as doctors.... pharmacists
Habitat: Throughout India. Cultivated.
English: Aconite-Bean, Moth.Ayurvedic: Makushtha, Moth.Siddha/Tamil: Tulukkapayir.Action: Seeds—used as a diet in fever; contains 24.4% protein. Root—narcotic.... phaseolus aconitifolius
Habitat: Throughout India, in the plains.
Ayurvedic: Aranya-mudga. Mudga- parni (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil: Kattupayaru.Action: A decoction is used in bowel complaints and stricture. The roots are used to stop excessive salivation.... phaseolus adenanthus
Habitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated throughout India.
English: Double Bean, Lima Bean, Burma Bean.Ayurvedic: Shimbi.Unani: Lobiyaa, Sem.Action: Seeds—astringent. Used as a diet in fever. The shoots and pods from Manipur are reported to contain alkaloids, saponins and flavonoids.... phaseolus lunatus
Phashesthea, Phashesthia, Phashesthiya... phashestha
Phemie, Phemia, Phemi, Phemy, Phemey, Phemee, Phemea... pheme
Action: Used as a pulse. In the form of a confection, used for leucorrhoea and seminal debility. Oil extracts of the pulse is used externally in rheumatism, contracted knee, stiff shoulder. Root—used as a poultice for inflammations and abscesses. Narcotic.
Teramnus labialis Spreng. (grows wild): The whole plant is used in rheumatism, paralysis, nervous diseases, haemoptysis and catarrh of respiratory tract.... phaseolus mungoHabitat: Extensively cultivated all over India.
English: Greengram, Golden Gram.Ayurvedic: Mudga, Mungalya.Unani: Moong.Siddha/Tamil: Pattishai-payaru.Action: Used as a pulse. Soup is given as a diet to patients of enlarged liver and spleen, and after recovery from acute illness. A poultice of it is used for checking secretion of milk and reducing distention of the mammary glands.... phaseolus radiatus
Habitat: Throughout India, up to an elevation of 2,100 m in the northeast.
English: Wild Gram.Ayurvedic: Mudgaparni, Kaaka- parni, Suuryaparni, Alpikaa, Sahaa, Kaakamudraa, Maarjaargandhikaa. (P. adenanthus G. F. W., and Vigna pilosa Baker are used as Mudgaparni in the South. Dried aerial parts, root and seed are used.)Siddha/Tamil: Kaatupayaru.Folk: Jangali Moong, Mugavan.Action: Whole plant—febrifuge. Leaves—sedative, cooling, an- tibilious. A decoction is used in intermittent fever. The plant contains friedelin, epifriedelin, stigmasterol and tannins. The bean contains methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine; also strepogenin, uridine, diphosphate-galacturonic acid. The seed protein contained lysine, valine, leucine and phenyl- alanine.
Dosage: Seed—50-100 ml. decoction (CCRAS.); whole plant— 3-5 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... phaseolus trilobusAction: Bean—diuretic, hypotensive, resolvent, regulates blood sugar. Used for water retention; albuminuria, especially of pregnancy; premenstrual tension.
Key application: Seed-free pods—in supportive treatment for inability to urinate. (German Commission E.)The seeds of French Bean contain triterpenoid glucosides and soyasaponin V.Raajmah consumption by diabetic patients is reported to produce highly significant reduction in their blood glucose level and glycaemic index, as compared to wheat and rice consumption.Raw bean contains lectins which are destroyed when cooked. Its hypogly- caemic activity is most likely due to its chromium, trigonelline and fiber content. (Sharon M. Herr.)... phaseolus vulgarisPhilly, Phillie, Philli, Philley, Phillee, Phillea... philadelphia
Philanthia, Philanthea, Philanthiya... philantha
Phillippa, Philipa, Phillipa, Philipinna, Philippine, Phillipina, Phillipine, Pilis, Pippa... philippa
Phionna, Phyona, Phyonna, Phione, Phionne, Phyone, Phyonne... phiona
Habitat: The sub-tropical Himalayas, Upper Gangetic Plain, Bihar, North Bengal and Assam.
Folk: Dieng-soh kajut (Meghalaya), Chuhai (Bihar), Titaaphul (Assam).Action: Whole plant—used like Adhatoda vasica in whooping cough and menorrhagia. Fruits and leaves—burnt and prescribed for fevers. The leaves are reported to contain diterpene lactone, phlogantholide A and its glucoside.
A related species, P. jenkinsii C. B. Clarke, found in Assam, is also known as Titaaphul. A decoction of leaves is given for diseases of spleen and liver and for fevers.... phlogacanthus thyrsiflorusPhebe, Phoebi, Phebi, Phoebie, Phebie, Pheobe, Phoebee, Phoebea, Phebee, Phebea... phoebe
Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab and Rajasthan.
English: Date Palm.Ayurvedic: Kharjuura, Kharjuuraka, Kharjuurikaa. Pindakharjuurikaa. Chhuhaaraa (dry date). Pindakhar- juura is the fruit of Phoenix acaulis Roxb.Unani: Khurmaa, Khajuur, Chhuharaa.Siddha/Tamil: Perichchankay, Ita.Action: Fruit pulp—antitussive, expectorant, demulcent, laxative, diuretic, restorative. Sap—cooling, laxative. Gum—used in diarrhoea and genitourinary diseases.
The fruit contains ascorbic acid (vitamin C), carotene (as vitamin A), nicotinic acid, riboflavin, thiamine, sugars (60-80%). Besides sucrose and invert sugars, rhamnose, xylose, ara- binose, ribose, galactose and galac- turonic acid have been identified in the fruit. Invert sugar predominates in the soft dates; sucrose in dry varieties. The dried date, used in Ayurvedic and Unani compositions, contains protein 2.5-3, fat 0.5, carbohydrates 75.882.9% and calcium 35.9, phosphorus 129.3 and iron 3.4 mg/100 g. Presence of sterols of ergosterol group, and esterone has been reported from dried date seeds.Charged C-glycosylflavones and caf- feylshikimic acid, leucocyanidin are characteristically present in the plant. Flavonol glycosides are also common. Several uncharged C-glycosylflavones were also detected.Dosage: Fresh fruit—10-50 g, dried fruit—10-15 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... phoenix dactyliferaHabitat: Coastal swamps of West Bengal (particularly Sundarbans), Orissa and the Andamans.
Ayurvedic: Hintala.Folk: Hital (Orissa), Hintalamu (Telugu).Action: Fruits—antiphlogistic, cooling; used in flatulence.
Triacontanol, beta-sitosterol have been isolated from the plant.... phoenix paludosaHabitat: Coromandel Coast.
Ayurvedic: Parushaka (Kerala). (Grewia Asiatica Linn., Tiliaceae, Is Also Equated With Parushaka.)Siddha/Tamil: Kalangu, Ithi, Sagi.Action: Fruit—Cooling, Laxative. Used In Respiratory Disorders. Gum—Used In Diarrhoea And Genitourinary Diseases. Fresh Sap— Laxative.... phoenix pusilla
Habitat: Andhra Pradesh, Karnata- ka and Madhya Pradesh.
English: Wild Date Palm.Ayurvedic: Kharjuuri.Siddha/Tamil: Periyaitcham, Icham.Folk: Sulemaani Khajuur, Desi Khajuur.Action: Fruits—restorative. Juice— cooling, gastric stimulant. Seeds— used in ague. Root—used for nervous debility.
Fresh, unfermented sap (Niraa) is a good source of ascorbic acid, nicotinic and isonicotinic acids, riboflavin, thiamine, sugars; crystine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, thre- onine, tyrosine.The concentration of amino acids is much higher in palm jaggery than in sugar cane jaggery.Fresh fruits contain protein 1.2, fat 0.4, calcium 0.022 and phosphorus 0.38%.Dosage: Fruit—10-20 g paste. (CCRAS.)... phoenix sylvestrisAction: Age-sustaining tonic, restorative.... pholidota articulata
Drugs given orally or topically may induce phototoxic reactions of various types. Thus, TETRACYCLINES exaggerate sunburn reactions. and the diuretic FRUSEMIDE may cause blistering reactions. Psoralens induce erythema and pigmentation. AMIODARONE also induces pigmentation. (See also PHOTOCHEMOTHERAPY.)
Phytophotodermatitis is a streaky, blistering photodermatosis typically seen on the limbs of children playing in grassy meadows in summer. The phototoxic reaction is caused by psoralens in weeds.
Berlocque dermatitis is a pattern of streaky pigmentation usually seen on women’s necks, caused by a reaction to psoralens in perfumes.
Certain rare metabolic diseases may lead to photosensitisation. They include the PORPHYRIAS and PELLAGRA. Other skin diseases such as lupus erythematosus (see under LUPUS) and ROSACEA may be aggravated by light exposure. Sometimes, in the absence of any of these factors, some people spontaneously develop a sensitivity to light causing various patterns of DERMATITIS or URTICARIA. The most common pattern is ‘polymorphic light eruption’ which typically appears within a day or two of arrival at a sunny holiday destination and persists until departure. Continuously exposed areas, such as the hands and face, may be ‘hardened’ and unaffected.
Treatment Appropriate clothing and headgear, sunscreen creams and lotions are the main preventative measures.... photodermatoses
Habitat: The Himalayas, from Kashmir to Kumaon up to an altitude of 4,000 m.
English: Common Reed.Folk: Dila, Dambu (Punjab).Action: Rhizomes and roots—diuretic, emmenagogue, diaphoretic, hypoglycaemic, antiemetic.
The rhizomes are rich in carbohydrates; contain nitrogenous substances 5.2, fat 0.9, N-free extr. 50.8, crude fibre 32.0, sucrose 5.1, reducing sugars 1.1, and ash (rich in silica) 5.8%; as- paragine 0.1% is also present. Leaves possess a high ascorbic acid content (200 mg/100 g).Nodes and sheaths yield 6.6% and the underground parts over 13% of furfural.The root of common Reed is prescribed in Chinese traditional medicine as an antipyretic against influenza and fevers. Presence of polyols, betaines and free poline has been reported in the methanolic extract. The extract is reported to show bactericidal activity. The root gave a polysaccha- ride which contains sugars, arabinose, xylose and glucose in a molar ratio of 10:19:94; some ofthe fractions showed immunological activity.... phragmites communisHabitat: Throughout drier parts of India.
Unani: Kanochaa, Isfahaan Marv.Siddha/Tamil: Mela-nelli.Action: Leaves—an infusion is used in headache. Seeds—carminative, diuretic.
Whole plant revealed antispasmod- ic action in isolated guinea-pig ileum, CNS depressant and hypothermic effects in mice.... phyllanthus maderaspatensisHabitat: Throughout India, in marshy places.
English: Common Reed-grass.Ayurvedic: Nala. (Arundo donax Linn. is also equated with Nala.)Siddha/Tamil: Perunanal.Folk: Narakul.Action: Stem and rhizome— diuretic, diaphoretic. Used topically to relieve insect bite.
P. karka is not discriminated from P communis for medicinal uses in Indian medicine.... phragmites karkaHabitat: Throughout India, near fresh water bodies.
English: Jalapippali, Shaaradi, Shakulaadani, Matsyagandhaa, Matsyaadani, Laangali, Vashiraa.Siddha/Tamil: Poduthalai.Action: Spasmolytic, diuretic, febrifuge.
The plant contains flavone glyco- sides—nodiflorins A and B, lipiflorins A and B, as well as free flavones including 6-hydroxyluteolin, nepetin and nodifloretin along with beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol glucosides.Dosage: Plant—10-20 ml. juice. (CCRAS.)... phyla nodifloraHabitat: Throughout the hotter parts of India, particularly on cultivated land, up to 1,000 m.
Ayurvedic: Bhuumyaamalaki, Bahu- patri, Bhuudhaatri, Bahuphalaa, Taamalaki.Unani: Bhui Aaamalaa.Siddha/Tamil: Keelkaay Nelli.Action: Plant—diuretic, deobstru- ent, astringent, anti-inflammatory, styptic. Used as a single drug in the treatment of jaundice. Used in prescriptions for dyspepsia, indigestion, chronic dysentery, urinary tract diseases, diabetes, skin eruptions.
The leaves yielded lignans—phyl- lanthin (bitter), hypophyllanthin (nonbitter); niranthin, nirtetralin and phyl- tetralin. The whole plant gave a number of flavonoids, including quercetin, quercitrin, astragalin, rutin, kaempfer- ol. Isolation of a hydrolysable tannins, amarulone, is reported from the plant.The plant is reported to show antiviral activity against hepatitis B virus and related hepadna virus. It was also found to effectively repair CCl4-induced liver damage in rats.The herb exhibited hypotensive and hypoglycaemic activity. (Indian J Exp Biol 1995, 33 (11) 861-864.)Phyllanthus fraternus Webster: The ethanolic extract of the plant exhibited hepatotoxic-protective activity in albino rats pretreated with CCl-4, The petroleum extract is reported to possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. The flavonoids, isolated from the ethanolic extract of the plant, exhibit hypoglycaemic activity in alloxan-treated albino rats. The ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the plant exhibit antibacterial and antifun- gal activity.Dosage: Root, stem, leaf—3-6. powder. (API, Vol. I and III.)... phyllanthus amarusHabitat: Indian gardens.
English: Country Gooseberry.Ayurvedic: Lavali-phala, Lowani Hariphala.Siddha/Tamil: Aranelli.Action: Fruit—astringent, tonic to liver; improves appetite, useful in biliousness, constipation, vomiting, bronchitis. Roots and seed— cathartic. The juice of the root bark produces headache and severe abdominal pain.
The root bark contains 18% tannin, saponin, gallic acid and a crystalline substance (probably lupeol). The bark contains beta-amyrin and phyllanthol.The fruit is sour; contains acidity (as acetic acid) 1.70%.... phyllanthus distichusHabitat: Native to America.
English: Chanca Piedra.Ayurvedic: Bhuumyaamalaki, assigned to P. niruri, has now been equated with P.fraternus.Action: Antispasmodic, antipyretic, diuretic, antiviral, bactericidal.
Taking Chanca Piedra orally does not seem to be effective for treating hepatitis B. The herb contains niuride, which inhibits specific HIV-protein binding activity, but does not protect cells from acute HIV infection. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... phyllanthus niruriHabitat: Throughout India.
Ayurvedic: Bhumyaamalaki (var.).Folk: Mothi-bhuiaamvali (Maharashtra).Plant—antiseptic. Fresh leaves, bruised in butter milk, are used as a wash for itch. Fresh leaves, flowers and fruits with cumin seeds and sugar, are used in gonorrhoea. Root—applied to mammary abscesses. Fruits contain oxalic acid.... phyllanthus simplexHabitat: Throughout the plains of India from Punjab to Assam and Southward to Kerala up to 1,000 m.
Ayurvedic: Bhuumyaamataki (var.), Taamravalli.Siddha/Tamil: Senkeezhnelli.Folk: Laal-bhui-aamlaa, Hazaar- mani.Action: See P. amarus.
The leaf and stem gave flavonoids— quercetin, astragalin, quercitrin, iso- quercitrin and rutin; Me-brevifolin- carboxylate and tri-dehydrochebulic acid.... phyllanthus urinariaHabitat: Native to South-east Europe and Japan; naturalized in many parts of the world; grown in Indian gardens.
English: Strawberry Tomato, Winter Cherry. ( Withania somnifera is also known as Winter Cherry.)Ayurvedic: Raajaputrikaa.Unani: Kaaknaj.Action: Berries—diuretic, antitussive, oxytocic, analgesic, febrifuge; used for urinary disorders, suppression of urine, gout and intermittent fevers.
Berries contain flavonoids, including luteolin-7-glucoside and withas- teroids.... physalis alkekengiHabitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated in Indian gardens in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu; also grows in moist places as a weed.
Action: Plant—diuretic.
salin B and F have been isolated from the ethanolic extract of the whole plant. Both physalin B and F are reported to inhibit the growth of several human leukaemia cell systems.Aerial parts yielded seco-withano- lides—cleaved steroidal constituents containing physalins. In Taiwan, phy-Family: Solanaceae.Habitat: Throughout India, ascending up to 2,300 m.
English: Sun-berry.Ayurvedic: Tankaari, Parpotikaa, Chirapotikaa.Siddha/Tamil: Sodakku thakkali.Action: Berries—diuretic, aperient, alterative. Used for gout and urinary diseases.
Quercetin 3-O-galactoside, isolated from the crude extract of the leaves, is reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity comparable to phenylbutazone in carageenan-induced rat paw oedema.Physalis minima Linn. var indica C. B. Clarke is common weed in irrigated fields and bunds.The plant contains withasteroids, physalindicanols, withaminimin and withaphysalin, 3-O-glucosides of kaempferol and quercetin, in addition to beta-sitosterol and its glucoside.The diuretic action of Physalis minima leaves is attributed to the high content of potassium nitrate (8-10%).... physalis angulataHabitat: Native to tropical America; grown in the hills and plains throughout India.
English: Cape Gooseberry.Ayurvedic: Parpoti (var.).Siddha/Tamil: Perungunni, Potti- pallam.Folk: Rasbhari, Mako.Action: Plant—diuretic. Leaf— anthelmintic, an infusion is used in abdominal disorders. Fruits— a good source of carotene and ascorbic acid; eaten as a table fruit.
The fruit contain carotene (as vitamin A) 2,380 IU, thiamine 0.05, ri- boflavin 0.02, nicotinic acid 0.3 and ascorbic acid 49 mg/100 g; mineral matter 0.8%; phytin phosphorus 18, iron 2.0, ionizable iron 0.9, sodium 0.9, potassium 320, copper 0.19, and sulphur 43 mg/100 g. The juice from the ripe fruits contain considerable quantity of pectin. The chief acid is citric acid, but malic and tartaric acids are also present.The plant is a source of highly oxygenated ergostane-type of steroids— withanolides and related compounds.... physalis peruvianaHabitat: Lahul valley (Punjab), Ladakh, North Kashmir. Western Tibbet at altitudes of3,300-4,600 m.
Folk: Daturaa (Ladakh), Laangtaan; Sholar, Bajarbang (Punjab).Action: Leaves—poisonous and narcotic.
The roots of the plant contain 0.64% alkaloids (calculated as hyoscyamine). The plant constitutes an excellent source of atropine.... physochlaina praealtaHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at altitudes of 1,500-3,500 m.
English: West Himalayan Spruce.Folk: Roi, Rhai, Raghaa, Kathela, Kandre, Morindaa. Spruce (trade).Action: Essential oil—antiseptic. Used in bath salts, room sprays and deodorants.
Key applications ? Fir Needle Oil, obtained from Picea abies, synonym P. excelsa)—externally and internally, for catarrhal illness of the upper and lower respiratory tract; externally, for rheumatic and neuralgic pains. (German Commission E.)The oil contains alpha-pinene, l- alpha-phellandrene, dipentene, bornyl- acetate, cadinene, S-guaiazulene and a bicyclic sesquiterpene. The oil distilled from the leaves collected in Gul- marg had a ester content of 23.2% (as bornyl acetate). The bark contained 4.22% tannin.Picea abies has been introduced at Manali (at 1,890 m). It yields an ole- oresin which is used in plasters and ointments. The essential oil is used in... picea smithianaHabitat: Garhwal, Himachal Pradesh and Kulu.
English: Quassia (substitute for P excelsa Lindtl).Ayurvedic: Bhurangi, Nimbi. (Clerodendrum serratum and its related species represent Bhaargi or Bhaarangi.)Folk: Nimatotaa.Action: Wood—a non-astringent bitter tonic and stomachic, amoe- bicidal, anthelmintic (used as enema), insect repellent. Used as a supporting medicine for temporary relief in cirrhosis of liver.
Many indole alkaloids of beta-car- boline, canthin-6-one and beta-carbo- line dimer type, have been isolated from the wood. These are reported to increase the blood flow rate in the intestine and stomach of rabbit; also exhibited antiviral activity on Herpes simplex virus.Nigaki lactone and methylnigaki- none, isolated from the wood, showed antigastric ulcer activity in rats. The extract of the wood is reported to prevent the secretion of gastric juice in a dose-dependent manner in rats. The extract also showed the same effects on rats having aspirin-induced gastric ulcer.Family: Scrophulariaceae.Habitat: The alpine Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim.
English: Picrorhiza.Ayurvedic: Katukaa, Katurohini, Kattarohini, Katuki, Katukikaa, Krishnabhedaa, Kaandaruhaa, Matsyashakalaa, Chakraangi, Shat- parvaa, Arishta, Ashokarohinya, Shakuldaani.Unani: Kutki, Kharbaq-e-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil: Kaduguragini.Action: Root—stomachic, antidiar- rhoeal, cholagogue, hepatoprotec- tive. Used in hepatitis, chronic dysentery, amoebiasis.
Key application: In jaundice, intermittent fever, dyspnoea and skin diseases. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia.)The roots yield a glycosidal bitter principle, kutkin, found to be a mixture of two iridoid glycosides, picro- side I and kutkoside. Also obtained were D-mannitol, kutkiol, kutkisterol and a ketone (identical with apocynin).Kutkin exhibited hepatoprotective activity in CCl4-induced toxic rats.Picroliv, a standardized fraction from the alcoholic extract of the root and rhizome, containing 55-60% of a mixture of picroside I and kutkoside (1:15) showed dose-dependent protective activity on isolated hepatocytes in vitro against thiocetamide-induced hepatic damage in rat and was found to be more potent than Silymarin, a known hepatoprotective agent. Pi- croliv is reported to show protective effect against rifampicin-induced hep- atotoxicity in rats. It also exerts hy- polipidaemic effect in normal, triton- treated and cholesterol-fed rats.Kutkin, picroside I and kutkoside exhibit anti-inflammatory property.The phenolic glycoside, androsin, isolated from the plant, prevents allergen and platelet activating factor- induced bronchial obstruction in guinea-pigs in vitro.Cucurbitacin glycosides, isolated from the root, exhibit liver protective, tumour inhibitory and anti-inflammatory activity.Dosage: Root—1-3 g; 3-6 g as purgative. (CCRAS.)... picrasma quassioidesHabitat: Eastern Himalayan in Nepal and Sikkim.
Action: Properties similar to those of Picrorhiza kurroa.
The root contains the iridoid glyco- sides, amphicoside, catalpol, aucubin and androsin; also cucurbitacin glyco- sides.Action: Stimulant (excites most glands), expectorant, powerful diaphoretic. Used in hair tonics to stimulate hair growth. (Irritates stomach and causes vomiting in overdose.)
The leaf contains a parasympathetic stimulant pilocarpine (0.5%). It is an obsolete medicinal herb, but is used in the production of pilocarpine. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... picrorhiza scrophulariaefloraHabitat: Moist places, both open and shady.
Features ? Flower stem grows up to six inches (slightly longer than leaf stalk) with two or three leaves, and ending in a single bright yellow, buttercup-like flower, of usually eight petals and three sepals. Numerous leaves from the root on long stalks, glossy, heart-shaped, whitish-green blotches, notched margins. Root characteristically bunched into white, fleshy, club-shaped or oblong-rounded knots.Part used ? Herb.Action: Astringent.
Used almost entirely (as the common name denotes) in the treatment of piles. The ounce to pint boiling water infusion is taken consistently in wineglass doses, and an ointment is made by macerating the herb in boiling lard for twenty-four hours. Probably the best of all known remedies for this complaint, the combination with Witch Hazel is found to be particularly effective.... pilewortHabitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated in Indian gardens.
Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat: Native to the Mediterranean region; cultivated in Uttar Pradesh., Punjab, Assam and Orissa.
English: Anise, Aniseed.Unani: Anisoon, Baadiyaan-roomi.Action: Carminative, diuretic, anticholerin, antispasmodic, expectorant. Used for flatulence, dry coughs, whooping cough, bronchitis.
Key application: Internally in dyspeptic complaints; internally and externally in catarrhs of the respiratory tract. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO, The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The fruit gave volatile oil consisting mainly of trans-anethole (70-90%), with estragole, anise ketone, anisic acid, beta-caryophyllene, anisaldehyde, linalool. The fruit contained traces of furocoumarins; seeds gave benzoic acid, caffeic acid, containing protein and myristicin. Roots afforded sterols, coumarins and flavone glyco- sides. Aniseed has been demonstrated to increase the mucociliary transport in vitro and to significantly increase liver-regeneration in rats.Aniseed is also used as a galacta- gogue. This property is thought due to the presence of polymers of anethole, dianethole and photoanethole.Aqueous extract of roasted aniseed is reported to show cholinomimetic effect on rat blood pressure, rat jejunum and frog rectus abdominis preparations.Alcoholic extract of aniseeds possesses antimicrobial and fungicidal activity.Anethole has a structure similar to catecholamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine and to the hallucinogenic compound myris- ticin as well. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... pilocarpus microphyllusHabitat: Native to West Indies and tropical America; grown in Indian gardens; in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Bangalore.
English: Allspice tree, Jamaica Pepper tree, Pimento tree.Action: Berry oil and leaf oil— carminative and stimulant. The oil contains chiefly eugenol (65-80%), responsible for the herb's effect on the digestive system and its pain relief properties; also for anaesthetic effect when crushed berries are applied topically.... pimenta dioica
Habitat: Cornfields, waste places and in gardens.
Features ? Stem square, weak, much branched, trailing with tendency to ascend, between six inches and one foot long. Leaves small, opposite, ovoid, sessile, entire at edges, black dots underneath. Flowers scarlet, corolla rotate, on long, slender, axillary stalk.Part used ? Leaves.Action: Diuretic, hepatic, diaphoretic.
The properties of this herb, although very active, are not yet fully known, and care should be exercised in using it. It has been successful in the treatment of liver irregularities, forms of rheumatism and dropsy. The pulverised leaves are administered in doses of from 15 to 60 grains.... pimpernel, scarletHabitat: Kashmir at 3,900 m.
English: Burnet Saxifrage, Pimpinel- la Root.Action: Root—carminative, stimulant, expectorant, cholagogue, diuretic, emmenagogue. Used for diarrhoea.
Key application: Rhizome—in catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract. (German Commission E. Above ground parts have been included among unapproved herbs.)The main components of the fruits and roots are isoeugenol epoxy tiglic ester, isoeugenol epoxy-2-methylbu- tanoic ester and 4-phenyl tiglic ester. Roots also contain pimpinellin and isopimpinellin.... pimpinella saxifragaPingjarji, Pingjarjie, Pingjarjy, Pingjarjey, Pingjarjee, Pingjarjea... pingjarje
Habitat: Southern states of U.S.A
Features ? Imported root is rather less than a quarter of an inch thick, cup-shaped scars on upper surface, many rootlets underneath.Part used ? Root.Action: Anthelmintic.
Widely used throughout the United States, where it is considered the best of the vermifuges, and is given to both children and adults suffering from the pests. A purgative such as Senna is usually added, as it is said to cause the Spigelia to act more quickly and effectively. An infusion of 1 ounce to1 pint is given night and morning, in doses varying with the patient's age up to one teacupful for adults.In this country such remedies as Tansy and Wormwood are more commonly prescribed in the treatment of worms.... pinkrootPinquan, Pinquann, Pinquanne, Pinquanna, Pinquane... pinquana
Habitat: Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan at 1,800-3,700 m, also Assam.
English: Indian Blue Pine, Bhutan Pine, Five-leaved Pine.Ayurvedic: Sarala (var.). Folk: Chillaa.Action: Uses similar to Pinus roxburghii.
The essential oil contains alpha-and beta-pinene as major constituents.... pinus excelsaHabitat: Native of northern scandinavia.
English: Baltic Amber, Succinite.Unani: Ambar, Kahruubaa,Action: Cardiac tonic, styptic. Vateria indica is used in Unani medicine as a substitute for P succinifera gum-resin (Fossil-resin).... pinus succinifera
Habitat: Sikkim, Terai, West Bengal and Khasi hills, up to 900 m.
English: Wild Pepper.Folk: Jangali Paan.Action: Carminative and diuretic.
Kadsurin A and isodihydrofuto- quinol B have been isolated from aerial parts.... piper hamiltoniiHabitat: Northwest Himalayas from Garhwal eastwards at altitudes of 1,800-3,000 m.
English: Neosia Pine, Edible Pine, Chilgoza Pine.Ayurvedic: Nikochaka. Unani: Chilgozaa.Action: Kernels—stimulant, carminative, expectorant. Oil from seeds—externally used for wounds and ulcers.
The kernels gave protein 15.9, fat 49.9, carbohydrates 21.6 and mineral matter 2.9%. The mineral constituents include calcium 90.8, phosphorus 92.4 and iron 2.4 mg/100 g. Pectin is present to the extent of 1.73% (calculated as calcium pectate). Seed protein on hydrolysis gave amino acids—leucine, iso- leucine, valine, lysine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and methionine. The oil gave glycerides. The essential oil from oleoresin contains alpha-and beta-pi- nene as major constituents; other constituents are sesquiterpenes.... pinus gerardianaHabitat: Assam; introduced into hills of North Bengal.
English: Khasi Pine.Ayurvedic: Sarala var.Folk: Digsaa (Khasia).Action: Spasmolytic, antimicrobial. Oleo-resin—considered superior to that of P. roxburghii for turpentine. The bark contains 7-10% of tannin.
The essential oil from oleoresin contains chiefly alpha-pinene. Other constituents are beta-pinene, longifoline and sesquiterpenes. Abetic acid from rosin possesses weak cardiac and spasmolytic activities.... pinus khasyaHabitat: The Western and Eastern Himalayas.
English: Long-leaved Pine, Three- leaved Pine, Chir Pine.Ayurvedic: Sarala, Pita-vriksha, Surabhidaaruka, Dhuupavriksha, Namasu. Oleo-resin—Shriveshtaka, Ghandh-Birojaa.Unani: Sanobar-ul-Hindi. Oleoresin—Gandh-Bihrojaa, Qinn, Berzad.Siddha/Tamil: Simaidevadaru.Action: Needle, needle oil— decongestant, expectorant, antiseptic. Oil—used in cough and cold remedies, particularly inhalations and in rubefacients for rheumatism and muscle stiffness. Resin— expectorant, antiseptic, antipruritic.
The essential oil from oleoresin contains chiefly alpha-and beta-pinene; carene and longifoline.Pinus pinaster Ait (Cluster Pine, Maritime Pine) has been successfully grown in Kulu, Manali and Rahini. German Commission E recognized the efficacy of the needle-oil in catarrhal diseases of the upper and lower respiratory tract (internally, as well as externally).Dosage: Heartwood, root—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... pinus roxburghiiHabitat: Eastern tropical Himalayas, Assam, Khasi Hills and the Nilgiris.
Siddha/Tamil: Kattumilaaku.Action: Root—diuretic. Plant— rubefacient; used for muscular pains and headache.
Several aristolactams have been reported from the aerial parts of the plant. Crotepoxide exhibited significant antitumour activity.Roots contain alkamides including piperine, piperlonguminine and guineensine.... piper attenuatumHabitat: Assam, Western Ghats, the Nilgiris and Palni hills above 1,500 m.
English: Nilgiri Pepper.Action: Carminative.
The neolignan schmiditin, together with lignin galgravin as well as friedelin, beta-sitosterol and its beta- O-glucoside have been isolated from the extract of aerial parts. The extract exhibited antiamoebic activity.... piper schmidtiiHabitat: Assam and Bengal.
Ayurvedic: Vana-Pippali.Folk: Pahaari Peepal.Action: Fruit—carminative. Aerial parts—diuretic.
The root yielded a lignin, sesamin; amides (including piperine, piperlon- gumine) and beta-sitosterol.... piper sylvaticumHabitat: Sikkim, Bengal, Manipur, Khasi and Jaintia hills.
Folk: Jangali Paan.Action: Root—(macerated in water) diuretic.... piper thomsoni
Habitat: Cultivated in warmer and damper parts of India; Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala.
English: Betel pepper.Ayurvedic: Taambula, Naagvallari, Naagini, Taambulvalli, Saptashiraa, Bhujangalataa.Unani: Paan, Tambool.Siddha/Tamil: Vetrilai Nagavalli, Kammaaruvetritai.Action: Leaf—stimulant, carminative, astringent, antiseptic. Essential oil from leaves—antispasmodic, antiseptic. Used in respiratory catarrhs. Fruit—bechic.
The leaves afforded beta- and gam- ma-sitosterol, hentriacontane, pen- tatriacontane, n-triacontanol, stearic acid and chavicol. The essential oil from leaves contained carvacrol, euge- nol, chavicol, allyl catechol, cineole, estragol, caryophyllene, cardinene, p- cymene and eugenol methyl ether.Administration of the leaf extract resulted in decreased tumour burden and tumour incidence and a delay in the onset of mammary tumour in Wistar rats.The alcoholic extract of the leaf stalk is reported to show antispermatogenic and antiandrogenic effect in male albino rats.The essential oil exhibited hypoten- sive, cardiac as well as respiratory depressant and cardiotonic properties.The leaf showed antifungal and antibacterial activity. The antiseptic activity is attributed to chavicol.Dosage: Leaf—10-15 ml juice. (API, Vol. III.)... piper betleHabitat: Native to Moluccas, cultivated in Indonesia, also in India.
English: Java Long Pepper.Ayurvedic: Gajapippali (spikes of Scindapsis officinalis, Araceae, are also known as Gajapippali), Chavya, Chavika.Siddha/Tamil: Chevuyam.Action: Similar to P. longum and P. nigrum. Fruits—stimulant, carminative; used in haemorrhoidal affections; as a tonic, after- childbirth. Roots—chewed or brewed in decoction for colic, dyspepsia and gastralgia.
Key application: In diseases of the spleen, chlorosis, diseases of the abdomen. colic, worm infestation. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)Java long pepper is similar in composition to black pepper; it contains less piperine and volatile oil (piperine 4.5 and volatile oil 1.5%).The stem is used as a substitute for Piper longum root. It contains the alkaloids piperine and piplartine. Beta- sitosterol, glycosides, glucose and fructose and mucilage have also been reported. Active principles show muscle relaxant property.... piper chabaHabitat: Native to Indonesia; cultivated in Assam and Karnataka.
English: Cubeb, Tailed Pepper.Ayurvedic: Kankola, Kakkola, Kankolaka, Takkola, Koraka, Kolaka, Kashphala, Sheetalchini, Chinoshana.Unani: Kabaabchini, Habb-ul- uruus.Siddha/Tamil: Valmilagu.Action: Fruit—Carminative, diuretic, expectorant. Used for coughs, bronchitis, asthma, urinary tract infections, amoebic dysentery. Stimulates genitourinary mucous surfaces. Oil—antibacterial, used in genitourinary diseases and cystitis.
Key application: In dysuria. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)The ground fruits have been found to be effective in treating amoebic dys- tentery.The oil exhibits antiviral activity in rats and antibacterial in vitro.Unripe fruit contains volatile oil (1020%) consisting of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons; lignans, mainly cubebine (about 2%), with (-)-cubebinin and ki- nokinin; cubebic acid. The oxygenated cyclohexanes, piperenol A and B, together with (+)-crotepoxide and (+)- zeylenol, have been isolated from the fruit. Polyhydroxy cyclohexanes possess antitumour, antileukaemic and antibiotic activities.Dosage: Fruit—1-2 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... piper cubebaPysces, Piscees, Pyscees, Piscez, Pisceez... pisces
Habitat: The sea coast in Peninsular India, also in the Andaman Islands.
Siddha/Tamil: Karindu.Folk: Baghachuur (Bengal).Action: Bark and leaves—counterir- ritant for swellings and rheumatic pains. Fresh leaves—used as a wash for scabies.... pisonia aculeata
Habitat: Warmer parts of India, from Central Himalayas to Assam, lower hills of West Bengal; Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Western
Ghats from Konkan southwards to Trivandrum. Often cultivated.English: Indian Long Pepper, Joborandi.Ayurvedic: Pippali, Maagadhi, Maagadha, Maagadhaa, Maagad- hikaa, Magadhodbhavaa, Vaidehi, Upkulyaa, Pippalikam, Chapalaa, Kanaa, Krishnaa. Uushnaa, Shaun- di, Kolaa, Tikshna-tandulaa.Unani: Filfil Daraaz, Daarfilfil.Siddha/Tamil: Thippili, Arisi thippili. Thippiliver (root).Action: Fruits—used for diseases of the respiratory tract (cough, bronchitis, asthma); as sedative (in insomnia and epilepsy); as chola- gogue (in obstruction of bile duct and bladder), as emmenagogue, as digestive, appetizer and carminative (in indigestion); as general tonic and haematinic (in anaemia, chronic fevers and for improving intellect). Applied locally on muscular pains and inflammations.
Several aristolactams and dioxoa- porphines have been isolated from Indian long pepper. It also contains the long chain isobutyl amide, longamide, besides guineensine and the lignans, pluviatilol, methyl pluviatilol (farge- sin), sesamin and asarinine.Piperine is the major alkaloid of peppers.Piperine is antipyretic, hypotensive, analeptic, CNS stimulant. It has been reported to exert significant protection against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. It improves drug availability in experimental animals, and is used for enhancing the efficacy of co- administered medicaments.Piperine enhanced bioavailability of hexobarbital, phenytoin, propranolol and theophylline. (Sharon M. Herr.) (Piperine is also a component of Piper nigrum.)N - isobutyl - deca - trans - 2 - trans - 4 - dienamide, isolated from the fruit, exhibited antitubercular property.Milk extract of the fruit effectively reduced passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in rats. It protected guinea-pigs against antigen-induced bronchospasm.In China, Piper longum oil constituents were reported to inhibit the increase in serum total cholesterol induced by triton in mice.The root powder exhibited antifer- tility activity.A related species, P. peepuloides Roxb., is known as Saamvali Peepal. It is used specifically against obstinate skin diseases and as a sialagogue.Dosage: Fruit—1-3 mg (API, Vol. IV); root—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... piper longumHabitat: Native of the Indo- Malaysian region; cultivated in Western Ghats, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam and Kerala.
English: Black Pepper.Ayurvedic: Maricha, Vellaja, Uushna, Suvrrita, Krishnaa.Unani: Filfil Siyaah, Safed.Siddha/Tamil: Milagu. Milaguver (root).Action: Stimulant, carminative, diuretic, anticholerin, sialagogue, bechic, antiasthmatic. Used in fevers, dyspepsia, flatulence, indigestion, and as mucous membrane and gastro-intestinal stimulant. Externally—rubefacient and stimulant to the skin. Used as a gargle for sore throat. Used with ginger and Piper longum for viral hepatitis.
The fruit yielded piperine, pipera- tine and piperidine; amides, pipery- line, piperoleins A and B, and N-i'so- butyl-cicosa-trans-2-trans-4-dienami- de.The aqueous extract of roasted black pepper is reported to show cholinomi- metic effect on rat abdominis muscles.Dosage: Fruit—500 mg to 1 g. (CCRAS.)... piper nigrumHabitat: Nepal, Lakhimpur and Khasi Hills in Assam.
Ayurvedic: Wrongly equated with Sambhaaluka. (Sambhaalu has been identified as Vitex negundo.) Renukaa is also a wrong synonym (it is equated with the seed of Vitex agnus-castus).Siddha/Tamil: Kaattu-milagu.Action: Fruits—used as uterine stimulant.
The fruit contain piperine, piperet- tine and sylvatine, besides beta-sitos- terol. The seeds gave aurantiamide, its acetate and auranamide.The fraction, containing alkaloids, showed oxytocic activity. The lignin constituents inhibited platelet aggregation caused by platelet-activating factor.... piper wallichiiHabitat: The rain forests of South India.
Folk: Gapasundi (Maharashtra), Boogri (Karnataka).Action: Stem-bark—antibacterial, antifungal.... pittosporum dasycaulon
Pixi, Pixy, Pixey, Pixee, Pixea... pixie
Habitat: Native to America; introduced in India.
English: Jamaica Dogwood.Action: Sedative, spasmolytic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory.
The bark gave several, isoflavonoids. Piscidone and piscerythrone exhibit spasmolytic activity. Piscidin glycoside and rotenone are toxic constituents.The bark is used for neuralgia, migraine and insomnia in South America and West Indies.In some in vitro tests, the root bark's extract exhibited antispasmodic effects as strong as papaverine's (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... piscidia piscipulaHabitat: Cultivated in gardens in Chennai and other places near the sea on both east and west coasts.
English: Lettuce tree.Siddha/Tamil: Chandi keerai, Leechai kottai keerai, Nachu Kottai keerai.Action: Fresh leaf—diuretic, used in inflammations (of elephantoid nature in legs and other parts). Root—purgative.
The plant gave octacosanol, beta- sitosterol, alpha-spinasterol, beta-si- tosterol-b eta-D-glucopyranoside, dul- citol and quercetin.Karkata, Karkataakhya, Kuli- rashringaaya, Kuliravishaanikaa, Vakraa, Vishaani. Ajashringi (also equated with Gymnema sylvestre).Unani: Kaakraasingi, Kakar.Siddha/Tamil: Karkatagasingi.Action: Gall—astringent, expectorant, antiasthmatic, antidysenteric, styptic.
Key application: In cough, bronchitis and dyspnoea. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)The tetracyclic triterpenes, pistaci- gerrimones A, B and C have been isolated from the galls produced on the leaves.Alpha-pinene 21.8, beta-pinene 16.2, alpha-phellandrene 15.5 and delta-carene 11% are major constituents of the essential oil extracted from galls. The oil is reported to exhibit CNS- depressant, antispasmodic, carminative and antibacterial, antiprotozoal, antiamoebic, anthelmintic activities.Dosage: Gall—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... pisonia grandisSynonym: P. chinensis Bunge subspecies Integerrima (Stewart) Rech. f.
Family: Anacardiaceae.Habitat: The Himalayas from Indus to Kumaon.
Ayurvedic: Karkatashringi, Shringi, Karkatashringikaa,Family: Anacardiaceae.Habitat: Mediterranean countries. The resin is imported into India.
English: Mastic tree.Unani: Mastagi, Roomi Mastagi, Mastaki.Siddha/Tamil: Ponnuikan kungi- liyam.Action: Resin—carminative, diuretic, stimulant, astringent.
The mastic gum contains 2% essential oil. The oil sample from Spain is reported to contain 90% monoterpene hydrocarbons, the major constituents of which are alpha-pinene 79% and my- crene 3%. Chief components ofthe resin triter- penes are mastic acid, isomastic acid, oleanolic acid and tirucallol.The lyophilized aqueous extract of the aerial parts gave steroid-triterpe- nes, catechin tannins, flavonoids, saponins, resins and sugars. In some regions of Spain, the aerial parts are used against hypertension.There is some preliminary evidence that Mastic might have hypotensive and antioxidant effects. (The Review of Natural Products by Facts and Comparisons, 1999.)For prevention of gastric and duodenal ulcers, some researchers thinkMas- tic might have antisecretory and possibly cytoprotective effects. (J Ethno- pharmacol, 15(3), 1986; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Pistacia khinjuk Stocks is known as khinjak, Butum and Roomi Mastagi in Mumbai and Maharashtra. P. tere- binthus Linn. is known as Kabuli Mus- taki.... pistacia integerrimaHabitat: Native to eastern Mediterranean region, Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asian countries; cultivated in North India.
English: Pistachio, Green Almond.Ayurvedic: Mukuulaka.Unani: Pistaa (Kernel), Ilk-ul- Ambaat (resin).Action: The kernel is used as a cardiac and brain tonic; flowers are included in prescriptions for leucorrhoea; husk is used against dysentery and as astringent in stomatitis and tonsillitis.... pistacia vera
Habitat: Tropical and sub-tropical Asia, Africa and America.
English: Water Lettuce, Tropical Duckweed.Ayurvedic: Jalakumbhi, Vaariparni, Vaarimuuli.Siddha/Tamil: Agasatamarai.Action: Whole plant and root— diuretic, used for dysuria. Leaf—an- titussive, demulcent, antidysenteric, externally applied to haemorrhoids, ulcers, skin diseases. Ash—applied to ringworm of the scalp.
The plant gave 2-di-C-glycosylfla- vones of vicenin and lucenin type, anthocyanin-cyanidin-3-glucoside, lu- teolin-7-glycoside and mono-C-glyco- sylflavones— vitexin and orientin.Dosage: Plant—10-20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)... pistia stratiotesHabitat: Cultivated throughout the plains of India.
English: Minila Tamarind, Madras Thorn, Quamachil.Siddha/Tamil: Karapilly, Kodukkaa Puli.Folk: Vilaayati Imli, Dakhini Babool.Action: Bark—astringent, febrifuge, antidysenteric. Stem-bark—spasmolytic. Seeds—anti-inflammatory.
The leaves contain alpha-spinaste- rol; its beta-D-glucoside, octacosanol, kaempferol, its 3-rhamnoside, behenic and lignoceric acids. An insulin-like principle has also been reported in the leaves.Seeds gave kaempferol, quercetin and a saponin consisting of a mixture of oleanolic and echinocystic acid gly- cosides. Lecithin is also reported from seeds.The seed exhibited haemolytic agglutinating reaction with human blood. Saponins from seeds show spermicidal activity.The bark contains tannins (up to 37%) of a catechol type; non-tans 1015%; 1.5% of pectin.... pithecellobium dulceHabitat: Eastern Himalayas, Khasi, Jaintia and Lushai Hills.
Siddha/Tamil: Kalpakku.Folk: Kachloraa.Action: Leaf—used externally as a mostrum for leprosy; also applied for promoting growth of hair. Seed—hypoglycaemic. Aerial parts—diuretic, spasmolytic.
The seeds contain 18.3% protein; major amino acids are aspartic acid 13.2, glutamic acid 10.9, alanine 9.7, leucine 8.3, glycine 8.2, serine 7.4%. Seeds contain a poisonous principle pithecolobine. They are used after repeated boiling and discarding of water.... pithecellobium monadelphumHabitat: Subtropical Himalayas, Ganjam, Konkan, Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.
Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Sampangi.Folk: Tumari. Vikhaari, Vekhali (Maharashtra).Action: Bark—anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, narcotic; used in chronic bronchitis; also administered in leprous affections; a paste is applied to inflammatory and rheumatic swellings.
The Himalayan plants yielded an essential oil (0.26%) with alpha-pinene, dipentene, linalool, cineol, methyl sal- icylate, decyl aldehyde, anisaldehyde, bergapten, eugenol, indole and salicylic and benzoic acids as major constituents. The oil is applied topically in sprains, bruises, sciatica, rheumatism, chest affections and in certain skin diseases.The narcotic action of the bark is attributed to the presence of a yellow oleoresin. The bark also contain a saponin, pittosporin.... pittosporum floribundumHabitat: Punjab, Rajasthan and Delhi.
English: Brown Ispaghula.Unani: Aspaghol.Action: Seed—astringent. Seed coat—demulcent.
See Plantago ovata.... plantago amplexicaulisDIABETES INSIPIDUS, a condition characterised by the passing of a large volume of URINE every day, is due to lack of the antidiuretic hormone (see VASOPRESSIN). Enhanced production of the ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH) leads to CUSHING’S SYNDROME. Excessive production of PROLACTIN by micro or macro adenomas (benign tumours) leads to hyperprolactinaemia and consequent AMENORRHOEA and GALACTORRHOEA. Some adenomas do not produce any hormone but cause effects by damaging the pituitary cells and inhibiting their hormone production.
The most sensitive cells to extrinsic pressure are the gonadotrophin-producing cells and the growth-hormone producing cells, so that if the tumour occurs in childhood, growth hormone will be suppressed and growth will slow. Gonadotrophin hormone suppression will prevent the development of puberty and, if the tumour occurs after puberty, will result in amenorrhoea in the female and lack of LIBIDO in both sexes. The thyroid-stimulating hormone cells are the next to suffer and the pressure effects on these cells will result in hypothyroidism (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF).
Fortunately the ACTH-producing cells are the most resistant to extrinsic pressure and this is teleologically sound as ACTH is the one pituitary hormone that is essential to life. However, these cells can suffer damage from intracellular tumours, and adrenocortical insu?ciency is not uncommon.
Information about these disorders may be obtained from the Pituitary Foundation.... pituitary-linked disorders
– may be dried and in powder form kept almost inde?nitely; when wanted it is reconstituted by adding sterile distilled water. In powder form it can be transported easily and over long distances. Transfusion of plasma is especially useful in the treatment of SHOCK. One advantage of plasma transfusion is that it is not necessary to carry out testing of blood groups before using it.... plasma transfusion
Habitat: Western Himalayas, from Kashmir to Garhwal and Simla.
English: Rib Grass, Ribwort Plantain, English Plantain, Buckhorn Plantain.Unani: Baartang, Aspaghol.Folk: Balatang.Action: Leaf and root—astringent, bechic, antiasthmatic, anti-inflammatory, hypothermic, diuretic. Seed—cathartic, diuretic, haemostatic.
Key application: Internally, for catarrhs of the respiratory tract and inflammatory alterations of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa; externally for inflammatory reactions of the skin. (German Commission E, ESCOP.)Globularin and methyl ester of de- sacetyl asperulosidic acid were isolated from the plant along with cat- apol. A crude mucilage, isolated from the leaves, contains L-arabinose 26.0, D-galactose 35.8, D-glucose 21.9, D- mannose 4.6, L-rhamnose 4.6 and uronic acid 6.9%. Alpha-D-glucan was separated from this mucilage.Leaves gave aucubin and esculetin, in addition to polysaccharides. The whole plant yielded rhamnosidoglyco- side of caffeic acid. Seeds contain 1.1% aucubin. Aucubin exhibits antibacterial activity. Hepatoprotective effect is also attributed to the aucubin content.Alcoholic extract of young leaves exhibit antibacterial action against Streptococcus betahaemolyticus, Micrococ- cus pyogenes var. aureus and Bacillus subtilis, thus confirming their wound- healing properties.... plantago lanceolataHabitat: The temperate and alpine Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan at altitudes of 600-3,500 m.
English: Broadleaf Plantain.Ayurvedic: Ashvagola (var.).Folk: Isabgol.Action: Plant—haemostatic, antihistaminic, antibacterial, wound-healing in burns and inflammation of tissues. Leaves— cooling, astringent, diuretic, vulnerary, febrifuge. Used for diarrhoea, bacillary dysentery, hepatitis, urinary diseases, piles, ulcers and skin diseases. Leaves are used for cystitis with blood, haematuria and other bladder disorders.
The aqueous extract of the leaves showed anti-inflammatory activity in mice.The aerial parts contain an iridoid glucoside, majoroside. The leaves contain a phenylpropanoid glycoside, plantamajoside, exhibiting antibacterial activity against several pathogenic bacteria including E. coli and Staphy- lococcus aureus. (The glycoside is less inhibitory than the free acids, caffeic, ferulic, and rosmarinic and esculetin.)... plantago majorForsk
Synonym: P. Ispaghula Roxb.Family: Plantaginaceae.Habitat: Cultivated In Parts Of Rajasthan And Maharashtra.
English: Ispaghula, Spogel Seeds, Blond Psyllium.Ayurvedic: Ashvagola. Ashwakarna (Also Equated With Shorea Robusta).Unani: Aspaghol.Siddha/Tamil: Isapppa.Folk: Isabgol.Action: Seed And Husk—Laxative, Diuretic, Demulcent, Bechic, Cholinergic. Used In Inflammatory Conditions Of The Mucous Membrane Of Gastrointestinal And Genitourinary Tract, Chronic Amoebic And Bacillary Dysentery; Also In Hypercholesterolemia.
Key Application ? In Chronic Constipation And Irritable Bowel. (German Commission E.) Also In Constipation Due To Duodenal Ulcer Or Diverticulitis (Who.) German Commission E Also Noted That Blond Psyllium Seed Lowers Serum Cholesterol Levels. It Has Also Been Shown To Slow Sugar Absorption Thereby Reducing Blood Glucose. (Escop.) Use Of Blond Psyllium Husk Up To Six Months Did Not Clinically Alter Vitamin Or Mineral Status In A Review Of Eight Human Trials. It Did Not Reduce Absorption Of Calcium. (J Am Geriatr Soc, 43, 1995; Am J Clin Nutr, 71, 2000; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)The Seed Contains Amino Acids Including Valine, Alanine, Glutamic Acid, Glycine, Cystine, Lysine, Leucine And Tyrosine; And A Mucilage Consisting Of A Mixture Of Polysaccharides Composed Mainly Of Xylose, Arabinose And Galacturonic Acid; Rhamnose And Galactose Are Also Present. The Seeds Also Gave Aucubin, The Antibacterial Principle. The Seed Coat Contains Fatty Acids Mainly Linoleic, Oleic And Palmitic Acids In Decreasing Concentrations.The Seeds Show A Liver Protective Effect On Induced Hepatotoxicity In Mice. In China, The Plant Is Used Clinically To Treat Certain Types Of Hepatitis (Activity Due To Aucubin Content).Dosage: Husk—5-10 G. (Ccras.)... plantago ovataIn autoimmune disorders, disease is due to damage wrought by circulating ANTIBODIES or sensitised lymphocytes (see LYMPHOCYTE). If the disease is due to circulating humoral antibodies, removal of these antibodies from the body should theoretically relieve the disorder. This is the principle on which plasma exchange was used in the management of autoimmune diseases due to circulating antibodies. Such disorders include Goodpasture’s syndrome, SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) and MYASTHENIA GRAVIS. One of the problems in the use of plasma exchange in the treatment of such diseases is that the body responds to the removal of an antibody from the circulation by enhanced production of that antibody by the immune system. It is therefore necessary to suppress this homeostatic response with cytotoxic drugs such as AZATHIOPRINE. Nevertheless, remissions can be achieved in autoimmune diseases due to circulating antibodies by the process of plasma exchange.... plasma exchange
Habitat: Native to eastern Mediterranean region; cultivated in Kashmir and North-western Himalayas at 1,200-2,400 m.
English: Oriental Plane, Oriental Sycamore. European Plane tree.Folk: Chinaar, Buin (Kashmir and Punjab).Action: Bark—antidiarrhoeal, antiscorbutic, antirheumatic. Leaf—astringent. Buds—antiseptic, used for urinary infection.
The buds yielded kaempferol, its derivatives and caffeic acid. The me- thanolic extract exhibits antiseptic and antimicrobial activities.The bark contains 1.5% of platanin, also 5.9% tannin and 7.3% non-tans. The shoots and leaves contain alan- toin; roots phlobaphene. The sap of the tree contains up to 90% mannitol. A triterpene, platanolic acid, is found in most parts of the plant except the fruit.... platanus orientalisHabitat: East Asia; introduced into India and cultivated in rockeries and borders.
English: Balloon Flower, Chinese Bell Flower.Action: Expectorant and antitussive. Root—used to treat cough, tonsillitis and asthma, also to treat stomatitis, peptic ulcer and inflammatory diseases. (WHO.)
The major chemical constituents of the root are triterpene saponins. The root exhibits haemolytic action.... platycodon grandiflorumPleshett, Pleshet, Pleshete, Plesheta, Pleshetta... pleshette
Habitat: Bengal, Chhota Nagpur, Ranchi, Purnea, Vishakhapatnam and Tamil Nadu.
Ayurvedic: Vajrakanda.Folk: Kharhar (Uttar Pradesh).Action: Anti-inflammatory (well- ground tubers are rubbed on swellings of the extremities). Seeds—externally applied to bruises. The tubers are poisonous (can be eaten after several boilings).... plesmonium margaritiferum
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Simla to Sikkim and in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Western Ghats.
Folk: Laal-Aghaadaa (Maharashtra).Action: Leaves—styptic, febrifuge.
The aerial parts yielded an essential oil (0.35%) containing piperitenone oxide (45.01) and cis-pipestone oxide (35.70%) as major constituents.The antimicrobial activity of 10 mg of the oil was found to be the same as that of 10 units of penicillin G. sodium. The essential oil also exhibited cardiac depressant, respiratory stimulant and vasoconstrictor action. The leaves and flowering tops, in addition to the oil, also contain resin and tannin.... plectranthus mollisHabitat: Moist, loamy soil. Indigenous to U.S.A
Features ? Stem two to three feet high, contains milky juice. Root, wrinkled longitudinally, light brown outer surface, whitish internally ; fracture tough, irregular. Rootstock knotty, faintly ringed. Acrid taste.Part used ? Root.Action: Diaphoretic, expectorant, antispasmodic.
Chest complaints; acts directly on the lungs, and stimulates sweat glands. Relaxes capillaries, relieving strain on heart and lungs. Reduces pain and assists breathing in pleurisy. Infusion of 1 ounce of the powdered root with 1 pint of boiling water is taken in wineglass doses, to which a teaspoonful of composition powder (Myrica compound) may be added with advantage.... pleurisy rootHabitat: Sundarbans, in salt marshes and mangrove swamps.
Folk: Kukarondh, Manjurukh (Bengal).Action: Root and leaves—astringent, antipyretic; given in decoction as a diaphoretic in fevers. Leaf— juice is given for dysentery; an infusion for lumbago, also against leucorrhoea. Root—antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective.
The aerial parts contain terpenic glycosides. The root contains sesqui- terpenes, lignin glycosides, thiophene derivatives.The extracts of defatted roots showed significant anti-inflammatory activity. The extracts inhibited protein exudation and leucocyte migration.Neuropharmacological studies on different experimental models of rodents exhibited potent central nervous system depressant activity.The methanolic fraction of the extract exhibited significant hepatopro- tective activity against induced hepa- totoxicity in rats and mice. The extract also caused significant reduction in the elevated serum enzyme levels and serum bilirubin content in acute liver injury.... pluchea indicaHabitat: Punjab, Upper Gangetic plains, Gujarat, Rajasthan.
Ayurvedic: Raasnaa, Rasanaa, Raas- nikaa, Rasaa, Yuktaa, Yuktrasaa, Suvahaa, Elaaparni.Folk: Vaaya-surai (Uttar Pradesh), Raayasan.Action: Aerial parts—smooth muscle relaxant. Stem—antiinflammatory. Pluchea lanceolata is the source of Raasnaa in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. Vanda roxburghii is used as Raasnaa in Bengal. Throughout South India, Alpinia galanga is accepted as Raasnaa.
The stem and leaves contain morete- nol, moretenol acetate, neolupenol, oc- tacosanoic, hexacosanoic and tetra- cosanoic acid, tetracosanol, hexaco- sanol, triacontanol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol-D-glucoside.The petroleum extract of the stem and leaves and the chloroform-soluble portion of the methanolic extract exhibited 31.9% and 54.5% antioedema activity, respectively. The triterpenes, moretenol acetate, moretenol and ne- olupenol exhibited 55.2,32,8 and 39.7% anti-inflammatory activity respectively as against ibuprofen as standard exhibiting 65.5% activity.... pluchea lanceolataHabitat: Native to South Africa; grown in gardens in India.
Ayurvedic: Nila-chitraka (blue- flowered var.). (Bears pale-blue flowers.)Action: See P. zeylanica.... plumbago capensis
Habitat: Indigenous to Sikkim and khasi hills, grown in Indian gardens.
English: Rose-coloured Leadwort.Ayurvedic: Rakta-chitraka (red- flowered var.).Siddha/Tamil: Chittramoolam.Action: See P. zeylanica. P indica is preferred in West Bengal and Kerala. Both P. indica and P. zeylanica contain about 0.9 plumbagin.... plumbago indica
Habitat: Cultivated in gardens throughout India; also found wild in Peninsular India.
English: Ceylon Leadwort, Leadwort.Ayurvedic: Chitraka, Agni, Vahni, Jvalanaakhya, Krshaanu, Hutaasha, Dahana, Sikhi.Unani: Sheetraj Hindi. Siddha/Tamil: Chittramoolam.Action: Root—intestinal flora normalizer, stimulates digestive processes; used for dyspepsia. Root paste is applied in order to open abscesses; a paste prepared with milk, vinegar or salt and water, is used externally in leprosy and other obstinate skin diseases. A cold infusion is used for influenza and black-water fever.
Key application: In sprue, malabsorption syndrome, piles and inflammatory diseases of ano-rectum. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)The root yielded naphthoquinone derivatives, plumbagin being the most important active principle.The root extract, after processing for plumbagin enhancement, has been used in a number of drug formulations for liver ailments. Experimentally, plumbagin prevented the accumulation of triglycerides in liver and aorta and regressed atheromatous plaques and abdominal aorta. The chloroform extract of the root showed significant activity against pencillin-resistant (also non-pencillin resistant) strains of Neisseria gonorrhoea. (The root is used for treating sexually transmitted diseases in traditional Indian medicine.)In Siddha medicine, in Tamil Nadu, the plant is an ingredient in a number of drug formulations for treating cancers of the uterus, breast, lungs and oral cavity, in addition to haemorrhoids.Plumbagin is abortifacient, antiovu- latory; causes selective testicular lesions in dogs; in lower doses it behaves like a spindle poison, in higher concentration exhibits radiomimetic nu- cleotoxic and cytotoxic effects.Dosage: Detoxified root—1-2 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... plumbago zeylanicaHabitat: Native to Mexico; cultivated in Indian gardens.
English: Pagoda tree.Action: Root bark—used in herpes, sexually transmitted diseases. Bark—stimulant, emmenagogue. Root—violent cathartic. Latex— purgative, rubefacient.
Iridoids are present in the leaf, stem, flower and root. Plumieride glucoside has been isolated from all parts of the plant. The plumeric acid, isolated from leaves, exhibits promising cytotoxic activity.Fulvoplumierin (a pigment) inhibits the growth of various strains of My- cobacterium tuberculosis.... plumeria acuminataHabitat: Native to West Indies; cultivated in Indian gardens.
English: White Champa.Ayurvedic: Kshira Champaka (white-flowered var.).Siddha/Tamil: Perumal Arali, Seemai Arali.Action: Root bark—used in blenn- orrhagia. Bark and latex—used externally in herpes, syphilitic ulcers and scabies. Seed—haemostatic.
The root gave iridoids—iso-plu- mericin, plumericin, plumieride, plu- mieride coumarate and its glucoside. The bark gave alpha-and beta-amyrin and their acetates, beta-sitosterol, sco- poletin and plumieride. The flowers also contain plumieride coumarate and its glucoside, in addition to quercetin derivatives.... plumeria albaHabitat: Native to Mexico; grown throughout India.
English: Red Jasmine.Ayurvedic: Kshira Champaka (red-flowered var.).Action: Root bark—used in blennorrhagia. Flower—bechic (used in pectoral syrups). Bark— a decoction is used in venereal diseases and leprosy.
The bark contains cytotoxic iridoids (including fulvoplumierin which also inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and the lignin, lirioden- drin.The plant contains the triterpene rubrinol which showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a causative agent responsible for infecting burns, wounds, urinary tract and infection in cystic fibrosis) and Pseudomonas pseu- domallei (which causes melioidosis or pseudoglandess).The herb contains cardiac glycosides which have a narrow-margin of safety. (Sharon M. Herr.)... plumeria rubraPokahontas, Pocohontas, Pokohontas, Pocahantas, Pokahantas... pocahontas
Habitat: Inner ranges of the Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim at 1,800-4,000 m.
English: Indian Podophyllum.Ayurvedic: Giriparpata.Folk: Bana-kakari (Punjab), Venivel (Gujarat), Patvel (Maharashtra). Paapraa, Paapri.Action: Rhizomes and roots— antineoplastic. Strongly irritant to skin and mucous membranes. Used topically as an ointment for venereal warts, verrucae and similar conditions.
Key application: P. peltatum— externally, for removal of pointed condyloma (skin adjacent to the treated area should be protected). (German Commission E.) P hexandrum: Podophyllin (10-40%) for external application, 2-6 h weekly, for anogenital warts. (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) (Podophyllin is a mitotic poison.)May Apple of North America is equated with Podophyllum peltatum Linn. The main lignin is podophyllo- toxin. Podophyllum hexandrum contains similar lignans with the exception of alpha-and beta-peltatins, which are reportedly absent; the concentration of podophyllotoxin is up to 4.3%. P. peltatum contains about 0.25% and the Taiwanese species P. pleianthum 0.1% podophyllotoxin.(Podophyllotoxin is a valuable lig- nin, as it is used for the synthesis of chemically administered cytostat- ic etoposide and tenoposide.)... podophyllum hexandrumHabitat: Sikkim.
Folk: Paapraa (var.).Action: Resin—used against tumours.
The rhizomes and roots yield 7.5% resin which gave a lignin lactone desig nated sikkimotoxin; also 3-galactosidyl quercetin, quercetin and isorhamne- tin. It is yet to be established that the lactone possesses properties analogous to those of podophyllotoxin.... podophyllum sikkimensisHabitat: Hills of South-western India, ascending to 1,200 m.
Folk: Phaangalaa (Maharashtra).Action: Aerial parts—antifungal, antibacterial.
Acetone extract of the aerial parts exhibits larvicidal activity against the larva of malaria vector, Anopheles ste- phensi and Culex quinquefasciatus.... pogostemon parviflorusHabitat: Throughout greater part of India.
Folk: Ishwar-jataa. Jui-lataa (Bihar, Bengal). Phaangalaa (Maharashtra).Action: Root—used in haemorrhage, especially in uterine haemorrhage. Leaf—styptic; used for cleaning wounds. Essential oil—antifungal. Acetone extract— insecticidal, insect repellent.
Pogostemonpubescens Benth., synonym P. parviflorus Benth. is also known as Phaangalaa in Maharashtra. Aerial part exhibits antifungal and leaf antibacterial activity.Sesquiterpene lactone, caryophyl- len-9-beta-10-olide, has been isolated from the whole plant.Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz. (Manipur and South-western India) also possesses properties similar to P. benghalensis. The acetone extract exhibited larvicidal activity against the larvae of malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi. It also showed activity against yellow fever mosquito.... pogostemon benghalensisHabitat: Native to the Philippines; introduced in India.
English: Patchouli.Ayurvedic: Paachi.Folk: Paanari.Action: Plant—insecticidal. Leaves—an infusion is given in menstrual troubles.
The oil, extracted from dried leaves, is reported to possess antibacterial activity against E. coli, Staphylococcus au- reus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacterium coli and B. typhosum. It is also found effective against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The oil is used in insect- repellent preparations.... pogostemon cablinHabitat: Western Ghats of Karnataka, Kerala and the Nilgiri hills up to 1,800 m.
English: Patchouli.Ayurvedic: Paachi, Pancholi.Siddha/Tamil: Kadir Pachai.Folk: Paanch (Maharashtra), Sugandhi Paanadi (Gujarat).Action: Leaf—bechic, antiasthmatic. A poultice of leaves is applied to boils and to relieve headache.
The plant gave alpha-pyrone derivatives, pogopyrones A and B; n-octaco- sanol, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside and several flavones. Pogopyrone B exhibited cytotoxic activity.... pogostemon patchoulisHabitat: U.S.A. Cultivated on a sm.ill scale in England for medicinal purposes.
Features ? The root is obtainable in longitudinally split pieces or in transverse slices. Ringed, brownish-grey externally, hard and whitish inside; fibrous fracture. Berries purplish-black, nearly globular, ten carpels, each containing one lens-shaped seed.Part used ? Root, berries.Action: Alterative, cathartic.
Chronic rheumatism and skin diseases. Of some use in dyspepsia. Action of root stronger than berries. For rheumatism the root is often compounded with Black Cohosh and Wintergreen.Preparation and dosage vary considerably with the condition of the root. Thurston, Hammer and other physio-medical practitioners recommend that only the green root should be used, owing to, rapid deterioration. These herbalists use the fresh root largely in hardening of the liver and reduced biliary flow.... poke rootThe concept of the dose-response is important for understanding the risk of exposure to a particular substance. This is embodied in a statement by Paracelsus (c.1493–1541): ‘All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose di?erentiates a poison and a remedy.’
Poisoning may occur in a variety of ways: deliberate – SUICIDE, substance abuse or murder; accidental – including accidental overdose of medicines; occupational; and environmental
– including exposure during ?re.
Ingestion is the most common route of exposure, but poisoning may also occur through inhalation, absorption through the skin, by injection and through bites and stings of venomous animals. Poisoning may be described as acute, where a single exposure produces clinical effects with a relatively rapid onset; or chronic, where prolonged or repeated exposures may produce clinical effects which may be insidious in onset, cumulative and in some cases permanent.
Diagnosis of poisoning is usually by circumstantial evidence or elimination of other causes of the clinical condition of the patient. Some substances (e.g. opioids) produce a characteristic clinical picture in overdose that can help with diagnosis. In some patients laboratory analysis of body ?uids or the substance taken may be useful to determine or con?rm the o?ending agent. Routine assays are not necessary. For a very small number of poisons, such as paracetamol, aspirin, iron and lead, the management of the patient may depend on measuring the amount of poison in the bloodstream.
Accurate statistics on the incidence of poisoning in the UK are lacking. Mortality ?gures are more reliable than morbidity statistics; annually, well over 100,000 cases of poisoning are admitted to hospital. The annual number of deaths from poisoning is relatively small – about 300 – and in most cases patients die before reaching hospital. Currently, CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) is by far the most common cause of death due to poisoning. The most common agents involved in intentional or accidental poisoning are drugs, particularly ANALGESICS, ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS and SEDATIVES. Alcohol is also commonly taken by adults, usually in combination with drugs. Children frequently swallow household cleaners, white spirit, plant material – such as belladonna (deadly nightshade) and certain mushrooms; for example, death cap and ?y agaric – aftershave and perfume as well as drugs. If possible, the suspect container, drug or plant should be taken with the victim to the hospital or doctor. The use of child-resistant containers has reduced the number of admissions of children to hospital for treatment. Bixtrex® is an intensely bitter-tasting agent which is often added to products to discourage ingestion; however, not everybody is able to taste it, nor has any bene?cial e?ect been proven.
Treatment of poisoning usually begins with decontamination procedures. For ingested substances this may involve making the patient sick or washing the stomach out (GASTRIC LAVAGE): this is usually only worthwhile if performed soon after ingestion. It should be emphasised that salt (sodium chloride) water must never be given to induce vomiting, since this procedure is dangerous and has caused death. For substances spilt on the skin, the affected area should immediately be thoroughly washed and all contaminated clothing removed. Following eye exposure, the affected eye/s should be thoroughly irrigated with saline or water.
Treatment thereafter is generally symptomatic and supportive, with maintenance of the victim’s respiratory, neurological and cardiovascular systems and, where appropriate, monitoring of their ?uid and electrolyte balance and hepatic and renal function. There are speci?c antidotes for a few substances: the most important of these are PARACETAMOL, iron, cyanide (see CYANIDE POISONING), opioids (see OPIOID), DIGOXIN, insecticides and some heavy metals. Heavy-metal poisoning is treated with CHELATING AGENTS – chemical compounds that form complexes by binding metal ions: desferrioxamine and pencillinamine are two such agents. The number of people presenting with paracetamol overdose – a common drug used for attempted suicide – has fallen sharply since restrictions were placed on its over-thecounter sales.
When a patient presents with an illness thought to be caused by exposure to substances at work, further exposure should be limited or prevented and investigations undertaken to determine the source and extent of the problem. Acutely poisoned workers will usually go to hospital, but those suffering from chronic exposure may attend their GP with non-speci?c symptoms (see OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH, MEDICINE AND DISEASES).
In recent years, legislation has been enacted in the UK to improve safety in the workplace and to ensure that data on the hazardous constituents and effects of chemicals are more readily available. These o?cial controls include the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) and the Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging) Regulations (CHIP) and are UK legislation in response to European Union directives.
The National Poisons Information Service is a 24-hour emergency telephone service available to the medical profession and provides information on the likely effects of numerous agents and advice on the management of the poisoned patient. The telephone numbers are available in the medical literature. In the UK this is not a public-access service. People who believe they, or their relatives, have been poisoned should seek medical advice from their GPs or attend their local hospital.
Toxbase The National Poisons Information Service provides a primary clinical toxicology database on the Internet: www.spib.axl.co.uk. This website provides information about routine diagnosis, treatment and management of people exposed to drugs, household products and industrial and agricultural products.
(See also APPENDIX 1: BASIC FIRST AID.)... poisons
Habitat: Native to Mexico; cultivated for ornamental use.
English: Tuberose.Ayurvedic: Rajanigandhaa.Siddha/Tamil: Nilasampangi.Folk: Gulcheri, Gulshabbu.Action: Flowers and bulbs— diuretic. Externally used for skin eruptions. The bulbs are rubbed with turmeric and butter and applied over red pimples of infants. The bulbs are reported to contain an alkaloid, lycorin, which causes vomiting.
Dried and powdered bulbs are used for gonorrhoea.... polianthes tuberosaHabitat: Native to Sri Lanka; grown in gardens throughout the warmer parts of India.
English: Mast tree, Fake Asoka tree, False Devadaru, Cemetry treeAyurvedic: Devadaari (Devadaaru is equated with Cedrus deodara). (An adulterant to the bark of Saraca asoca.)Siddha/Tamil: Nettilingam.Action: Febrifuge. Causes cardiac depression.
The stem bark contains clerodane diterpenes, polyalthialdoic acid and kolavenic acid. The stem and its bark also contain the cytotoxic aporphine alkaloid, liriodenine, besides nor-oli- veroline and oliveroline-beta-N-oxide. Azafluorene alkaloids are also present in the bark and leaves. The leaf exhibits fungitoxic activity.Polyalthia simiarum Hook. f. & Thoms. (Orissa, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Eastern Himalaya) is also equated with Fake Ashoka tree. It is known as Boga-khamtou in Assam, Wojarah, Mongai in Orissa and Labshi, Kutti in Nepal.Polyalthia suberosa Thw. (from Assam to Uttar Pradesh in the North and Kerala in the South) is known as Chamkhirni. The leaves contain alpha-and beta-amyrin, lupeol, beta- sitosterol, stigmasterol and campes- terol. The stems and leaves contain the triterpene, suberosol, which showed anti-HIV replication activity. The stem bark contains alkaloids, oxostepha- nine and lanuginosine, which exhibited antibacterial activity against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.... polyalthia longifoliaHabitat: Throughout the greater part of India, ascending up to 2,100 m in the Himalaya.
Ayurvedic: Parpata (substitute).Siddha/Tamil: Nilaisedachi.Folk: Pittapaaparaa (Uttar Pradesh), Rupaaphuli (Gujarat).Action: Leaves—anti-inflammatory, applied as poultice. Also prescribed in jaundice in the form of pills with molasses. Flowering head, along with stem and leaves—astringent, demulcent. Plant—spermicidal.
The plant gave camelliagenins (bar- rigenol) and stigmasterol.... polycarpaea corymbosaHabitat: Throughout the warmer parts of India in fields and waste places.
Folk: Ghima, Suretaa.Action: Leaves—an infusion of roasted leaves is given for cough following fever, particularly in measles.
Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibits spasmolytic activity. The aerial parts contain tetrahydroxy triterpenes. Presence ofa triterpenoid saponin, and hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, beta- amyrin and its acetate, beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol is also reported.... polycarpon prostratumHabitat: Tropical Himalayas from Simla to Sikkim and the Khasi Hills.
Folk: Lilakanthi, Lilakaathi. (Bihar). Maraad (var.).Action: Root—used for cough and pulmonary catarrh; chewed or ground and drunk with water to expel phlegm from the throat; provokes coughing.... polygala crotalarioides
Habitat: Throughout India and the Andamans.
English: Senega.Folk: Meradu, Maraad, Negali (Maharashtra). Maraad (Nepal).Action: Root—antiasthmatic; used as a substitute for Senega obtained from the American plant Polygala senega. (In Chinese medicine Senega refers to P. tenuifolia Willd.)
Key application: Senega Root— in productive cough, catarrh of the respiratory tract and chronic bronchitis. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.)Senega yielded lactonic lignans, their glycosides and flavonol glycosides. The root gave arctiin, afzelin, myricitrin and rutin. A triterpenic saponin was also obtained from the plant. The root contains salicylic acid, methyl salicylate and senegin (a sapo- nin mixture).Senega is used for chronic bronchitis, catarrh, asthma and croup, as an infusion.Related species are: P. chinesis Linn., synonym P. glomerata Lour; P. tele- phioides Willd., synonym P. brachys- tachya DC. non-Bl., found throughout the plains of India. Both the plants are used as expectorant, antiasthmatic and anticatarrhal.Toxic constituents of Polygala senega root are: triterpene saponins—6- 16% senegasaponins A-D with agly- cone presenegenin or senegin. Sapo- nins irritate GI tract mucosa and cause reflex secretion of mucous in the bronchioles.A French patent is used against graft rejection, eczema and multiple sclerosis as an anti-inflammatory drug.... polygala chinensisHabitat: Throughout the Himalayas and Western Ghats.
English: Common Milkwort.Folk: Negali, Meradu (var.).Action: Leaves—used in spermatorrhoea. Root—a decoction is given as an expectorant in cold and cough and chronic chest diseases. (Used as a substitute for Senega.) Also used for inflammation of urinary bladder; externally for mammary abscesses and carbuncles.... polygala sibirica
Habitat: Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at altitudes of 2,4004,800 m.
Folk: Khukhudi.Action: Flowers—stimulant.
The inflorescence gave flavonoids, including quercetin, isorhamnetin, lu- teolin and apigenin derivatives. The leaves contain the flavonoids, 8-C- glucosyltricin and isorhamnetin.... polygonum affineHabitat: Northern Himalayas, from 1,500 to 3,300 m.
Ayurvedic: Mahaa-medaa, Medaa, (substitute: Asparagus racemosus, also Saalab-misri.)Folk: Devarigaanl (Gharwal).Action: Root—rejuvenating tonic for nervous system.
The root gave neoprazerigenin A- 3-O-beta-lycotetraoside (PS-III) and its methyl proto-type congener (PS- II) and steroidal saponins, sibiricoside A (PS-I) and sibiricoside B (PS-IV).Dosage: Root—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... polygonatum cirrhifoliumHabitat: Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon and in Manipur.
English: Solomon's Seal.Ayurvedic: Mahaa-medaa, Medaa (var.). (Substitute: Asparagus racemosus.)Action: Anti-inflammatory, nervine, astringent. Used as an infusion for pulmonary complaints; as a poultice for piles and bruises.
The root and herb gave diosgenin and its glycosides.Dosage: Root—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... polygonatum multiflorumHabitat: Temperate Himalayas and Manipur.
Ayurvedic: Medaa. (Substitute: Asparagus racemosus.)Unani: Shaqaaqul. (Substitute: Pastinaca secacul.)Folk: Mithaa-dudhiaa.Action: Used in Tibetan medicine for treating emaciation, senility, pulmonary affections. The rhizomes is valued as salep.
The dried rhizomes contain 6.2-9% diosgenin.The lactins of the rootstock did not contain carbohydrates; the amino acid revealed presence of 28% aspartic acid and asparagine.The plant exhibits diuretic properties. It gave a digitalis glucoside and is considered poisonous by the hill people in the Himalayas.... polygonatum verticillatumHabitat: From Kashmir to Kumaon.
English: Knotgrass, Knotweed, Mexican Sanguinaria.Folk: Machoti, Kesri.Action: Astringent and haemostatic. Used for excessive menstruation, bleeding piles; bleeding from bowel, stomach, lungs, nose, throat; mucous colitis, children's summer diarrhoea.
Key application: In mild catarrhs of the respiratory tract, inflammatory changes to the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. (German Commission E.)The plant gave flavonoids including quercetin, avicularin, quercitrin, and derivatives of kaempferol, esculetin and scopoletin. The plant also gave gallic, caffeic, oxalic., silicic, chloro- genic and p-coumaric acids; tannins including catechin.The methanolic extract of the plant showed high protection against CCl4- induced hepatotoxicity in mice. This activity is attributed to the presence of flavonoid glucosides.The flavonoids exhibit astringent properties and are found to decrease capillary fragility and have a cortisonelike-effect on gingival tissue. (J Ethno- pharmacol, 74(1), 2001.)... polygonum aviculareHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim and the hills of Assam.
English: Snake Weed, Bistort, Dragon Wort.Unani: Anjabaar.Action: Anti-inflammatory, haemostatic, astringent, demulcent, anticatarrhal, antidiarrhoeal. Used for internal haemorrhages, irritable bowel, diverticulosis, urinary and uterine affections. Used as a mouth wash and gargle for ulcerated mouth and bleeding gums.
The herb contains ferulic, sinapic, vanillic, syringic, melilotic, p-couma- ric, p-hydroxybenzoic, gentisic, sali- cyclic and ellagic acids, about 15-20% tannins mainly catechins.When administered before the induction of adjuvant arthritis, the aqueous-ethanolic extract of the herb inhibited both the maximal oedema response and the total oedema response in rat.... polygonum bistortaHabitat: Throughout India in marshy places, up to 1,900 m. in the hills.
Ayurvedic: Rakta-rohidaa (Gujarat).Siddha/Tamil: Attalaree.Action: Plant juice and rootstock— used in pneumonia, consumption, jaundice, fevers. Leaf— antispasmodic. Used for colic.
The leaves contain flavonoids— quercetin, rhamnetin, quercitrin, avic- ularin and rutin. Flowers contain pigments, delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside and quercetin.The methanolic aqueous extract of the leaf gave a pure anthelmintic substance, a terpenoid (PGA). (The herb is used as an anthelmintic in Sudan.)... polygonum glabrumHabitat: Throughout India in wet places.
English: Water Pepper, Pepperwort, Smartweed.Folk: Paakur-muula, Paani-maricha (Bengal).Action: Haemostatic, astringent, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, lithotriptic, emmenagogue (used as infusion for delayed menses and amenorrhoea), antifungal (root and leaf used externally). Contraindicated during pregnancy.
The herb contains sesquiterpenes, including warburganal and polygodial, in the leaves; polygonal, isodrimeni- nol, isopolygodial and confertifolin in the seeds; and flavonoids including quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin and rhamnesin; polygonolide (an iso- coumarin).Isoquercitrin exhibited significant anti-oxidative activity. Polygodial and warburganal possess significant an- tifungal property. Warburganal also possesses potent cytotoxic and antibiotic activity. (The herb is used against cancer.)Folk: Muniyaaraa (Bihar), Raani- phool, Macheti, Dubiaa Saaga.Action: Galactogenic, antidiar- rhoeal. Powdered herb is given in pneumonia.
The whole plant yields 11% tannin. The rootstock contains oxymethylan- thraquinone.Flowers gave oleanolic acid, betulin- ic acid, epi-friedelanol, beta-sitosterol, and flavonoids—quercetin, quercetin- 3-arabinoside and quercetin-3-rutino- side.... polygonum hydropiperHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at 3,3004,800 m.
English: Viviparous Bistort.Unani: Anjabaar. (substitute).Folk: Billori, Maamekh (Punjab).Action: Rootstock—astringent, antidiarrhoeal, antileucorrhoeic, antiseptic, antiperiodic. Used in haemoptysis; also for gleet. A decoction is used as a gargle for sore throat and spungy gums, as a lotion for ulcers.... polygonum viviparum
Action: Expectorant, laxative, stomachic, cholagogue, alterative, antistress. Used in cough, bronchitis, catarrh, loss of appetite, dyspepsia; and in skin diseases.
The rhizome gave saponin glyco- sides, based on polypodosapogenin, including osladin; ecdysteroids; phlo- roglucin derivatives; tannin.... polypodium vulgareHabitat: On the old trunks of various coniferous trees.
English: White Agaric.Unani: Ghaariqoon.Action: Used in the treatment of sweats in wasting diseases such as phthisis (it checks profuse sweats); also as an expectorant and diuretic.
The drug contains agaric acid (agari- cin). The resinous extract, when burnt, yields not more than 2% of a white ash, rich in phosphates. The drug gives 46% soft resin.Agaric acid acts as a counter-irritant when applied to abraded surfaces or mucous membrane.... polyporus officinalisHabitat: Cultivated in gardens all over India.
Action: Leaf—used in sinusitis, headache, migraine, tonsillitis. Stem bark—used for promoting expulsion of placenta after child birth. Root— antibacterial, antifungal, diuretic. Leaf and root—used in dysuria.
The root contains polyacetylenes, falcarinol and heptadeca derivatives. Falcarinol and heptadeca exhibited strong antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria and the der- matophytic bacteria, also showed an- tifungal activity. The antibacterial activity of falcarinol was found to be 15 to 35 times stronger than that of erythromycin, chloramphenicol and oxytetracyclin.Polyscias scutellaria (Burm. f.) F. R. Fosberg (commonly grown in Indian gardens) exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. The leaves contain several tri- terpenoid saponins, polyscisaponins, oleanolic acid derivatives.... polyscias fruticosaPomonah, Pomonia, Pomonea, Pamona, Pamonia, Pamonea... pomona
Pompaya, Pompaiya, Pompaeya... pompeya
Habitat: Western Ghats, tidal forests up to 1,200 m.
English: Pongam Oil tree, Indian Beech.Ayurvedic: Karanja.Siddha/Tamil: Pungam.Action: Oil—applied in scabies, herpes, leucoderma and other cutaneous diseases; over chest in pneumonia and cold; also used internally as cholagogue in sluggish liver. Leaves—juice is prescribed in flatulence, dyspepsia, diarrhoea and cough. An infusion is given for leprosy and gonorrhoea. Root— a paste is used in scrofulous enlargements; juice is used for cleaning foul ulcers and closing fistulous sores. Stem bark—given internally in bleeding piles. Rind of pod and seed—prescribed in bronchitis and whooping cough. Leaf and seed—antileprotic. Leaf and seed oil—antirheumatic.
The tree is rich in flavonoids and related compounds. These include simple flavones, furanoflavonoids, chro- menoflavones, chromenochalcones, coumarones, flavone glucosides, sterols, triterpenes and a modified phenyl- alanine dipeptide. Seeds and seed oil gave karanjin, pongamol, pongapin and kanjone.The aqueous extract of stem bark shows significant sedative and antipyretic effects in rats, and antispas- modic effect in vitro on smooth muscles.In Indonesia, a decoction ofthe bark is drunk after child birth.The aqueous extract of seeds showed significant antiviral activity against herpes simplex viruses HSV-1 and 2 cell lines experimentally. Albino rats, treated with the aqueous extract of seeds, recovered faster from induced infection and skin-burn than the untreated ones.Dosage: Seed—250 mg powder; 510 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)... pongamia pinnataHabitat: Northwestern Himalaya at 1,200-3,000 m, also grown in avenues.
English: White Poplar.Folk: Safedaa, Jangali Fraas.Action: Bark—antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antipyretic, diuretic, febrifuge, stimulant, antiseptic. Used for arthritis, rheumatic affections, cystitis and other urinary diseases, stomach and liver disorders, anorexia and debility.
Key application: Unopened leaf- buds externally for haemorrhoids, frostbite and sunburn. (German Commission E.)The bark contains glycosides, salicin and populin, erisin and tannin (5-9%). Salicin, a bitter tonic and antiperiod- ic, is used like quinine in intermittent fever, also in rheumatism.... populus albaHabitat: North-western Himalaya at 900-3,700 m.
English: Black Lombardy Poplar.Action: Bark and balsam from leaf bud— used for cold. Bark— depurative. Leaf bud—antiseptic, anti- inflammatory.
The bud exudate contains dimethyl- caffeic acid, which was found active against herpes simplex virus type 1.A 50% ethanol extract of a mixture of flowers and buds showed 11% inhibition of enzymatic conversion of testosterone into 5 alpha-dihydrotesterone and 4-androstene-3,17-dione. The extract was partitioned between ethylac- etate and water and the resultant ethy- lacetate fraction contained the active compounds, pinobanksin, demethyl- quercetin and pinocembrin. It exhibited 15% inhibitory activity on the enzyme. Pinocembrin was the most potent, almost equal to estradiol, which was used as a control.The bark of all Populus species contains, phenolic glycosides, salicin and populin (salicinbenzoate). Tannins are also present (5-9%).Both salicin and populin cause elimination of uric acid. Salicin is antiperi- odic and is used like quinine in intermittent fever, also in coryza, rheumatism and neuralgia.... populus nigraHabitat: Warmer parts of India, cultivated as a vegetable.
Ayurvedic: Laghu-lonikaa.Siddha/Tamil: Siru Pasalai-keerai.Action: Similar to P. oleracea. Used in asthma, cough, urinary discharges, inflammations and ulcers. A poultice of the herb is applied to haemorrhoids and erysipelas.... portulaca quadrifida
Habitat: All over India, cultivated as a vegetable.
English: Common Purslane.Ayurvedic: Brihat Lonikaa, Lonaa, Loni, Ghoddhika, Ghotikaa, Upodika, Khursaa.Unani: Khurfaa, Kulfaa.Siddha/Tamil: Pulli-keerai, Parup- pukirai.Action: Refrigerant (reduces body heat), mild spasmodic, diuretic, antiscorbutic. Used in scurvy and in diseases of liver, spleen, kidney and bladder; also in dysuria, stomatitis and dysentery. A paste of leaves is applied to swellings, erysipelas, burns and scalds. Seeds—diuretic, antidysenteric; applied externally to burns and scalds.
A crude protein-free extract of the herb contained l-nor-adrenaline, do- pamine and l-dopa, also catechol. (The fresh plant contained 2.5 mg/g l-nor- adrenaline in one sample.) The extract gave a strong pressor response when injected intravenously into anaesthetized dogs.The oral administration of the ho- mogenates of P. oleracea reduced the blood sugar level of alloxan-diabetic rabbits to normal.The extract of the leaves and stems reduced muscle tone in individuals suffering from spasticity and exhibited skeletal muscle relaxant activity both in vitro and in vivo. The extract produced dose-dependent negative in- otropic and chronotropic effects and pressor response on rat blood pressure.The diuretic action of the herb is attributed to the presence of high percentage of potassium salts.Dosage: Plant-125-400 mg powder; juice—1-20 ml (CCRAS.)... portulaca oleraceaHabitat: Peninsular India, near sea-coasts.
Ayurvedic: Bichhuu-buuti.Folk: Jangali Gaajar (Gujarat), Sanjivani (Bihar).Action: Leaves—an infusion is given internally in dysuria; externally applied to erysipelas. The herb shows diuretic, calculolythic, analgesic and antipyretic properties.
The aerial parts contain diterpe- noids, pilosanone A and B. leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, arthritis, cramps, kidney stones, bleeding piles; as a mouth wash in pyrrhoea, gingivitis and sore throat.Key application: In mild dismenor- rhoeal disorders; as a support for treatment of milder, nonspecific, acute diarrhoea and in light inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. (German Commission E.)The plant gave anthocyanins—cy- anidin and delphinidin. Aerial parts gave tannins (2-10%). The plant also gave choline, betaine, histidine, an essential oil and vitamin E.The maximum amounts of tannins occur in the root stock (up to 17.5% on dry basis). The ethanolic and aqueous extract of the herb (1 : 5) contain 0.3 to 0.8% of tannin. The tannin fraction exhibited anti-mutagenic effect.Potentilla fruticosa HK. (temperate Himalaya) is also used like Silverweed.The flowers and young shoots contain flavonoids, quercetin, terniflorin, tribuloside and (-)-catechin. The plant also contains stigmasterol, beta-sitos- terol and campesterol; (-)-epicatechol gallate, (±)-catechol, (-)-epicatechol, (-)-epigallocatechol and (-)-epigallo- catechol gallate have been isolated from aerial parts.... portulaca tuberosaIntrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD) This, in e?ect, is a form of post-coital contraception. The IUCD is a plastic shape up to 3 cm long around which copper wire is wound, carrying plastic thread from its tail. Colloquially known as a coil, it acts by inhibiting implantation and may also impair migration of sperm. Devices need changing every 3–5 years. Coils have generally replaced the larger, non-copper-bearing ‘inert’ types of IUCD, which caused more complications but did not need changing (so are sometimes still found in situ). They tend to be chosen as a method of contraception (6 per cent) by older, parous women in stable relationships, with a generally low problem rate.
Nevertheless, certain problems do occur with IUCDs, the following being the most common:
They tend to be expelled by the uterus in women who have never conceived, or by a uterus distorted by, say, ?broids.
ECTOPIC PREGNANCY is more likely.
They are associated with pelvic infection and INFERTILITY, following SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS) – or possibly introduced during insertion.
They often produce heavy, painful periods (see MENSTRUATION), and women at high risk of these problems (e.g. women who are HIV positive [see AIDS/HIV], or with WILSON’S DISEASE or cardiac lesions) should generally be excluded – unless the IUCD is inserted under antibiotic cover.... post-coital contraception
Posey, Posi, Posie, Posee, Pozy, Pozey, Pozi, Pozie, Pozee, Posea, Pozea... posy
Habitat: Western Himalayas at altitudes of 2,100-4,800 m.
English: Silverweed.Action: Astringent, antiinflammatory, antispasmodic, haemostatic. Used for diarrhoea,... potentilla anserina
Habitat: Temperate Himalaya from Himachal Pradesh to Sikkim and the hills of Assam at 1,200-4,350 m.
Ayurvedic: Bajradanti (Kumaon and Garhwal). Potentilla fulgens HK. is also equated with Bajradanti.Action: Rootstock—antidiar- rhoeal; used in tooth powders for strengthening gum and teeth.... potentilla arbuscula
Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon.
Folk: Ratanjot (substitute).Action: Rootstocks—depurative; ash, mixed with oil, is applied to burns.
Unani: Baadiyaan-kohi, Karafs-e- kohi, Fitraasaaliyun (also equated with Petroselinum crispum Mill. Nym. ex auct. Kew.).Folk: Komal.Action: Root and fruit—diuretic, emmenagogue. An infusion of root is given for indigestion and irregular menses.
The roots and umbels yielded cou- marins and their glycosides. Osthol (7-methoxy-8-isop entenyl-coumarin), which occurs in the dried roots up to the extent of 3.6%, has been found to be a potent respiratory and circulatory stimulant in experimental animals. Its respirotonic effect was more marked than that of coramine, leptazol and caffeine.... potentilla nepalensisHabitat: Cultivated as an ornamental. Found in Bihar, North Bengal, Orissa, Western Ghats and Southwards.
Siddha/Tamil: Aanaparuga.Action: Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antimicrobial. Applied to smallpox pustules. Root—bruised and fried in oil, applied to abscesses.... pothos scandens
Habitat: Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh at altitudes of 1,8004,000 m.... prangos pabularia
Pregnancy lasts about 280 days and is calculated from the ?rst day of the last menstrual period – see MENSTRUATION. Pregnancy-testing kits rely on the presence of the hormone beta HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIN (b HCG) which is excreted in the woman’s urine as early as 30 days from the last menstrual period. The estimated date of delivery can be accurately estimated from the size of the developing fetus measured by ULTRASOUND (see also below) between seven and 24 weeks. ‘Term’ refers to the time that the baby is due; this can range from 38 weeks to 41 completed weeks.
Physical changes occur in early pregnancy – periods stop and the abdomen enlarges. The breasts swell, with the veins becoming prominent and the nipples darkening. About two in three women will have nausea with a few experiencing such severe vomiting as to require hospital admission for rehydration.
Antenatal care The aim of antenatal care is to ensure a safe outcome for both mother and child; it is provided by midwives (see MIDWIFE) and doctors. Formal antenatal care began in Edinburgh in the 1930s with the recognition that all aspects of pregnancy – normal and abnormal – warranted surveillance. Cooperation between general practitioners, midwives and obstetricians is now established, with pregnancies that are likely to progress normally being cared for in the community and only those needing special intervention being cared for in a hospital setting.
The initial visit (or booking) in the ?rst half of pregnancy will record the history of past events and the results of tests, with the aim of categorising the patients into normal or not. Screening tests including blood checks and ultrasound scans are a routine part of antenatal care. The ?rst ultrasound scan is done at about 11 weeks to date the pregnancy, with a further one done at 20 weeks – the anomaly scan – to assess the baby’s structure. Some obstetric units will check the growth of the baby with one further scan later in the pregnancy or, in the case of twin pregnancies (see below), many scans throughout. The routine blood tests include checks for ANAEMIA, DIABETES MELLITUS, sickle-cell disease and THALASSAEMIA, as well as for the blood group. Evidence of past infections is also looked for; tests for RUBELLA (German measles) and SYPHILIS are routine, whereas tests for human immunode?ciency virus (see AIDS/ HIV below) and HEPATITIS are being o?ered as optional, although there is compelling evidence that knowledge of the mother’s infection status is bene?cial to the baby.
Traditional antenatal care consists of regular appointments, initially every four weeks until 34 weeks, then fortnightly or weekly. At each visit the mother’s weight, urine and blood pressure are checked, and assessment of fetal growth and position is done by palpating the uterus. Around two-thirds of pregnancies and labours are normal: in the remainder, doctors and midwives need to increase the frequency of surveillance so as to prevent or deal with maternal and fetal problems.
Common complications of pregnancy
Some of the more common complications of pregnancy are listed below.
As well as early detection of medical complications, antenatal visits aim to be supportive and include emotional and educational care. Women with uncomplicated pregnancies are increasingly being managed by midwives and general practitioners in the community and only coming to the hospital doctors should they develop a problem. A small number will opt for a home delivery, but facilities for providing such a service are not always available in the UK.
Women requiring more intensive surveillance have their management targeted to the speci?c problems encountered. Cardiologists will see mothers-to-be with heart conditions, and those at risk of diabetes are cared for in designated clinics with specialist sta?. Those women needing more frequent surveillance than standard antenatal care can be looked after in maternity day centres. These typically include women with mildly raised blood pressure or those with small babies. Fetal medicine units have specialists who are highly skilled in ultrasound scanning and specialise in the diagnosis and management of abnormal babies still in the uterus. ECTOPIC PREGNANCY Chronic abdominal discomfort early in pregnancy may be caused by unruptured ectopic pregnancy, when, rarely, the fertilised OVUM starts developing in the Fallopian tube (see FALLOPIAN TUBES) instead of the uterus. The patient needs hospital treatment and LAPAROSCOPY. A ruptured ectopic pregnancy causes acute abdominal symptoms and collapse, and the woman will require urgent abdominal surgery. URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS These affect around 2 per cent of pregnant women and are detected by a laboratory test of a mid-stream specimen of urine. In pregnancy, symptoms of these infections do not necessarily resemble those experienced by non-pregnant women. As they can cause uterine irritability and possible premature labour (see below), it is important to ?nd and treat them appropriately. ANAEMIA is more prevalent in patients who are vegetarian or on a poor diet. Iron supplements are usually given to women who have low concentrations of HAEMOGLOBIN in their blood (less than 10.5 g/dl) or who are at risk of becoming low in iron, from bleeding, twin pregnancies and those with placenta previa (see below). ANTEPARTUM HAEMORRHAGE Early in pregnancy, vaginal bleedings may be due to a spontaneous or an incomplete therapeutic ABORTION. Bleeding from the genital tract between 24 completed weeks of pregnancy and the start of labour is called antepartum haemorrhage. The most common site is where the PLACENTA is attached to the wall of the uterus. If the placenta separates before delivery, bleeding occurs in the exposed ‘bed’. When the placenta is positioned in the upper part of the uterus it is called an abruption. PLACENTA PRAEVIA is sited in the lower part and blocks or partly blocks the cervix (neck of the womb); it can be identi?ed at about the 34th week. Ten per cent of episodes of antepartum bleeding are caused by placenta previa, and it may be associated with bleeding at delivery. This potentially serious complication is diagnosed by ultrasound scanning and may require a caesarean section (see below) at delivery. INCREASED BLOOD PRESSURE, associated with protein in the urine and swelling of the limbs, is part of a condition known as PRE-ECLAMPSIA. This occurs in the second half of pregnancy in about 1 in 10 women expecting their ?rst baby, and is mostly very mild and of no consequence to the pregnancy. However, some women can develop extremely high blood pressures which can adversely affect the fetus and cause epileptic-type seizures and bleeding disorders in the mother. This serious condition is called ECLAMPSIA. For this reason a pregnant woman with raised blood pressure or PROTEIN in her urine is carefully evaluated with blood tests, often in the maternity day assessment unit. The condition can be stopped by delivery of the baby, and this will be done if the mother’s or the fetus’s life is in danger. If the condition is milder, and the baby not mature enough for a safe delivery, then drugs can be used to control the blood pressure. MISCARRIAGE Also called spontaneous abortion, miscarriage is the loss of the fetus. There are several types:
threatened miscarriage is one in which some vaginal bleeding occurs, the uterus is enlarged, but the cervix remains closed and pregnancy usually proceeds.
inevitable miscarriage usually occurs before the 16th week and is typi?ed by extensive blood loss through an opened cervix and cramp-like abdominal pain; some products of conception are lost but the developing placental area (decidua) is retained and an operation may be necessary to clear the womb.
missed miscarriages, in which the embryo dies and is absorbed, but the decidua (placental area of uterine wall) remains and may cause abdominal discomfort and discharge of old blood.
THERAPEUTIC ABORTION is performed on more than 170,000 women annually in England and Wales. Sometimes the woman may not have arranged the procedure through the usual health-care channels, so that a doctor may see a patient with vaginal bleeding, abdominal discomfort or pain, and open cervix – symptoms which suggest that the decidua and a blood clot have been retained; these retained products will need to be removed by curettage.
Septic abortions are now much less common in Britain than before the Abortion Act (1967) permitted abortion in speci?ed circumstances. The cause is the passage of infective organisms from the vagina into the uterus, with Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis the most common pathogenic agents. The woman has abdominal pain, heavy bleeding, usually fever and sometimes she is in shock. The cause is usually an incomplete abortion or one induced in unsterile circumstances. Antibiotics and curettage are the treatment. INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION describes a slowing of the baby’s growth. This can be diagnosed by ultrasound scanning, although there is a considerable margin of error in estimates of fetal weight. Trends in growth are favoured over one-o? scan results alone. GESTATIONAL DIABETES is a condition that is more common in women who are overweight or have a family member with diabetes. If high concentrations of blood sugar are found, e?orts are made to correct it as the babies can become very fat (macrosomia), making delivery more di?cult. A low-sugar diet is usually enough to control the blood concentration of sugars; however some women need small doses of INSULIN to achieve control. FETAL ABNORMALITIES can be detected before birth using ultrasound. Some of these defects are obvious, such as the absence of kidneys, a condition incompatible with life outside the womb. These women can be o?ered a termination of their pregnancy. However, more commonly, the pattern of problems can only hint at an abnormality and closer examination is needed, particularly in the diagnosis of chromosomal deformities such as DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME (trisomy 21 or presence of three 21 chromosomes instead of two).
Chromosomal abnormalities can be de?nitively diagnosed only by cell sampling such as amniocentesis (obtaining amniotic ?uid – see AMNION – from around the baby) done at 15 weeks onwards, and chorionic villus sampling (sampling a small part of the placenta) – another technique which can be done from 12 weeks onwards. Both have a small risk of miscarriage associated with them; consequently, they are con?ned to women at higher risk of having an abnormal fetus.
Biochemical markers present in the pregnant woman’s blood at di?erent stages of pregnancy may have undergone changes in those carrying an abnormal fetus. The ?rst such marker to be routinely used was a high concentration of alpha-fetol protein in babies with SPINA BIFIDA (defects in the covering of the spinal cord). Fuller research has identi?ed a range of diagnostic markers which are useful, and, in conjunction with other factors such as age, ethnic group and ultrasound ?ndings, can provide a predictive guide to the obstetrician – in consultation with the woman – as to whether or not to proceed to an invasive test. These tests include pregnancy-associated plasma protein assessed from a blood sample taken at 12 weeks and four blood tests at 15–22 weeks – alphafetol protein, beta human chorionic gonadotrophin, unconjugated oestriol and inhibin A. Ultrasound itself can reveal physical ?ndings in the fetus, which can be more common in certain abnormalities. Swelling in the neck region of an embryo in early pregnancy (increased nuchal thickness) has good predictive value on its own, although its accuracy is improved in combination with the biochemical markers. The e?ectiveness of prenatal diagnosis is rapidly evolving, the aim being to make the diagnosis as early in the pregnancy as possible to help the parents make more informed choices. MULTIPLE PREGNANCIES In the UK, one in 95 deliveries is of twins, while the prevalence of triplets is one in 10,000 and quadruplets around one in 500,000. Racial variations occur, with African women having a prevalence rate of one in 30 deliveries for twins and Japanese women a much lower rate than the UK ?gure. Multiple pregnancies occur more often in older women, and in the UK the prevalence of fertility treatments, many of these being given to older women, has raised the incidence. There is now an o?cial limit of three eggs being transferred to a woman undergoing ASSISTED CONCEPTION (gamete intrafallopian transfer, or GIFT).
Multiple pregnancies are now usually diagnosed as a result of routine ultrasound scans between 16 and 20 weeks of pregnancy. The increased size of the uterus results in the mother having more or worse pregnancy-related conditions such as nausea, abdominal discomfort, backache and varicose veins. Some congenital abnormalities in the fetus occur more frequently in twins: NEURAL TUBE defects, abnormalities of the heart and the incidence of TURNER’S SYNDROME and KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME are examples. Such abnormalities may be detected by ultrasound scans or amniocentesis. High maternal blood pressure and anaemia are commoner in women with multiple pregnancies (see above).
The growth rates of multiple fetuses vary, but the di?erence between them and single fetuses are not that great until the later stages of pregnancy. Preterm labour is commoner in multiple pregnancies: the median length of pregnancy is 40 weeks for singletons, 37 for twins and 33 for triplets. Low birth-weights are usually the result of early delivery rather than abnormalities in growth rates. Women with multiple pregnancies require more frequent and vigilant antenatal assessments, with their carers being alert to the signs of preterm labour occurring. CEPHALOPELVIC DISPROPORTION Disparity between the size of the fetus and the mother’s pelvis is not common in the UK but is a signi?cant problem in the developing world. Disparity is classi?ed as absolute, when there is no possibility of delivery, and relative, when the baby is large but delivery (usually after a dif?cult labour) is possible. Causes of absolute disparity include: a large baby – heavier than 5 kg at birth; fetal HYDROCEPHALUS; and an abnormal maternal pelvis. The latter may be congenital, the result of trauma or a contraction in pelvic size because of OSTEOMALACIA early in life. Disproportion should be suspected if in late pregnancy the fetal head has not ‘engaged’ in the pelvis. Sometimes a closely supervised ‘trial of labour’ may result in a successful, if prolonged, delivery. Otherwise a caesarean section (see below) is necessary. UNUSUAL POSITIONS AND PRESENTATIONS OF THE BABY In most pregnant women the baby ?ts into the maternal pelvis head-?rst in what is called the occipito-anterior position, with the baby’s face pointing towards the back of the pelvis. Sometimes, however, the head may face the other way, or enter the pelvis transversely – or, rarely, the baby’s neck is ?exed backwards with the brow or face presenting to the neck of the womb. Some malpositions will correct naturally; others can be manipulated abdominally during pregnancy to a better position. If, however, the mother starts labour with the baby’s head badly positioned or with the buttocks instead of the head presenting (breech position), the labour will usually be longer and more di?cult and may require intervention using special obstetric forceps to assist in extracting the baby. If progress is poor and the fetus distressed, caesarean section may be necessary. HIV INFECTION Pregnant women who are HIV positive (see HIV; AIDS/HIV) should be taking antiviral drugs in the ?nal four to ?ve months of pregnancy, so as to reduce the risk of infecting the baby in utero and during birth by around 50 per cent. Additional antiviral treatment is given before delivery; the infection risk to the baby can be further reduced – by about 40 per cent – if delivery is by caesarean section. The mother may prefer to have the baby normally, in which case great care should be taken not to damage the baby’s skin during delivery. The infection risk to the baby is even further reduced if it is not breast fed. If all preventive precautions are taken, the overall risk of the infant becoming infected is cut to under 5 per cent.
Premature birth This is a birth that takes place before the end of the normal period of gestation, usually before 37 weeks. In practice, however, it is de?ned as a birth that takes place when the baby weighs less than 2·5 kilograms (5••• pounds). Between 5 and 10 per cent of babies are born prematurely, and in around 40 per cent of premature births the cause is unknown. Pre-eclampsia is the most common known cause; others include hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart disease and diabetes mellitus. Multiple pregnancy is another cause. In the vast majority of cases the aim of management is to prolong the pregnancy and so improve the outlook for the unborn child. This consists essentially of rest in bed and sedation, but there are now several drugs, such as RITODRINE, that may be used to suppress the activity of the uterus and so help to delay premature labour. Prematurity was once a prime cause of infant mortality but modern medical care has greatly improved survival rates in developing countries.
Labour Also known by the traditional terms parturition, childbirth or delivery, this is the process by which the baby and subsequently the placenta are expelled from the mother’s body. The onset of labour is often preceded by a ‘show’ – the loss of the mucus and blood plug from the cervix, or neck of the womb; this passes down the vagina to the exterior. The time before the beginning of labour is called the ‘latent phase’ and characteristically lasts 24 hours or more in a ?rst pregnancy. Labour itself is de?ned by regular, painful contractions which cause dilation of the neck of the womb and descent of the fetal head. ‘Breaking of the waters’ is the loss of amniotic ?uid vaginally and can occur any time in the delivery process.
Labour itself is divided into three stages: the ?rst is from the onset of labour to full (10 cm) dilation of the neck of the womb. This stage varies in length, ideally taking no more than one hour per centimetre of dilation. Progress is monitored by regular vaginal examinations, usually every four hours. Fetal well-being is observed by intermittent or continuous monitoring of the fetal heart rate in relation to the timing and frequency of the contractions. The print-out is called a cardiotocograph. Abnormalities of the fetal heart rate may suggest fetal distress and may warrant intervention. In women having their ?rst baby (primigravidae), the common cause of a slow labour is uncoordinated contractions which can be overcome by giving either of the drugs PROSTAGLANDIN or OXYTOCIN, which provoke contractions of the uterine muscle, by an intravenous drip. Labours which progress slowly or not at all may be due to abnormal positioning of the fetus or too large a fetus, when prostaglandin or oxytocin is used much more cautiously.
The second stage of labour is from full cervical dilation to the delivery of the baby. At this stage the mother often experiences an irresistible urge to push the baby out, and a combination of strong coordinated uterine contractions and maternal e?ort gradually moves the baby down the birth canal. This stage usually lasts under an hour but can take longer. Delay, exhaustion of the mother or distress of the fetus may necessitate intervention by the midwife or doctor. This may mean enlarging the vaginal opening with an EPISIOTOMY (cutting of the perineal outlet – see below) or assisting the delivery with specially designed obstetric forceps or a vacuum extractor (ventouse). If the cervix is not completely dilated or open and the head not descended, then an emergency caesarean section may need to be done to deliver the baby. This procedure involves delivering the baby and placenta through an incision in the mother’s abdomen. It is sometimes necessary to deliver by planned or elective caesarean section: for example, if the placenta is low in the uterus – called placenta praevia – making a vaginal delivery dangerous.
The third stage occurs when the placenta (or afterbirth) is delivered, which is usually about 10–20 minutes after the baby. An injection of ergometrine and oxytocin is often given to women to prevent bleeding.
Pain relief in labour varies according to the mother’s needs. For uncomplicated labours, massage, reassurance by a birth attendant, and a warm bath and mobilisation may be enough for some women. However, some labours are painful, particularly if the woman is tired or anxious or is having her ?rst baby. In these cases other forms of analgesia are available, ranging from inhalation of NITROUS OXIDE GAS, injection of PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE or similar narcotic, and regional local anaesthetic (see ANAESTHESIA).
Once a woman has delivered, care continues to ensure her and the baby’s safety. The midwives are involved in checking that the uterus returns to its normal size and that there is no infection or heavy bleeding, as well as caring for stitches if needed. The normal blood loss after birth is called lochia and generally is light, lasting up to six weeks. Midwives o?er support with breast feeding and care of the infant and will visit the parents at home routinely for up to two weeks.
Some complications of labour All operative deliveries in the UK are now done in hospitals, and are performed if a spontaneous birth is expected to pose a bigger risk to the mother or her child than a specialist-assisted one. Operative deliveries include caesarean section, forceps-assisted deliveries and those in which vacuum extraction (ventouse) is used. CAESAREAN SECTION Absolute indications for this procedure, which is used to deliver over 15 per cent of babies in Britain, are cephalopelvic disproportion and extensive placenta praevia, both discussed above. Otherwise the decision to undertake caesarean section depends on the clinical judgement of the specialist and the views of the mother. The rise in the proportion of this type of intervention (from 5 per cent in the 1930s to its present level of over 23 per cent
P
of the 600,000 or so annual deliveries in England) has been put down to defensive medicine
– namely, the doctor’s fear of litigation (initiated often because the parents believe that the baby’s health has suffered because the mother had an avoidably di?cult ‘natural’ labour). In Britain, over 60 per cent of women who have had a caesarean section try a vaginal delivery in a succeeding pregnancy, with about two-thirds of these being successful. Indications for the operation include:
absolute and relative cephalopelvic disproportion.
placenta previa.
fetal distress.
prolapsed umbilical cord – this endangers the viability of the fetus because the vital supply of oxygen and nutrients is interrupted.
malpresentation of the fetus such as breech or transverse lie in the womb.
unsatisfactory previous pregnancies or deliveries.
a request from the mother.
Caesarean sections are usually performed using regional block anaesthesia induced by a spinal or epidural injection. This results in loss of feeling in the lower part of the body; the mother is conscious and the baby not exposed to potential risks from volatile anaesthetic gases inhaled by the mother during general anaesthesia. Post-operative complications are higher with general anaesthesia, but maternal anxiety and the likelihood that the operation might be complicated and di?cult are indications for using it. A general anaesthetic may also be required for an acute obstetric emergency. At operation the mother’s lower abdomen is opened and then her uterus opened slowly with a transverse incision and the baby carefully extracted. A transverse incision is used in preference to the traditional vertical one as it enables the woman to have a vaginal delivery in any future pregnancy with a much smaller risk of uterine rupture. Women are usually allowed to get up within 24 hours and are discharged after four or ?ve days. FORCEPS AND VENTOUSE DELIVERIES Obstetric forceps are made in several forms, but all are basically a pair of curved blades shaped so that they can obtain a purchase on the baby’s head, thus enabling the operator to apply traction and (usually) speed up delivery. (Sometimes they are used to slow down progress of the head.) A ventouse or vacuum extractor comprises an egg-cup-shaped metal or plastic head, ranging from 40 to 60 mm in diameter with a hollow tube attached through which air is extracted by a foot-operated vacuum pump. The instrument is placed on the descending head, creating a negative pressure on the skin of the scalp and enabling the operator to pull the head down. In mainland Europe, vacuum extraction is generally preferred to forceps for assisting natural deliveries, being used in around 5 per cent of all deliveries. Forceps have a greater risk of causing damage to the baby’s scalp and brain than vacuum extraction, although properly used, both types should not cause any serious damage to the baby.
Episiotomy Normal and assisted deliveries put the tissues of the genital tract under strain. The PERINEUM is less elastic than the vagina and, if it seems to be splitting as the baby’s head
moves down the birth canal, it may be necessary to cut the perineal tissue – a procedure called an episiotomy – to limit damage. This is a simple operation done under local anaesthetic. It should be done only if there is a speci?c indication; these include:
to hasten the second stage of labour if the fetus is distressed.
to facilitate the use of forceps or vacuum extractor.
to enlarge a perineum that is restricted because of unyielding tissue, perhaps because of a scar from a previous labour. Midwives as well as obstetricians are trained
to undertake and repair (with sutures) episiotomies.
(For organisations which o?er advice and information on various aspects of childbirth, including eclampsia, breast feeding and multiple births, see APPENDIX 2: ADDRESSES: SOURCES OF INFORMATION, ADVICE, SUPPORT AND SELF-HELP.)... pregnancy and labour
Habitat: The sub-tropical Himalayas and in Assam, extending southwards through West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa into Deccan Peninsula. Roots are usually confused with those of Clerodendrum serratum and are sold as Bhaarangi.
Siddha/Tamil: Siru Thekku.Folk: Gethiaa, Ghantu Bhaarangi. Baaman-haati (Bengal). Fruits are known as Bhuumi-jambu, Phin Jaamun. The root is known as Bhaarangamuula; in Andhra Pradesh, Gandu Bhaarangi.Action: Root and leaves—given in asthma, rheumatism.
The root contains several diterpe- noids. Quinonemethide (bharangin) is reported from the plant. controlling the activity of the adreno- corticotropic hormone.Dosage: Leaf, root bark—50- 100 ml decoction, powder—1-3 g. (CCRAS.)... premna herbaceaHabitat: Indian and Andaman Coasts, plains of Assam and Khasi hills.
English: Headache tree.Ayurvedic: Agnimantha (Kerala), Shriparni, Jayee, Ganikaarikaa, Vaataghni.Siddha/Tamil: MunnaiFolk: Agethaa, Ganiyaari.Action: Carminative, galactagogue. The tender plant is used for neuralgia and rheumatism. A decoction of leaves is used for flatulence and colic.
Aqueous extracts of the plant showed a powerful action on the uterus and gout of the experimental animals, causing a marked increase in their activity.The leaves contain an isoxazole alkaloid premnazole, which was found to reduce granuloma formation in rats (34.62%), its activity was comparable to phenylbutazone (35-36%).Premnazole also reduced GPT and GOT in serum and liver. Studies suggest that premnazole acts probably byFamily: Verbenaceae.Habitat: Peninsular India, Bihar, West Bengal and North-eastern India.
English: Dusky Fire Brand Bark.Ayurvedic: Agnimantha (var.).Siddha/Tamil: Pachumullai, Erumai munnai.Folk: Agethu (var.).Action: Leaves—diuretic, spasmolytic. Stem bark—hypoglycaemic.
The leaves gave a furanoid, prem- nalatin, and flavone glycosides. The stem bark gave iridoid glucosides and geniposidic acid.Premna latifolia var. mucronata C. B. Clarke and Premna barbata Wall. are known as Bakaar and Basota (in Garh- wal). These have been equated with the classical herb Vasuhatta.... premna integrifoliaPresenciah, Presencea, Presenceah, Presenciya, Presenciyah... presencia
Habitat: Peninsular India and Bihar up to 1,200 m.
English: Bastard Teak.Ayurvedic: Agnimanth (var.).Siddha/Tamil: Kolakottathekku pinari, Pondanganari.Folk: Gineri (var.).Action: Bark and essential oil of root—used in stomach disorders. Leaf—diuretic, vulnerary; prescribed as a tonic after child birth; used in dropsical affections. Pounded leaves—vulnerary.
The heartwood gave apigenin derivatives. The leaves gave essential oil containing d-and dl-limonene, beta- caryophyllene a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, a diterpene hydrocarbon and a sesquiterpene tertiary alcohol.The roots and rhizomes of P. veris and P. elatior contain a saponin, yielding a sapogenin, primulagenin A. A fla- vonol glycoside named primulaflavo- noloside has been reported in the flowers of P. veris. The root of P. veris are considered as a substitute for Senega (Polygala senega) roots.Anthocyanidins have been detected in most of the Primula species, also a highly toxic allergenic substance, primin, in the leaves and glandular hairs. The floral and foliar parts of the different genotypes showed presence of kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin.... premna tomentosaULTRASOUND scanning is probably the most widely used diagnostic tool in obstetric practice. It can detect structural abnormalities such as SPINA BIFIDA and CLEFT PALATE and even cardiac and renal problems. A series of scans can assess whether the baby is growing at a normal rate; ultrasound may also be used to assist with other diagnostic tests (e.g. AMNIOCENTESIS – see below).
Tests on the mother’s blood can also diagnose fetal abnormalities. Alphafetoprotein (AFP) is produced by babies and ‘leaks’ into the AMNIOTIC FLUID and is absorbed by the mother. In spina bi?da and other neural-tube defects there is increased leakage of AFP, and a blood test at 16 weeks’ gestation can detect a raised level which suggests the presence of these abnormalities.
The triple test, also performed at 16 weeks, measures AFP and two hormones – HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIN and unconjugated OESTRADIOL – and is used in diagnosing DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME.
Amniocentesis involves inserting a needle through the mother’s abdominal wall into the uterus to remove a sample of amniotic ?uid at 16–18 weeks. Examination of the ?uid and the cells it contains is used in the diagnosis of Down’s syndrome and other inherited disorders. The test carries a small risk of miscarriage.
Chorionic villus sampling may be used to diagnose various inherited conditions. A small amount of tissue from the developing PLACENTA is removed for analysis: this test has the advantages of having a lower incidence of miscarriage than amniocentesis and is carried out at an earlier stage (9–13 weeks).
Analysis of a blood sample removed from the umbilical cord (cordocentesis) may diagnose infections in the uterus, blood disorders or inherited conditions.
Direct observation of the fetus via a viewing instrument called a fetoscope is also used diagnostically and will detect structural abnormalities.
Most tests have a recognised incidence of false positive and negative results and are therefore usually cross-checked with another test. Counselling of the parents about prenatal tests is important. This allows them to make an informed choice which may not necessarily involve terminating the pregnancy if an abnormality is found. (See PREGNANCY AND LABOUR.)... prenatal screening or diagnosis
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan and in Khasi and Jaintia hills at 1,500 m.
Folk: Keechey (Tibet).Action: Root—powder used for killing leeches. Flowers—eaten in salad.
The whole plant contains several tri- terpenoid saponins.Primula veris Linn., synonym P officinalis Hill and P. elatior Hill are grown in Indian gardens.Key application: Primula veris, P. elatior Hill—the flower and the root in catarrhs of the respiratory tract. (German Commission E, ESCOP.) Contraindicated in gastritis and gastric ulcer. (ESCOP.)Synonym: P. acaulis Hill.Family: Primulaceae.Habitat: Sub-Himalayan region.
English: Primrose (Evening Primrose is equated with Oenothera biennis), Cowslip.Unani: Nakhud. (Also equated with Cicer arietinum by National Formulary of Unani Medicine.)Action: Plant—anti-inflammatory, vulnerary, vermifuge, emetic. Used only externally.
The plant gave phenolic glycosides, flavonoids, saponins.... primula vulgarisPrincessa, Princesa, Princie, Princi, Princy, Princee, Princey, Princea, Prinsess, Prinscella, Prinscelle, Princella, Princelle, Prinscilla... princess
Certain specialties – for example, orthopaedic and reconstructive/cosmetic surgery and mental health – attract more private patients than others, such as paediatrics or medicine for the elderly. The standards of clinical care are generally the same in the two systems, but private patients can see the specialist of their choice at a time convenient to them. Waiting times for consultations and treatment are short and, when in hospital, private patients usually have their own room, telephone, TV, open visiting hours, etc.
A substantial proportion of private medical-care services are those provided for elderly people requiring regular nursing care and some medical supervision. The distinction between residential care and nursing care for the elderly is often blurred, but the government policy of providing means-tested state funding only for people genuinely needing regular nursing care – a system operated by local-authority social-service departments in England and Wales – has necessitated clearer de?nitions of the facilities provided for the elderly by private organisations. The strict criteria for state support (especially in England), the budget-conscious approach of local authorities when negotiating fees with private nursing homes, and the fact that NHS hospital trusts also have to pay for some patients discharged to such homes (to free-up hospital beds for new admissions) have led to intense ?nancial pressures on private facilities for the elderly. This has caused the closure of many homes, which, in turn, is worsening the level of BED-BLOCKING by elderly patients who do not require hospital-intensity nursing but who lack family support in the community and cannot a?ord private care.... private health care
Habitat: Argentine, Arid, Mexican, Peruvian and Australian species have been introduced into India.
English: Mesquite.Folk: Khejaraa, Vilaayati Kikar, Kaabuli Kikar.Action: Gum—inferior to Gum arabic. The dry wood contains 0.9, bark 3.0-8.4, and roots 6-7% tannin.
The leaves contain piperidine alkaloids, juliprosinene, juliflorinine and N-methyljuliforidine. Other alkaloids present in the leaves are juliprosine, isojuliprosine, juliflorine, julifloricine and julifloridine.A mixture of alkaloids containing mainly juliprosine and isojuliprosine showed significant antifungal activity against dermatophytes (comparable to griseofulvin).The alkaloid fraction also showed broad spectrum bactericidal action against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria (comparable to antibiotics like penicillin, streptomycin, ampicillin, sulphamethoxazole and te- tracycline).Significant activity of juliflorine against fungi and bacteria, and that of julifloricine against bacteria has also been reported.The fruit gave a flavone glycoside, patulitrin which exhibited cytotoxic activity.... prosopis chilensisHabitat: Parts of Punjab and Gujarat.
Ayurvedic: Samudra-shami, Shami (var.).Folk: Khejaraa (var.)Action: Pods and roots—astringent, styptic, antidysenteric.... prosopis stephaniana
Habitat: Dry and acrid regions of India.
Ayurvedic: Shami, Tungaa, Keshahantri, Shankuphalaa.Siddha/Tamil: Kalisam.Action: Pod—astringent, pectoral, demulcent. Bark—anti- inflammatory, antirheumatic. Flower—administered to prevent miscarriage.
The stem bark contains vitamin K, n-octacosyl acetate, the long chain aliphatic acid. Presence of glucose, rhamnose, sucrose and starch is also reported.A cytotoxic principle, patulibin, has been isolated from flowers.Dosage: Leaf, fruit—3-5 g powder, 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... prosopis spicigeraProstaglandins play an important part in the production of PAIN, and it is now known that ASPIRIN relieves pain by virtue of the fact that it prevents, or antagonises, the formation of certain prostaglandins. In addition, they play some, although as yet incompletely de?ned, part in producing in?ammatory changes. (See INFLAMMATION; NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS).)
Thus prostaglandins have potent biological effects, but their instability and rapid metabolism make them short-acting. They are produced but not stored by most living cells and act locally. The two most important prostaglandins are prostacycline and thromboxane: prostacycline is a vasodilator and an inhibitor of platelet aggregation; thromboxanes have the opposite effects and cause vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation. The NSAIDs act by blocking an ENZYME called cyclo-oxygenase which converts arachidonic acid to the precursors of the various prostaglandins. Despite their potent pharmacological properties, the role of prostaglandins in current therapeutics is limited and controversial. They have been used most successfully as an inhibitor of platelet aggregation in extra-corporeal haemoperfusion systems. The problems with the prostacyclines is that they have to be given intravenously as they are inactive by mouth, and continuous infusion is required because the drug is rapidly eliminated with a half-life of minutes. Side-effects tend to be severe because the drug is usually given at the highest dose the patient can tolerate. The hope for the future lies in the exploitation of the compound to generate, synthetically, stable orally active prostacycline analogues which will inhibit platelet aggregation and hence thrombotic events, and yet have minimal effects on the heart and blood vessels.... prostaglandins
Prostatitis This can be either acute or chronic. Acute prostatitis is caused by a bacterial infection, while chronic prostatitis may follow on from an acute attack, arise insidiously, or be non-bacterial in origin.
Symptoms Typically the patient has pain in the PERINEUM, groins, or supra pubic region, and pain on EJACULATION. He may also have urinary frequency, and urgency.
Treatment Acute and chronic prostatitis are treated with a prolonged course of antibiotics. Patients with chronic prostatitis may also require anti-in?ammatory drugs, and antidepressants.
Prostatic enlargement This is the result of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), causing enlargement of the prostate. The exact cause of this enlargement is unknown, but it affects 50 per cent of men between 40 and 59 years and 95 per cent of men over 70 years.
Symptoms These are urinary hesitancy, poor urinary stream, terminal dribbling, frequency and urgency of urination and the need to pass urine at night (nocturia). The diagnosis is made from the patient’s history; a digital examination of the prostate gland via the rectum to assess enlargement; and analysis of the urinary ?ow rate.
Treatment This can be with tablets, which either shrink the prostate – an anti-androgen drug such as ?nasteride – or relax the urinary sphincter muscle during urination. For more severe symptoms the prostate can be removed surgically, by transurethral resection of prostate (TURP), using either electrocautery or laser energy. A new treatment is the use of microwaves to heat up and shrink the enlarged gland.
Cancer Cancer of the prostate is the fourth most common cause of death from cancer in northern European males: more than 10,000 cases are diagnosed every year in the UK and the incidence is rising by 3 per cent annually.
Little is known about the cause, but the majority of prostate cancers require the male hormones, androgens, to grow.
Symptoms These are similar to those resulting from benign prostatic hypertrophy (see above). Spread of the cancer to bones can cause pain. The use of a blood test measuring the amount of an ANTIGEN, PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN (PSA), can be helpful in making the diagnosis – as can an ULTRASOUND scan of the prostate.
Treatment This could be surgical, with removal of the prostate (either via an abdominal incision, total prostatectomy, or transurethrally), or could be by radiotherapy. In more advanced cancers, treatment with anti-androgen drugs, such as cyprotexone acetate or certain oestrogens, is used to inhibit the growth of the cancer.... prostate gland, diseases of
Habitat: Cultivated in Kashmir at elevation of 760-2,400 m, also in Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
English: Almond.Ayurvedic: Vaataama, Vaataada.Unani: Baadaam Shireen, Loz.Siddha/Tamil: Vaadumai.Action: Kernels—nutritious, demulcent and stimulant nervine tonic; valuable in diets for peptic ulcer. Unripe fruits— astringent, applied to gums. Oil—nutritive, demulcent, slightly laxative.
Almond flour made from the residue left after expressing almond oil, and almond butter, is used for the preparation of starch-free diabetic food.The chief protein of almond is a globulin, amandin, an albumin is also reported. Amandin has a high arginine content (11.9%). The primary chemical difference between the sweet and bitter kernel lies in the high content (2.5-3.5%) of amygdalin in bitter kernel; the ripe sweet almond being free of this cyanogenetic glucoside. Owing to the presence of amygdalin, which on enzymatic hydrolysis yields hydrocyanic acid, the bitter almond is not fit for human consumption.The oil yield from bitter kernels is usually 38 to 45% and from sweet almond 44 to 55%. The bitter almond oil containing hydrocyanic acid finds limited use in medicine as an antispas- modic and sedative. Dissolved in 50 times water, it is applied externally in prurigo senilis. Hydrocyanic acid-free oil is used for flavouring purposes.Partial replacement of saturated fatty acids with almonds lowers total plasma cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.... prunus amygdalusHabitat: North-western Himalayas, particularly in the valleys of Kashmir, Chenab and Kullu, and in Simla hills at altitudes of 3,000 m.
English: Apricot.Ayurvedic: Peetaalu, Aaluka, Urumaana.Unani: Khuubaani, Mashmash.Action: Powdered kernels— antitussive, antiasthmatic.
The dried apricot contains, 3,4- dihydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic and vanillic acids, quercetin, quercitrin, rutin, hyperoside and kaempferol. Apricot leaves contain quercetin, cy- nadin, kaempferol, caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid.... prunus armeniacaHabitat: Native to Eurasia; cultivated in Kashmir, Kumaon and Himachal Pradesh.
English: Sweet Cherry.Ayurvedic: Elavaaluka, Elaya, Harivaaluka.Folk: Gilaas, Krusbal.Action: Fruit stalks—diuretic, antiinflammatory, astringent, used for oedema, inflammation of urinary tract, cystitis, nephritis, urinary retention.
The stems contain salicylic acid, organic acids tannins and potassium salts. Protocatechuic, p-coumaric, fer- ulic and diferculic acids have been identified in the shoots.The fruit contains salicylates and cyanogenic glycosides, and vitamin A, B1 and C. Sugars consist mainly of glucose and fructose, with sucrose as a minor component. Malic acid is the principal acid, small amounts of citric, tartaric and succinic acids are also reported. The lipids of the fruit pulp contain cis-vaccenic acid.The acetone extract of peduncle gave an isoflavone, prunetin, which on hydrolysis yielded an aglycone identified as prunetin and sugar as glucose.The seeds contain a cyanogenic gly- coside and are toxic. The bark contains tannins up to 16%.Dosage: Seed—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... prunus aviumHabitat: The temperate Himalayas from Garhwal to Sikkim, also in Ootacamund.
English: Wild Himalayan Cherry, Bird Cheery.Ayurvedic: Padmaka, Padma- gandhi, Padmaadyaa, Padmaakha, Padmakaashtha.Action: Kernel—antilithic. Stem— refrigerant, antipyretic. Tender branches are crushed and soaked in water and taken internally to avert abortion. Oil—similar to that of bitter almond oil.
The plant contains a flavone glu- coside, puddumin-A. The root bark contains beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, ursolic acid, prunetinoside, glucogen- kwanin and neosakuranin. Seeds contain flavonoid glycosides.The leaves, twigs, bark and kernels contain a cyanogenetic substance.Dosage: Heartwood—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... prunus cerasoides– see GONAD) of only one sex are present in the body but in whom the external GENITALIA may not be obviously male or female. The condition is a result of a hormonal imbalance and can normally be treated by appropriate surgery and hormone drugs. (See also HERMAPHRODITE.)... pseudohermaphrodite
Habitat: Native of Eurasia; cultivated in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon for edible fruits.
English: Sour Cherry.Ayurvedic: Elavaaluka (var.).Folk: Aalu-baalu, Gilaas.Action: Fruit—diuretic, anti- inflammatory. Used for genitourinary inflammations, cystitis and urine retention. Bark—febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal. Fruit stalk—diuretic. Fruit stalk and stem—pectoral. Bark and fruit stalk—astringent. Kernel—nervine. Leaf—an infusion is given for convulsions in children.
Key application: Heartwood—in skin eruptions, erysipelas, obstinate skin diseases, haemorrhagic diseases. As a tonic for promoting conception. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)The leaves, fruits and bark gave flavone glycosides. The bark contains 5-7% tannin. The kernel contains a considerable proportion of hydrocyanic acid. The leaves contain amyg- dalin. (Amygdalin, a nitrile glycoside, has been reported to inhibit the growth of Sarcoma-180 cells in culture.)... prunus cerasusHabitat: Cultivated in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon.
English: Prune.Ayurvedic: Aaruka (Prunus domestica var. insititia). Aaluubukhaaraa.Unani: Aaluuchaa.Siddha/Tamil: Alpagada-pungam.Action: Fruit—refrigerant, laxative, nutritive. Improves haemoglobin levels in iron deficiency. Promotes excretion of excess calcium by the kidneys. An adjuvant for atherosclerosis and arthritis. Root—astringent.
The fruit pulp contains about 44% sugar and malic acid as major constituents. Kernel contains fixed oil about 45% and amygdalin and benzoic acid among others.The crude extract of the fruit was found effective in controlling centrally induced emesis in dogs. The action was comparable to that of Metoclopramide (Maxolon) and chlorpro- mazine (Largactil).... prunus domesticaHabitat: Native to Europe and West Asia, introduced in India and grown as an ornamental.
English: Mahaleb Cherry.Ayurvedic: Gandha-priyangu. (Priyangu is equated with Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.)Unani: Mahlib, Habb-ul-Mihlab.Folk: Ghaulaa (Maharashtra).Action: Kernel—paste applied externally for treating freckles and blemishes. Contains coumarin, salicylic acid, amygdalin and hydrocyanic acid as major constituents; the oil gave alpha-elecsteric acid.... prunus mahaleb
Habitat: Native to China; cultivated in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon.
English: Peach.Ayurvedic: Aaluka, Aaruka, Aru, Pichuka.Action: Fruit—mild tranquillizer, expectorant, diuretic, antipyretic. Bark or leaves—used as tea for morning sickness, dry and hard cough, whooping cough and bronchitis. Leaves—used in leucoderma.
Flowers—galactagogue. Peach seeds are a constituent of a traditional Chinese herbal drug which has been used for the treatment of gynaecological disorders such as hypermen- orrhea, dysmenorrhoea and infertility.Peach fruit extract containing nitrile glycosides, such as prunasin and amyg- dalin, has been reported to inhibit the growth of Sarcoma-180 cells in culture.Fast-acting, wrinkle-eliminating cosmetic formulations contain peach kernel extract as one of the components.The heartwood contains beta-sitos- terol and its D-glucoside, hentriacon- tane, hentriacontanol, and the flavo- noids naringenin, dihydrokaempferol, kaempferol and quercetin.... prunus persicaPseudomonas Aeruginosa
A pathogenic bacterium of the genus pseudomonas – rod-like, motile gram-negative bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN) – that occurs in pus from wounds and is associated with urinary tract infections. The bacteria mostly live in soil and decomposing organic matter and help to recycle nitrogen in nature. Most of the bacteria in this genus are harmless to humans.... pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy
Habitat: Orissa throughout South India and Gujarat.
Ayurvedic: Sanaparni, Shaalaparni (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil: Neermalli.Action: Root—astringent, febrifuge, antirheumatic. A decoction or powder is used for biliousness and diarrhoea. Used as a substitute for Desmodium gangeticum (Shaalaparni) in South India.
Leucopelargonidin has been isolated from the root.... pseudarthria viscidaHabitat: Native to Central America; cultivated chiefly in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
English: GuavaAyurvedic: Peruka (non-classical), Amaruuda.Siddha/Tamil: Koyya.Action: Unripe fruit—antidiar- rhoeal. Leaves—used for dysentery, diabetes, cough and cold. Flowers— anthelmintic.
Guava juice may be helpful in regulating blood sugar in type 2 diabetes and syndrome X. (Sharon M. Herr.)A residue obtained from methanolic fraction of unripe fruits was found to possess significant antidiarrhoeal activity. The fraction decreased gastric motility in an experimental animal model. The fraction was also found to inhibit significantly the growth of different strains of Shigella sp. and Vibrio cholerae.In China and Taiwan, the leaf extract is administered for treating diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes and inflammations. The leaf extract (containing quercetin) inhibits acetylcholine release in the gastro-intestinal tract which might account for us antidiarrhoeal activity. An extract of leaves with a little salt is given in relieve whooping cough.In New Papua Guinea, decoction of new leaf tips is drunk to treat hepatitis.Guava seed oil contains very higher proporation of linoleic acid (75.52%) than sunflower, groundnut, olive, soybean and coconut oil. The seeds from Pakistan yield 9.25% of a fatty oil.Vitamin C content of the ripe fruit ranges from 100 to 1000 mg/100 g. It is highest in the skin and in the flesh next to it.Psidium cattleyanum Sabine is equated with Straberry Guava and is known as Seemai Koyya in Tamil Nadu and Pahari Payaar in Bengal. The fruit contains vitamin C 15-44 mg/100 g.Smaller var. of Guava is equated with Psidium guineense Sw. It is found in Tripura.... psidium guajavaHabitat: Rajasthan., eastern districts of Punjab and adjoining areas of Uttar Pradesh.
Ayurvedic: Somaraaji, Somavalli, Somavallik, Soma, Chaandri, Vaakuchi, Baakuchi, Avalguja. (Somaraaji and Avalguja have also been equated with Centratherum anthelminticum.)Unani: Baabchi, Bakuchi.Siddha/Tamil: Karpoogaarisi.Action: Seed—used in leucoderma, vitiligo, leprosy, psoriasis and inflammatory diseases of the skin, both orally and externally. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)
The seed and roots contain chal- cones, flavones, isoflavones, furano- coumarins and coumesterol group of compounds. These include psoralen, isopsoralen, bavachinin.A mixture of psoralen and isopso- ralen, in a ratio of 1:3, is recommended for topical application in leucoderma. These furanocoumarins initiate transformation of DOPA to melanin under the influence of UV light. Seeds are powdered and administered orally with warm water (5 g/day) in cases of eczema.Psoralen was found to be cytotoxic in vitro. The combination therapy of psoralen and UV irradiation has been shown to inhibit the growth of tumours in vivo.Bavachinin-A, isolated from the fruits, exhibited marked anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and mild analgesic properties similar to those of oxyphenylbutazone and hydrocortisone. It demonstrated better antipyretic activity than paracetamol experimentally.Oral administration of the powdered seeds has generally resulted in side reactions (nausea, vomiting, purging); external application generally proved highly irritant to the skin.Dosage: Seed—1-3 g powder (CCRAS.); 3-6 g powder (API, Vol. I).... psoralea corylifolia(4) Absence of any other form of mental disorder that would explain the unusual behaviour. The corresponding American terminology is ‘antisocial personality disorder’. (See MENTAL ILLNESS.)... psychopathic
However, calling a condition psychosomatic implies something more – the primacy of the psyche over the soma. Going back to the in?uential theories and practice of PSYCHOANALYSIS as expounded from the 1930s, many diseases have been proposed as the result of psychological factors.These have included PEPTIC ULCER, ULCERATIVE COLITIS, ASTHMA, PSORIASIS and others. In this view, much physical disorder is due to repressed or excessive emotions. Likewise it is also argued that whereas some people express psychological distress via psychological symptoms (such as anxiety, depression and so on), others develop physical symptoms instead – and that they are also at greater risk of physical disease.
The trouble with this view is that medical advances repeatedly show that it goes too far. Stress certainly causes physical symptoms – for example, DYSPEPSIA – but the belief that it caused peptic ulcers vanished with the discovery of the true cause: colonisation of the stomach by the bacterium, Helicobacter pylori. Of course, stress and social adversity affect the risk of many diseases. For example, the incidence of heart disease among UK government employees (civil servants) has been shown to be in?uenced by their social class and their degree of job satisfaction. But we do not know how this works. Some argue that social adversity and stress in?uence how the heart functions (‘He died of a broken heart’). Stress can also affect IMMUNITY but it cannot cause AIDS/HIV and we do not know if there is a link running from stress to abnormal immune function to actual illness.
We can say that psychological factors provoke physical symptoms, and often even explain how this can happen. For example, when you are anxious you produce more epinephrine (adrenaline), which gives rise to chest pain, ‘butter?ies in the stomach’ and PALPITATION. These symptoms are not ‘all in the mind’, even if the trigger is a psychological one. People who are depressed are more likely to experience nearly every physical symptom there is, but especially pain and fatigue. Taken as a whole, psychologically induced symptoms are an enormous burden on the NHS and probably responsible for more doctor visits and sickness absence than any other single cause. Also we can be con?dent that social adversity and stress powerfully in?uence the outcome of many illnesses; likewise, a vast range of unhealthy activities and behaviours such as smoking, excessive alcohol intake, excessive eating, and so on. But we must be careful not to assume that our emotions directly cause our illnesses.... psychosomatic diseases
Habitat: The Andamans, sparingly cultivated in West Bengal.
English: Andaman Padauk, Andaman Redwood.Ayurvedic: Rakta-chandana (var.).Siddha: Vengai (Tamil), Yerravegisa (Telugu).Folk: Chalangada (Andamans).Action: See Pterocarpus santalinus.
The wood contains a red pigment santalin and a yellow flavonoid santal, both of which also occur in Pterocarpus santalinus. The bark and the heartwood contain pterostilbene. The heartwood yields pterocarpin, liquirit- igenin and isoliquiritigenin. The sapwood gave homopterocarpin additionally.Pterocarpus indicus Willd. non-Baker, Malay Padauk, is also known as Vengai in Tamil and Yerravegisa in Telugu. A decoction of the wood is given in dropsy and for stone in the bladder. The bark-kino is used as an application for sores and a decoction of the bark or kino is used for diarrhoea.... pterocarpus dalbergioidesHabitat: Throughout the tropical zones of India in the hilly regions.
English: Indian Kino tree, Malabar Kino tree.Ayurvedic: Asana, Bijaka, Priyaka, Pitashaala.Unani: Bijaysaar.Siddha/Tamil: Vengai.Action: Bark-kino—astringent, antihaemorrhagic, antidiarrhoeal. Flowers—febrifuge. Leaves—used externally for skin diseases.
Key application: Heartwood— in anaemia, worm infestation, skin diseases, urinary disorders, lipid disorders and obesity. Stem bark—in diabetes. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)The heartwood and roots contain isoflavonoids, terpenoids and tannins. Tannins include the hypoglycaemic principle (-)-epicatechin. Stilbenes, such as pterostilbene; flavonoids, including liquiritigenin, isoliquiritige- nin, 7-hydroxyflavanone, 7,4-dihy- droxyflavanone, 5-deoxykaempferol and pterosupin; a benzofuranone mar- supsin and propterol, p-hydroxy-ben- zaldehyde are active principles of therapeutic importance.The gum-kino from the bark provides a non-glucosidal tannin, Kino tannic acid (25-80%).The (-)-epi-catechin increases the cAMP content of the islets which is associated with the increased insulin release, conversion of proinsulin to insulin and cathepsin B activity.Oral administration of ethylacetate extract of the heartwood and its fla- vonoid constituents, marsupin, ptero- supin and liquiritigenin, for 14 consecutive days to rats exhibited a significant reduction of serum triglycerides, total cholesterol and LDL- and VLDL-cholesterol levels, but it did not exert any significant effect on HDL- cholesterol.The ethanolic and methanolic extracts of the heartwood exhibited significant in vitro antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria and some strains of fungi.Kino is powerfully astringent. The therapeutic value of kino is due to Kino tannic acid.Dosage: Heartwood—50-100 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I); stem bark—32-50 g for decoction (API, Vol. III).... pterocarpus marsupiumHabitat: Kashmir at 1,500-1,800 m.
Action: Plant—astringent, diuretic. Root—antidiarrhoeal. Leaf— antiasthmatic.... pulicaria dysenterica
Habitat: Found in Cuddaph district of Andhra Pradesh, neighbouring areas of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
English: Red Sandalwood, Red Sanders.Ayurvedic: Raktachandana, Raktasaara.Unani: Sandal Surkh.Siddha/Tamil: Shivappu chandanam.Folk: Laal-chandan.Action: Heartwood—antibilious, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, astringent, diaphoretic, febrifuge.
A paste of wood is used externally for inflammations and headache. Fruit—antidysentericThe heartwood contains terpeno- ids—eudesmol, iso-pterocarpolone, pterocarpol, cryptomeridiol, ptero- carptriol and pterocarpdiolone; pigments santalins A and B. The bark contains triterp enoids—b eta- ampyrone, lupenone and lupeol derivatives. The sapwood gave acetyl oleanolic aldehyde, acetyl oleanolic acid and ery- throdiol.An ethanolic extract (95%) of the wood powder was found effective in lowering blood sugar levels in fasting, fed, glucose-loaded and streptozotocin diabetic models in rats.A cream prepared from the metha- nolic extract of the heartwood of Red Sandalwood and rhizomes of Curcuma longa showed 95.46% inhibition of oedema in combination (Curcuma lon- ga and red sandalwood showed 65.62 and 64.14% inhibition respectively, when used individually).A decoction of the heartwood produced potentiation of pentobarbitone- induced hypnosis in albino mice; blocked conditioned avoidance response in rats and showed anticonvul- sant and anti-inflammatory activities.Dosage: Heartwood—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... pterocarpus santalinusHabitat: Maharashtra, Manipur, North Bengal, Bihar and Assam, Western Ghats and Andaman Islands.
English: Hathipaila.Ayurvedic: Muchukun- da, Muchakunda, Kshatra- vriksha, Chivuka, Prativishnuka, Muchukunda Champaa. Karnikaara (also equated with Cassia fistula).Unani: Gul-e-Muchkun.Siddha/Tamil: Vennangu.Action: Flower—anti-inflammatory, styptic (used for bleeding piles, haematuria, ulcers). Charred flowers and bark, mixed with the powder of Mallotus philippinensis, are applied to smallpox eruptions.
The fresh flowers yielded kaempfe- rol- 3 - O -beta - D -galactoside, along with luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside. The leaves also contain betulin, lu- peol, bauerenol, friedelin and beta- sitosterol.Dosage: Flower—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... pterospermum acerifoliumHabitat: Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, occasionally planted in West Bengal.
Ayurvedic: Muchukunda (var.)Siddha/Tamil: Sempulavu.Action: Flowers—anodyne; a paste with rice-water and vinegar is used externally in migraine. Leaves— applied externally in headache.
Flowers gave arachidic, linoleic, my- ristic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids and beta-sitosterol, kaempferol-3- beta-D-galactoside and kaempferol- 3-rutinoside. The flavonoids present in the leaves are kaempferol-3-beta-D- galactoside, kaempferol, quercetin and its 3-O-arabinoside and 3-O-rhamno- side. The leaves also contain betulin, beta-amyrin, lupeol, bauerenol, friede- lin, taraxerone and beta-sitosterol.... pterospermum canescensPulikah, Pulicca, Pulicka, Pulyka, Puleeka, Puleaka... pulika
Habitat: Eastern Himalayas, Assam and Khasi Hills.
English: Tropical Kudze.Ayurvedic: Vidaari (var.).Action: Root—antipyretic, antiinflammatory, spasmolytic. Flower—hepatoprotective.
The root of P. lobata is used in Chinese medicine as an antipyretic and spasmolytic agent.The root contains pueraria glyco- sides and puerarol. The glycosides showed strong antioxidant activity and inhibited lipid peroxidation. The root also contain several flavones which showed 66.8% inhibition against stomach cancer in vivo in mice. The isofla- yvonoids, daidzein, formononetin, daidzin and puerarin. Daidzein and puerarin show significant anti-inflammatory activity.The cosmetics containing the root extracts with 20-40% puerarin and 2045% sugars (as sucrose) are used as moisturizing, skin-lightening and sun- screening and hair-growth stimulating preparations.An isoflavonoid, triterpenoid sapo- nin and tryptophan derivative isolated from the flowers showed protective effect against experimental liver injuries in mice.The tryptophan derivatives and their glycosides exhibited antihyperglycae- mic activity.Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth., synonym P. javanica Benth. (Sub-Himalayan regions; Assam, An- dhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, up to 1,100 m) is equated with Tropical Kudze. The plant is used against ulcers and boils.... pueraria lobataHabitat: Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Central India.
English: Indian Kudze.Ayurvedic: Vidaari, Swaadukandaa, Ikshugandhaa, Gajavaajipriyaa, Kandapalaasha, Bhuumikushmaan- da. (Substitute for Jivaka and Rshabhaka.)Folk: Bhui-kumhadaa, Suraal.Action: Tuber—diuretic, cardiac tonic, galactagogue. Also used for fertility control. Root—used as a demulcent, and refrigerant in fevers, as cataplasm for swelling of joints, as galactagogue.
The butanolic extract of Pueraria tuberosa showed significant protection against hepatic damage in rats. The ethanolic extract of the tubers and its butanol and pre-puerarin fractions exhibited anti-implantation effect. The pure compounds, puerarin, daidzein and tuberosin, exhibited significant anti-implantation activity in hamsters.In Indian medicine, Vidaari and Kshira-vidaari are used for promoting breast milk and semen, and as a restorative tonic. Most authors have equated Vidaari with Pueraria tuberosa and Kshira-vidaari with Ipomoea digi- tata.In Western herbal, Pueraria lobata and P. tuberosa roots are used alone or in combination with other products for symptoms due to alcoholism. But preliminary research shows that Kudze does not improve sobriety in chronic alcoholics. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Dosage: Tuber—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... pueraria tuberosaHabitat: High pastures.
Features ? Stalk up to six inches high. Leaves hairy, three to five inches long by two to three inches broad, bi-pinnate, leaflets opposite, stalked below. Flowers (April and May) large, single, six dull violet petals. Taste pungent when fresh.Part used ? Herb.Action: Nervine, antispasmodic, alterative.
Nervous exhaustion in women, particularly when resulting from menstrual causes. Has a stimulating action on all mucous surfaces. Dose, 1-2 tablespoonfuls of the 1/2 ounce to 1 pint infusion.... pulsatillaHabitat: Native to Iran; but cultivated throughout India.
English: Pomegranate.Ayurvedic: Daadima, Daadim- ba, Raktapushpa, Dantabijaa, Raktakusumaa, Lohitpushpaka.Unani: Anaar, Roomaan, Gulnaar, Gulnaar Farsi.Siddha/Tamil: Maathulai.Action: Rind of fruit—astringent, stomachic, digestive. Used for diarrhoea, dysentery, colitis, dyspepsia and uterine disorders. Leaf—used in stomatitis (recommended by The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India). Fresh juice of fruit—refrigerant, cosive, antiemetic; given as an adjuvant in diarrhoea, dyspepsia, biliousness, inflammations of the stomach, palpitation, excessive thirst and fevers. Bark of stem and root—anthelmintic, febrifuge. Given for night sweats. Rind of fruit, bark of stem and root— antidiarrhoeal. Powdered flower buds—used in bronchitis.
The fruit rind (dried) contains up to 26, stem bark 10-25, root bark 28 and leaves 11% tannin.The rind gave an ellagitannin (granatin B, leaves gave granatins A and B and punicafolin); punicalagin, puni- calin and ellagic acid. Pentose gly- cosides of malvidin and pentunidin have also been isolated from the rind. Rind extract showed significant hypo- glycaemic activity in mildly diabetic rats.Seeds gave malvidin pentose glyco- side.Flowers gave pelargonidin-3,5-di- glucoside; also sitosterol, ursolic acid, maslinic acid, asiatic acid, sitosterol- beta-D-glucoside and gallic acid.Extracts of the whole fruit were highly active against Micrococcus pyo- genes var. aureus, E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; also very effective against intestinal pathogenic bacilli.Aqueous extract of the root was found to inhibit the activity of My- cobacterium tuberculosis 607.The proanthocyanidins of pomegranate showed hypolipidaemic activity by their ability to enhance resistance of vascular wall preventing penetration of cholesterol into atherogenic lipopro- teins.... punica granatumHabitat: By waterways; luxuriantly on river islands and banks.
Features ? Stem four- (sometimes six-) sided, up to four feet high. Leaves in pairs, threes or fours, nearly sessile, lanceolate, margins entire, two to five inches long. Flowers (July to September) large, reddish-purple, six to eight in rings round the stalk. Root woody.Part used ? Herb.Action: Febrifuge, astringent, alterative.
Chiefly in feverish conditions with other herbs. Sometimes as an astringent in diarrhea. Used alone, simmer 1 ounce in 1 1/2 pints water for ten minutes. Dose, wineglassful as required.... purple loose-strifeWall.
Synonym: Drypetes roxburghii (Wall.) Hurusawa.Family: Euphoriaceae.
Habitat: Throughout tropical India, wild and cultivated as an avenue tree.English: Child-life tree, Indian Amulet Plant, Spurious Wild Olive.Ayurvedic: Putranjiva, Putrajivaka, Putrajiva, Yashtipushpa, Arth- saadhanaSiddha/Tamil: Karupali Garbhadaa and Garbhakaraa are misleading synonyms.Folk: Jiyaapotaa.
Action: Fruit—powered (deseeded) fruits are used against cough, cold and sprue. Rosaries of hard stones are used for protecting children from infections. (Due to misleading nomenclature, the "conception-promoting" property has been attributed to the drug in folk medicine. Its use is possible in vaginal infections and genitourinary diseases, or skin eruptions during pre-conception stage.)The seed kernel on steam distillation yield 0.5% of a sharp-smelling essential oil of the mustard oil type. The oil contains isopropyl and 2-butyl isothio- cyanates as the main constituents and 2-methyl-butyl isothiocyanate as a minor component. The iso-thiocyanates are produced on enzymic hydrolysis of glycosidic progenitors present in the kernels, viz. glucoputranjivin, gluco- cochlearin and glucojiaputin respectively. An additional glucoside, gluco- cleomin has been identified in the seed kernel, it affords a non-volatile mustard oil, cleomin. A glycosidic pattern similar to that in the seed is reported in the shoots and roots.The fruit pulp contains a large proportion of mannitol and small quantities of saponin glucosides and alkaloids.The seed coat gave putranjivoside, putranoside A, B, C and D, beta- sitosterol and tis beta-D-glucoside.The leaves gave amentoflavone and its derivatives, beta-amyrin and its palmite, polyphenols, putranjiva sa- ponin A,B,C, and D and stigmasterol.The bark contains friedelin, friede- lanol, friedelanone, friedelan-3,7-di- one (putranjivadione), 3-alpha-hydro- xy friedelan- 7-one (roxburgholone), carboxylic acid, putric acid, putran- jivic acid.The essential oil from leaves showed mild antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani.
... putranjiva roxburghiiHabitat: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa and in some parts of Kerala.
Ayurvedic: Bhumi-jambu.Siddha/Tamil: Siru Thekku.Action: Rootstock—antiasthmatic. Leaf— bechic, febrifuge. Rootstock and leaf—antirheumatic. (Sold in South Indian market as Bhaarangi.)
A diterpenoid quinonemethide (bharangin) is reported from the plant.... pygmaeopemna herbaceaHabitat: North-Western and eastern Himalaya at altitudes of 2,700-3,000 m. and in Khasi and Jaintia hills up to 1,500 m.
Action: Plant—astringent and antilithic. Used for healing wounds. A decoction of the plant is prescribed against profuse menses, bloody stools, haemorrhages and ulcers in urinary passages. The whole herb is used in traditional chinese medicine for the treatment of arthritis.
The plant contains ursolic acid, chi- maphilin, hyperin, quercetin, myri- cetin and gallic acid. Chimaphilin and ursolic acid inhibit carrageenan- induced oedema in rat paw. Other constituents act as protective antioxi- dants.... pyrola rotundifoliaPythiah, Pythea, Pytheah, Pythiya, Pythiyah... pythia
Habitat: The Himalayas at altitudes of 1,500-2,100 m, in grassy slopes.
Ayurvedic: Kaakoli, Kshira-Kaakoli.Action: Tuberous root—revitalizing tonic, age-sustainer; used in restorative tonics.
One of the ingredients of the "Eight Tonic Herbs" (Ashta-varga) of Ayurvedic medicine.... roscoea proceraHabitat: Distributed in the temperate regions of Europe and West Asia. Grown in Punjab and Kashmir.
English: Common or European Pear.Folk: Bagu-goshaa, Babbu-goshaa.Action: Fruits—a good source of pectin, help in maintaining a desirable acid balance in the body. Recommended to patients suffering from diabetes because of low sucrose content; and included in low antigen content diets to alleviate the symptoms in the management of immune-mediated disease.
Fresh pear juice exhibited good activity against Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus and Escherichia coli.An aqueous extract of the leaves was active against some strains of E. coli.The leaves contain arbutin, iso- quercitrin, sorbitol, ursolic acid, astra- galin and tannin (0.8-2.9%). The bark contains friedelin, epifriedelanol and beta-sitosterol. Phloridzin is present in the root bark.The plant extract controls the development of freckles and blemishes on the skin and prevents melanin formation. It finds application in skin- lightening creams.... pyrus communisHabitat: Western Himalayas from Simla to Kumaon at an altitude of 2,300 to 2,600 m.
English: Buckthorn (related species).Action: Plant—anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer.
The plant contains kaempferol, kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether and kaempferol-4'-O-methyl ether.The ethyl acetate soluble portion of the alcoholic extract showed anti- nociceptive, anticonvulsant and anti- inflammatory activity. Kaempferol-4'- O-methyl ether was found to exhibit central nervous system depressant, cardiac stimulant, antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory activityThe plant also contain emodin, which exhibited cardiac and intestinal stimulant, central nervous system depressant and analgesic activity in experimental animals.... rhamnus procumbensHabitat: Native to Europe; introduced in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Bhutan and the Nilgiris.
English: Buckthorn (related species), Cascara Sagrada, Sacred Bark.Action: Bark—stool-softener, non-habit forming stimulant laxative, pancreatic stimulant. Used for dyspepsia and habitual constipation.
Key application: In occasional constipation. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.) As a stimulant laxative. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The bark contains up to 10% an- thraquinone glycosides, consisting of the cascarosides A, B, C and D, about 70% of the total; other glycosides in minor concentrations include barbaloin, frangulin, chrysanol, glycosides based on emodin, aloe-emodin, emodin- oxanthrone and chrysophanol; dianthrones, and free aglycones.The cascarosides act on large intestines and stimulate peristalsis. The emodin exhibits antispasmodic activity in isolated rat intestine. Its anti- inflammatory and antiseptic action was also demonstrated.Rhamnus catharticus Linn., is equated with common Buckthorn, R. purpurea Edgew. with Purple Buckthorn. R. purpurea is found in the Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal.Dried bark of Rhamnus frangula L. (Alder Buckthorn) and dried ripe berries of Ramnus catharticus are also used against constipation. (German Commission E, WHO.)Long term use or excessive amounts may cause albuminuria, haematuria, slowing ofintestinal transit and cardiac irregularities. (Sharon M. Herr.)Rhamnus triquetra Brandis (known as Gudlei, Fagoraa, Gardhan in Punjab; Gaunt in Garhwal and Kumaon and Katheraa in Jaunsar) is found in the Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal. The bark is used as a tonic, astringent and deobstruent. Kaempferol, its 7-O- methyl ether and 4'-O-methyl ether, physcion-8 beta-D-glucoside, emodin and its 8 beta-D-glucoside were isolated from the whole plant. Emodin exhibited CNS depressant activity. (Fi- toterapia, 65, 1994.) The plant exhibited significant anti-inflammatory and a nonspecific antispasmodic activity. It induced cardio-stimulation which might be due to the endogenous release of catecholamines.Rhamnus napalensis Wall. ex M. Laws. (known as Archal in Nepal; Biringa and Birringguli in Assam) is found in eastern Himalayas and the hills and plains ofAssam, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and northern Andhra Pradesh, ascending up to an altitude of 2,000 m. The fruit, pounded and macerated in vinegar, is prescribed for the treatment of herpes.... rhamnus purshianaHabitat: Garwal region.
Ayurvedic: Bajradanti. Barleria prionitis L. and Potentilla arbuscula D. Don. are also used as Bajradanti.)Action: Used as a tooth powder for strengthening gums and teeth.... sibbaldia parviflora
Habitat: Dry hot slopes of the Himalayas from Punjab to Nepal and in the hills of Madhya Pradesh and South India.
English: Sumach.Ayurvedic: Tintidi, Tintindeeka.Unani: Sumaaq.Folk: Raitung, Tung (Kumaon).Action: Fruit juice—vermifuge.
The leaves contain the flavonoids, myricetin, quercetin and kaempferol and their 3-O-rhamnosides; the stems and leaves also gave hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterol, ligno- ceric acid and iso-rhamnetin-3-alpha- L-arvinoside.Smooth Sumach and Sweet Sumach (Canada and USA) are equated with Rhus glabra L. and R. aromatica Ait. Smooth Sumach is astringent and diuretic. Sweet Sumach is used for its antidiabetic activity; the root bark is used for irritable bladder, bed-wetting and urinary incontinence. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... rhus parvifloraHabitat: Western Himalayas and Jammu & Kashmir.
English: Locust tree, False Acacia, Robinia, Black Locust.Action: Leaves—laxative, antispas- modic (an infusion is prescribed in digestive disorders). Flowers— diuretic, antispasmodic.
The bark, leaves and roots contain a toxalbumin, robin (1.6% in the bark), which resembles ricin present in the castor seed. The bark also contains a glucoside robinitin (3%), syringin, tannin (up to about 7.0%). Inner bark contains amygdalin and urease.The leaves are rich in calcium, phosphorus and potash. The presence of glycosides, acaciin, apigenin-7-bioside, apigenin-7-trioside and indican, have also been reported.The flowers are powerfully diuretic due to a glycoside, robinin. Flowers also contain l-asparagine.The roots are rich in asparagine, also contain robin. Root bark, if taken in excess, is emetic and purgative.The bark and young shoots are poisonous to livestock.... robinia pseudoacaciaHabitat: Throughout India, in waste places and hedges.
Ayurvedic: Parpata (as adulterant).Siddha/Tamil: Punakapundu.Action: Leaves—juice is aperient, febrifuge, refrigerant; bruised leaves are applied externally to disperse swellings. Root—febrifuge. The juice of leaves is given to children suffering from smallpox.... rungia pectinata
Habitat: The outer range of Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh eastwards to Sikkim and Assam.
Ayurvedic: Naakuli (substitute), Vrkshaadani (var.).Folk: Raasanaa, Naakuli, Gandha- lataa.Action: Roots—used for rheumatism.
An alkaloid and a bitter resin has been reported in the plant.Roots are used as a substitute for Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus).... saccolabium papillosumHabitat: Arid regions, on saline lands and in coastal regions.
English: Mustard tree. Salt Bush tree, Tooth Brush tree.Ayurvedic: Pilu (smaller var.), Pilukaa, Sransi, Angaahva, Tikshna- vrksha.Unani: Miswaak, Araak.Siddha: Perungoli.Action: Fruit—carminative (used in biliousness), deobstruent (used for rheumatism, tumours, splenomegaly), diuretic, lithotriptic. Leaves—decoction used for cough and asthma, poultice in painful piles and tumours; juice in scurvy. Flowers—stimulant, laxative. Applied in painful rheumatic conditions. Seeds—diuretic; purgative; fatty oil applied locally on rheumatic swellings. Root bark—topically vesicant. Bark—emmenagogue, ascarifuge, febrifuge. Biological activity of stem bark—spasmolytic. Plant—anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, antibacterial.
The root gave elemental gamma- monoclinic sulphur, benzyl glucosino- late, salvadourea (a urea derivative), m-anisic acid and sitosterol. Benzyl isothiocyanate, isolated from the root, exhibits antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus-1 which affects oral region. (The root is used in many parts of the world as a tooth brush.) Root bark and stem bark contain trimethy- lamine. Myristic, lauric and palmitic acids are the major acid components of the seed fat.Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder; 50100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... salvadora persicaHabitat: Throughout the plains of India, up to 1,500 m in the hills.
Ayurvedic: Samudrashosha, Kammarkasa.Folk: Bhuu-Tulasi.Action: Plant—diuretic, an- thelmintic, astringent, demulcent. Leaves—used for toothache. Seeds—mucilaginous, used for diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia and haemorrhoids.
The plant contains flavones—nepe- tin and hispidulin and their gluco- sides. Flowers also contain nepetin. Sitosterol and oleanolic acid are also present. The seeds yield secoisolari- ciresinol diester.... salvia plebeiaSynonym: T. leontopetaloides (Linn.) Kuntze.
Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat: Native to Mexico; cultivated in gardens all over India.... tacca pinnatifida
Habitat: Hedgerows, meadows, waysides, waste places.
Features ? Stem erect, slightly branched, varies from a few inches to over a foot in height with the richness of the soil. Leaves irregular-lanceolate, also differing largely in size and shape with the plant's environment. Identifiable by the triangular seed vessels, thought to resemble in shape the purses of olden days. Blossoms during most of the year ; flowers very small, white, short-stalked. Odour unpleasant.Part used ? Herb.Action: Diuretic, stimulant.
The infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint is administered in wineglass doses for kidney complaints and dropsy. Often combined with Pellitory-of-the-Wall and Juniper berries.... shepherd's purseHabitat: Temperate Himalayas and the Nilgiris.
Ayurvedic: Vrishchhiyaa-shaaka.Folk: Shisuun (Kumaon).Action: Roots—employed for the treatment of fractures and dislocations. Leaves and inflorescences—prescribed as a tonic and as a cleaning agent after parturition.... urtica parviflora
Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan.
Ayurvedic: Dhyaamaka (including among aromatic drugs of Jatamansi group.)Folk: Sugandhabaalaa.Action: Used as V. jatamansi.... valeriana pyrolaefolia
Habitat: A small, aromatic tree occurring wild or grown throughout the country for edible fruits.
English: Hog-Plum, Wild Mango. Great Hog-Plum is equated with S. cytherea Sonn, synonym S. dulcis Soland. ex Forst. f.Ayurvedic: Aamraataka, Aamraata, Aamadaa, Madhuparni, Kundalini, Kapitana, Markataamra.Siddha/Tamil: Mambulichi, Kat- tuma.Folk: Jangali Aam.Action: Fruits, leaves, bark— astringent, antidysenteric, anti- speptic, antiscorbutic. Bark paste applied externally to articular and muscular rheumatism. Root—used for regulating menstruation.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends stem bark in haem- orrhagic diseases.The fruit contains beta-amyrin, olea- nolic acid and amino acids—glycine, cystine, serine, alanine and leucine; polysaccharides are also present.Aerial parts gave lignoceric acid, 24-methylenecycloartanone, stigmast- 4-en-3-one, beta-sitosterol and its glu- coside.Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g powder for decoction (API, Vol. II); 1-3 g powder (API, Vol. III).... spondias pinnataHabitat: Kashmir, grows in damp places, at altitudes of 1,500-1,800 m.
English: Marsh, Woundwort (purple-flowered), Allheal. (In Western herbal, Allheal is equated with Prunella vulgaris.)Action: Haemostatic, sedative, antiseptic, antispasmodic, vulnerary. Used for haemorrhages, gout, cramp, vertigo; applied as poultice to wounds.
The herb contains iridoids, harpa- gide and acetyl harpagide; flavonoids based on isoscutellarein and oroxylin A.... stachys palustrisHabitat: Throughout India, especially in the moist regions.
English: Trumpet Flower, Yellow Snake tree.Ayurvedic: Paatalaa, Paatali, Paata- lai, Krishna-vrantaa, Madhu-duuti,Kaama-duuti, Ativallabhaa, Taam- rapushpi, Kuberaakshi. Amoghaa, Kumbhipushpi, Ambuvaasini. Copper-red-flowered var., known as Taamrapushpi, is equated with S. suaveolens (Paatalaa) and the white- flowered one with S. chelenoides. (Paatalai).Siddha/Tamil: Paadiri.Action: The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the root of Paatalaa in lipid disorders; the stem bark in oedema and retention of urine.
The white-flowered var. purifies blood, increases appetite and is prescribed for vomiting, hiccough, thirst, oedema and inflammatory chest diseases.The copper-red-flowered var. is prescribed in difficult breathing, vomiting, oedema, flatus and high fever.Ethanolic extract of the plant showed hypoglycaemic and anticancer activity experimentally.A decoction of S. personatum root is prescribed for asthma and cough; of the leaves in chronic dyspepsia. A decoction of the root and leaves is credited with antipyretic properties. The bark exhibited antibacterial and antitubercular properties.A decoction of S. suaveolens roots is prescribed for intermittent and puerperal fevers, inflammatory affections of the chest. Extracts of the plant contain lapachol.The leaves of S. chelonoides contain a flavone, stereolensin. The bark gave an iridoid glycoside; the root bark gave n-triacontanol and beta- sitosterol; the root heartwood gave la- pachol, dehydro-alpha-lapachone and dehydrotectol. Ceryl alcohol, palmitic, stearic and oleic acids were isolated from the root. Lapachol exhibited cy- totoxic activity.Dosage: Stem bark (white-flowered var.)—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.) Root (red-flowered var.)—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. III.) more effective. Crude extract is used for filaria.The Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, has developed an an- tifilarial drug from the crude extract of stem. The stem bark is reported to cure filarial lymphangitis, lym- phoedema, chyluria caused by filaria- sis.Dosage: Stem bark—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... stereospermum personatumHabitat: The Himalayas, Eastern and Western Ghats.
Unani: Banafashaa (related species).Action: Dried flowers—used for coughs and colds. Herb— bruised and applied to ulcers; also prescribed in syphilis and scrofula. (In Chinese medicine, recommended against cancerous growths.)... viola patrinii
Habitat: Kashmir to Sikkim and Nilgiri hills at 1,500-2,100 m.
Unani: Banafashaa (related species)Folk: Thungtu (Kumaon).Action: Uses same as those of V odorata. A medicinal oil of Unani medicine, Roghan-e-Banafashaa, is prepared from the plant. Flowers, as tea, are used for treating headache.
Active principle of the herb is an alkaloid, violine.... viola pilosaHabitat: Forests of West Bengal, Central and South India, up to 1,200 m.
English: Clearing Nut tree.Ayurvedic: Kataka, Katakaphala, Payah-prasaadi, Chakshushya, Nirmali.Unani: Nirmali.Siddha/Tamil: Thettran, Thetrankot- tai.Action: Seed—antidiabetic, antidysenteric, emetic.
Mannogalactan from seeds reduces cholesterol and triglycerides (one-tenth and one-fifth when compared to clofi- brate). Seeds are also applied to abscesses, and venereal sores (internally in gonorrhoea). Fruits—antidiabet- ic; antidysenteric, expectorant. (Pulp is used as a substitute for ipecacuanha.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the seed in dysuria, polyuria, urolithiasis, also in epilepsy.The seeds, leaves and trunk bark gave diabolin (major alkaloid) and acetyldiabolin. Seeds also gavebrucine, strychnine, novacine, icajine, oleanolic acid and its glycoside. Leaves and bark gave isomotiol, stigmasterol, campes- terol and sitosterol. Diabolin exhibits hypotensive activity.A decoction of seeds is given to treat stammering.The seeds resemble those of Nux- vomica but are non-poisonous. The ripe seeds are used for clearing muddy water.Dosage: Seed—3-6 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... strychnos potatorumHabitat: The Himalaya from Kashmir to Bhutan and in Lushai Hills in Mizoram at 1,500-2,400 m.
Action: Used as a substitute for Swertia chirayita.
The root gave xanthones (including swerchirin and bellidifolin); flavone- C-glycosides—swertisin and homoori- entin. The plant gave polyoxygenated xanthones and xanthone-O-glucosi- des; also a pentacyclic triterpenehed- eragenin. Aerial parts, in addition to xanthones, contain ursolic acid.... swertia paniculataHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh and Assam; Khasi Hills at 1,0002,500 m.
English: Sapphire Berry.Ayurvedic: Lodhra-Pattikaa.Unani: Lodh Pathaani.Action: Leaf—spasmolytic, antiviral, antiprotozoal, anthelmintic. Bark— used as a tonic for preventing abortion. Other uses same as of S. racemosa.
The water-soluble fraction from the bark has been reported to exhibit anti- oxytocic activity. Ethanolic extract of the leaves showed activity against Entamoeba histolytica strain STA, Ascaridia galli and Ranikhet-disease virus. It also affected blood pressure in dogs and cats, and showed activity on the ileum of guinea-pigs. The extract of stem also affected the blood pressure.The leaf and stem are CVS active.... symplocos paniculataThe amount of active constituent of a plant is not constant. The percentage of active constituent varies greatly. For this reason official pharmacy standardises drugs. See: WHOLE PLANT. ... active principle
ANTI-PERIODICS. Remedies that prevent the return of a disease that tends to recur (malaria). Peruvian bark, Ash Tree (Fraxinus excelsior). ... anti-parasitics
Internal: White Willow bark, Red Sage.
External: Essential oils of Sage, Pine, Rosemary, Lavender. Blended with fresh lemon juice are marketed as a gentle spray without aerosol (Weleda). Zinc and Castor oil cream or ointment.
Bath preparations made from these oils; herbal soaps, massage oils. ... anti-perspirants
Habitat: Forests of Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats up to 1,200 m.
English: Flowering Murdah.Folk: Kinjal (Maharashtra); Neemeeri, Nimiri (Andhra Pradesh); Pekadukkai (Tamil Nadu); Pilamuruthu, Pillamurda (Kerala). Kindal (trade).Action: Bark—diuretic, cardiotonic. Juice of the bark, mixed with purified butter and rock-salt, is applied in parotitis.
The heartwood gave 3,3'-O-di- methylellagic acid and 3,4,3'-O-tri- methylflavellagic acid. A triterpene carboxylic acid, beta-sitosterol, a gly- coside 3,3'-di-O-methylellagic acid- 4-monoglucoside and O-pentamethyl flavellagic acid have been isolated.The bark contains 14% tannins, also beta-sitosterol.... terminalia paniculataHabitat: Coastal regions of India and the Andamans; and also grown as an ornamental.
English: Portia tree, Tulip tree, Umbrella tree, False Rosewood.Ayurvedic: Paarisha, Kapitana, Paarshvpippala, Gardabhaanda.Siddha: Poovarsu.Action: Specific for skin diseases. Root, fruit and leaf—used in psoriasis, scabies and other cutaneous diseases. Lupenone, lupeol and alkanes show activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Bark— used for the treatment of haemorrhoids and chronic dysentery. Leaf— anti-inflammatory.
The flowers gave populnetin, herba- cetin, populneol, quercetin and its gly- cosides, kaempferol and its glycosides, rutin, gossypol, beta-sitosterol and its glycosides, nonacosane, lupenone, myricyl alcohol, lupeol and gossypetin.Presence of thespesin (0.4%) and herbacetin has been reported from fruits. Thespesin has been proved to be optically active gossypol. Gossypol occurring in cotton plant is optically inactive, whereas the gossypol from T. populnea has a high dextro-rotation. It exhibits antifertility, anti-tumour, anti-amoebic and anti-HIV activities.The ethanolic extract of fruits showed antiviral and anticancer activity in mice.Dosage: Root—50-125 mg powder. (CCRAS.)... thespesia populneaHabitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated as hedge plant in the plains throughout India.
English: Yellow Oleander.Ayurvedic: Pita-Karavira, Ash- vaghna, Divyapushpa. (White and red-flowered var. is equated with Nerium oleander, the yellow- flowered var with T. peruviana.)Siddha/Tamil: Pachiyalari.Action: See Nerium oleander. Bark and leaves—bitter cathartic, emetic; poisonous. Roots—a plaster is applied to tumours.
All parts of the plant produce poisonous latex. Karnels contained nearly seven times as much glycosides as leaves, stems, flowers or fruit pulp. The roots and bark also contain glycosides.Of all Thevetia glycosides, peruvo- side is the most important cardiac gly- coside. It produced a fall in right arterial pressure and a rise in cardiac output. A few cases of arrhythmia responded well to peruvoside. Thevetin and other glycosides are reported to exhibit digitalis-like effect. As a cardiac glyco- side, the potency of neriifolin is moderate. Cerberin is even weaker than neriifolin. Cerebroside is the weakest glycoside in its cardiac effect.In addition to seeds, neriifolin and peruvoside have been isolated from the bark in small amounts.... thevetia peruvianaHabitat: Native to Europe; grown in Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra.
English: Salify, Vegetable-Oyster, Purple Goat's Beard, Oyster Plant.Action: Root—specific in obstructions of the gall in jaundice; antibilious. Also used for treating arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure.
T. porrifolius contain several flavo- noids, including orientin and iso- orientin.The seeds yield an oil which contains a saturated epoxy acid viz. cis-9, 10-epoxysteric acid and several conjugated dienoic acids.Cooked flashy roots of T. porrifolius contain sodium 8, potassium 183, calcium 60, magnesium 14, iron 1.2, copper 0.1, phosphorus 53, sulphur 25 and chlorine 46 mg/100 g. A large parts of carbohydrates occur as inulin.... tragopogon porrifoliusAction: Intestinal astringent.
Uses: similar to Black Catechu.
Preparations: Twice daily.
Powder: 0.3 to 1 gram (quarter of a teaspoon) in honey or banana mash.
Tincture Catechu BP. 1:5, with Cinnamon 1:20, in 45 per cent alcohol. Dose: 2.5 to 5ml. ... catechu, pale
Action. Photosensitiser, antifungal, tuberculostatic. (Journal of Natural Products 1987, 50(5), pp997-8) Uses. Leucoderma. Vitiligo. Reputed fading of coloured areas of skin. ... cow parsley, himalayan
Habitat: All over India; also grown as green manure and as cover crop.
English: Purple Tephrosia, Wild Indigo.Ayurvedic: Sharapunkhaa, Vishikha-punkhaa, Sarphokaa.Unani: Sarponkhaa, Sarphukaa.Siddha/Tamil: Kattu-kolingi, Kolingi, Paavali, Mollukkay, Kollukkayvelai.Action: The drug is considered specific for the treatment of inflammation of spleen and liver (is known as Plihaa-shatru, Plihaari in Indian medicine).
Dried herb—diuretic, deobstruent, laxative. Given for the treatment of cough, bronchitis, bilious febrile attacks, insufficiency of the liver, jaundice (not effective in infantile cirrhosis), kidney disorders and for the treatment of bleeding piles, boils, pimples. Also used as a gargle. Root—decoction used in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, cough, bronchitis, adenoids, asthma and rheumatism. Juice is applied to skin eruptions. A liniment prepared from the root is employed in elephantiasis. Oil from seeds—specific against eruptions of the skin, eczema, scabies, leprosy. Seed extract—hypoglycaemic.Powdered aerial parts prevented elevation of SGOP, SGPT and bilirubin levels.Hepatoprotective effect of aerial parts was evaluated against (+)-galac- tosamine-induced and carbon tetra- chloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.The leaves contain rutin and rote- noids (0.65-0.80% on dry basis). Rote- noid content is highest in the seed (1.60-1.80%).The leaves also contain a triterpe- noid, lupeol, and beta-sitosterol.Seeds contain a diketone-pongamol; a dimethylchromene flavanone iso- lonchocarpin; furanoflavones karan- jin and kanjone; a flavanone purpurin; and sitosterol. A flavonoid, lanceolarin B, is also present in seeds.The plant extract led to marked lowering of blood glucose level in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits. In diabetic rabbits the extract exerted 60-70% hypoglycaemic effect as compared to tolbutamide.Shveta Sharapunkhaa (stems: covered with white hair; flowers: pale pink or pale violet) is equated with T. villosa Pers.The roots gave a prenylated fla- vanone 7-methylglabranin; pods contain rotenoids—villosin, villon, vil- losol, villosinol, villinol and villosone.The fresh root is credited with hy- poglycaemic properties, but leaves did not show any such effect. The juice of the leaf is given in dropsy. Ayurve- dic classical texts describe it as a special drug for treating sterility in women.Boiled leaves of T. uniflora subspecies petrosa (Kant-punkhaa) are used for the treatment of syphilis. The medicinal properties of the plant are more or less similar to those of T. purpurea, but to a milder degree.T. spinosa Pers. (South India, ascending to 400 m in hills) is also known as Kant-punkhaa (Mulukolingi in Tamil Nadu).The root is applied to inflammations and swellings of joints; a decoction is given in rheumatism.Chalcones, spinochalones A and B and flemistrictin A have been isolated from the root. Spinochalone C and spinoflavonones A and B, and fulvin- ervin A have been isolated from the plant.Dosage: Plant, root, seed—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... tephrosia purpureaHabitat: South India, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
Ayurvedic: Varshaabhu (related species).Siddha/Tamil: Vellai Sharunnai.Folk: Bisakhaparaa.Action: Root—deobstruent; used for asthma, hepatitis and amenorrhoea. The root, leaf and stem gave positive test for alkaloid. The plant is a good source of zinc (1.077 ± 0.188) and copper (0.416 ± 0.057) mg/100 g.
Synonym: T. monogyna Linn.Family: Aizoaceae.Habitat: Cultivated fields and wastelands.
English: Horse Purslane.Ayurvedic: Varshaabhu, Vrshchira, Vishakharparikaa, Shilaatikaa, Shothaghni, Kshdra. Wrongly equated with Shveta-punarnavaa or Rakta-punarnavaa. Varshaabhu and Punarnavaa are two different herbs. T. portulacastrum is a rainy season annual. Rakta-punarnavaa is equated with Boerhavia diffusa, Shveta-punarnavaa with white- flowered species, B. erecta L. (B. punarnava).Unani: Biskhaparaa.Siddha: Sharunai.Folk: Pathari, Bisakhaparaa.Action: Root—antipyretic, analgesic, spasmolytic, deobstruent, cathartic, anti-inflammatory.
Leaves—diuretic; used in oedema and dropsy. A decoction of the herb is used as an antidote to alcoholic poison.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the dried root in diseases of the liver and spleen, anaemia and oedema.Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts exhibited hepatoprotective activity in CCl4-induced intoxication in rats. The acetone-insoluble fraction of the extract is responsible for the activity.The red and white flowers contain an alkaloid trianthemine, also punaranavine. The plant also gave ecdysterone (0.01 g/kg), a potential chemosterilant; nicotinic acid and ascorbic acid. The plant is rich in phosphorus and iron but poor in calcium.The high content of oxalate affects the assimilation of calcium. Carotene (2.3 mg/100 g) has also been reported.Trianthema sp. are used as adulterant of the roots of Boerhavia diffusa.Dosage: Root—2-5 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.)... trianthema portulacastrumHabitat: Waste places, road sides and hedges throughout India.
English: Mexican Daisy.Ayurvedic: Jayanti (doubtful synonym).Siddha/Tamil: Vettukkaaya-thalai.Folk: Akala Kohadi (Bihar).Action: Leaves—styptic, antidiar- rhoeal, antidysenteric. Also used for bronchial catarrh.
The leaf juice exhibits antiseptic, insecticidal and parasiticidal properties. It is used to check haemorrhage from wounds, cuts and bruises, also for restoring hair growth.An aqueous extract of the plant produced reflex tachycardia and showed a transient hypotensive effect on normal blood pressure of dogs; it had also showed a marked depressant action on the respiration.Alcoholic extract of the whole plant (excluding roots) at a dose of 300 mg showed good anti-secretory antidiar- rhoeal activity against E. coli enterotox- in-induced secretory response in rabbit and guinea-pig ileal loop models. Alcoholic extract of aerial parts also showed hepatoprotective action against acute hepatitis induced by CCl4 in albino rats.The leaves contain fumaric acid. The plant gave n-alkanes, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids along with dotria- contanol, beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone, lupeol, fucosterol and beta-sitosterol. Flowers contain glucoluteolin, iso- quercetin and quercetin. Presence of lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, palmitoleic, linole- ic and linolenic acid is reported in aerial parts except flower tops. cine, is used as Ispast. The seeds contain xanthosin.... tridax procumbensAccept: rice, cornflour, honey, salad vegetables, all fruits, preserves. ... diet - low protein
Habitat: Kashmir to Garhwal at 1,200-2,400 m, and the Nilgiris.
English: Red Clover.Unani: Ispast, Berseem, Clover (equated with T. alexandricum Linn.)Folk: Trepatra (Punjab).Action: Flower—deobstruent, antispasmodic, expectorant, sedative, anti-inflammatory, antidermatosis.
Used for psoriasis, eczema and other skin diseases; and as an expectorant in coughs and bronchitis. Also used as antineoplastic against tumours and hard swellings.The plant contains iso-flavonoids— calycosin - 7 - galactoside, calycosin, pseudobaptigenin, fornononetin, di- adzein and medicagol; also hydroxy- pterocarpans.The flowerheads contain phenolic glycosides, flavonoids, salicylates, coumarins, cyanogenic glycosides, starch and fatty acids. Flavonoids in the flowers and leaves are oestro- genic; provide relief in menopausal complaints.The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes anti-inflammatory property of the flower.Trifolium alexandricum, according to National Formulary of Unani MediMedicine, is used as Ispast. The seeds contain xanthosin.... trifolium pratense(See also NEUROSIS; PSYCHOTHERAPY.) FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGISTS work in the
criminal and justice ?elds, applying psychological theory to aspects of legal processes in courts, criminal investigation, and understanding and treating psychological problems associated with criminal behaviour. They will have completed an accredited training course in forensic psychology. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGISTS apply psychological methods to studying behaviour relevant to health, illness and care including health promotion and education. OCCUPATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS are concerned with how people perform at work and how organisations function. They work in management, personnel, selection and careers advice. They have a postgraduate degee in occupational psychology and will have had to undertake three years’ supervised practice.... types of psychologist
Alternatives. Plantain, Ginkgo. Teas, tablets, etc.
Topical. Cold compress: Witch Hazel.
Supplements. Daily. Vitamins C (500mg); E (400iu). Beta-carotene. Palming. ... eyes – pain
Tea. Equal parts: Clivers, Wild Carrot, Yarrow. Mix. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Topical. Soak cotton wool pads with Witch Hazel Distilled Extract and place over the closed eyelids for ten minutes, once or more daily. ... eyes – pouches under
Habitat: Throughout India, in dry grasslands. Ayurvedic: Prishniparni, Prithak- parni, Simhapushpi, Kalashi, Dhaavani, Guhaa, Chitraparni.
Siddha/Tamil: Oripai.Action: Root—prescribed for cough, chills and fevers. Leaves—antiseptic, used for urinary discharges and genitourinary infections.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends a decoction of whole plant in alcoholism, insanity, psychosis; cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea; diseases due to vitiated blood; gout; bleeding piles; blood dysentery, acute diarrhoea.The plant is credited with fracture- healing properties. Its total extract exhibits better and quicker healing of fractures in experimental animals due to early accumulation of phosphorus and more deposition of calcium.Dosage: Whole plant—20-50 g powder for decoction. (API, Vol. IV.)... uraria pictaHabitat: Simla and other hill stations.
English: Roman Nettle.Ayurvedic: Used as a substitute for Vrishchiyaa-shaaka.Unani: Anjuraa.Action: Diuretic, astringent, haemostatic.
The leaves and stems contain an indole alkaloid, bufotenin. 5-hydroxy- tryptamine is located mainly in strings.Urtica urens Linn. (Dog Nettle, Small Nettle) is found in Dehra Dun and is Udhampur district of J. & K. The inflorescence and leaves contain the flavonoid compounds of kaempfer- ol, isorhamnetin, quercetin, apigenin, diosmetin and luteolin. Presence of chlorogenic acid is also reported.The fluid extract of roots has been found to be useful in mild cases of prostate enlargement by improving micturia in men over 60 years.... urtica piluliferaHabitat: Throughout India, as a weed.
English: Soapwort, Cow Herb.Folk: Musna, Saabuni.Action: Roots—used for cough, asthma and other respiratory disorders; for jaundice, liver and spleen diseases (increases bile flow). Mucilaginous sap—used in scabies.
Saponins of the root showed haemo- lytic activity. Lanostenol, stigmas- terol, beta-sitosterol and diosgenin have been isolated from the plant. Xanthones, vaccaxanthone and sapx- anthone, and a oligosaccharide, vac- carose, have also been isolated.... vaccaria pyramidataSynonym: Lindernia cordifolia (Colsmann) Merrill.
Family: Scrophulariaceae.Habitat: The Himalayas up to 1,2001,700 m and throughout India.
Folk: Gadaga-vel (Maharashtra).Action: Used for sexually transmitted diseases and urethral discharges.
Vandellia pyxidaria Maxim, synonym Vandellia erecta Benth. (The Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam, common in Bengal; also in central and South India) is known as Vakapush- pi. The plant is used for gonorrhoea. Plant juice is given to children who pass green stool.... vandellia pedunculataHabitat: Native to eastern and central USA. (Experimental cultivation in the Nilgiri hills.)
English: Black Haw.Ayurvedic: Tilvaka (related species).Action: Uterine sedative (used in the treatment for threatened miscarriage, under strict medical supervision. Spasmolytic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Used after childbirth to check bleeding and pain, also in dysmen- orrhoea.
The stem and root bark gave couma- rins including scopoletin, aesculetin and scoplin; a biflavone, amentofla- vone; triterpenes including oleanolic and ursolic acid and their acetates, caffeic acid derivatives; salicylic acid, salicin, arbutin (traces); tannins (2%).Coumarin, scopoletin, is a uterine sedative, while salicin is an analgesic.... viburnum prunifoliumWidely used by the Eclectic School during second half of the 19th century. ... fever powder
Habitat: West Bengal and throughout greater part of India, as a weed.
Ayurvedic: Sangkhi, Sangkhaphuli (The Wealth of India).Folk: Milagaipoondu (Tamil Nadu), Kapavila (Kerala), Vishakane- gale (Karnataka), Neru (Andhra Pradesh) Mirchaai (Bihar).Action: Plant—oncolytic (tumour- resolving). A decoction of the dried plant boiled in oil is used in the treatment of lumbago.
The plant contains ajmalicine, rau- wolscine, vindoline, pusiline and pusi- linine, while leurosine, lochnerinine, venoterpine, vindorosine and vincapu- sine have been isolated from the leaves. The root gave lochnericine. Leurosine is cytotoxic. Pusiline and pusilinine cause marked depression of the heart.... vinca pusillaHabitat: Assam, West Bengal, Bihar and South India.
Ayurvedic: Kaakajanghaa. (Leea aequata Linn. is also equated with Kaakajanghaa.)Folk: Chirai-godaa, Chirai-gorwaa, Naagpheni.Action: Leaves and bark—used in malarial and black water fevers. Leaves—antibacterial.
The leaves and root bark gave pachy- podol, ursolic acid, vitexin and pedun- cularcin.... vitex peduncularisTea. Combine equal parts: Avens, Catmint, Thyme. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 5 minutes. Half-1 cup freely.
Alternative: quarter of a teaspoon powdered Ginger, or Cinnamon in honey.
Enema: Catmint, Chamomile or Balm.
See: COLIC.
Persistent griping should be investigated. ... griping pain
Publications include: Hamdard Pharmacopoeia of Eastern Medicine; Greco-Arabian Concepts of Cardio-vascular Disease; Avicenna’s Tract of Cardiac Drugs and Essays on Arab Cardiotherapy. Scientific journal: Hamdard Medicus – informative articles by world authorities. Hamdard Foundation, Nazimabad, Karachi-18, Pakistan. ... hamdard national foundation, pakistan
1. Name of the patient.
2. Name and address of the herbal practitioner.
3. Directions for use of the remedy.
4. Liquid preparations for local or topical use to be clearly marked: For external use only.
Statutory Instruments: Medicine (Labelling) Regulations 1976 No. 1726. Medicines (Labelling) Regulations 1977 No. 996. ... labelling of herbal products by a practitioner
Habitat: Evergreen forests of Kerala up to an altitude of 600 m.
Folk: Saanthu, Kalpottan (Kerala), Kalpootha, Chiddavintai (Tamil Nadu), ulli (Karnataka).Action: Root bark—antiseptic, used for ulcers. Root bark, flowers, fruits—used for oral hygiene.
Fruits of Xylopia aromatica are chewed with betel leaves; also used in cough and cold. The fruits, known as Suvaali Pippali, have no relationship with Pippali of Indian medicine. The plant contains pinenes.... xylopia parvifloraHaemophilus vaccine (HiB) This vaccine was introduced in the UK in 1994 to deal with the annual incidence of about 1,500 cases and 100 deaths from haemophilus MENINGITIS, SEPTICAEMIA and EPIGLOTTITIS, mostly in pre-school children. It has been remarkably successful when given as part of the primary vaccination programme at two, three and four months of age – reducing the incidence by over 95 per cent. A few cases still occur, either due to other subgroups of the organism for which the vaccine is not designed, or because of inadequate response by the child, possibly related to interference from the newer forms of pertussis vaccine (see above) given at the same time.
Meningococcal C vaccine Used in the UK from 1998, this has dramatically reduced the incidence of meningitis and septicaemia due to this organism. Used as part of the primary programme in early infancy, it does not protect against other types of meningococci.
Varicella vaccine This vaccine, used to protect against varicella (CHICKENPOX) is used in a number of countries including the United States and Japan. It has not been introduced into the UK, largely because of concerns that use in infancy would result in an upsurge in cases in adult life, when the disease may be more severe.
Pneumococcal vaccine The pneumococcus is responsible for severe and sometimes fatal childhood diseases including meningitis and septicaemia, as well as PNEUMONIA and other respiratory infections. Vaccines are available but do not protect against all strains and are reserved for special situations – such as for patients without a SPLEEN or those who are immunode?cient.... yellow fever vaccine is prepared from
Ingredients: Aloin gr. 1/10. Ipom resin gr. 1/10. Capsic gr. 1/50. Podoph. resin. gr. 1/10. Jalapin gr. 1/10. Olearesin. Ginger. gr. 1/70.
Dose: One or two pills at bedtime or after dinner.
Historical interest only. ... little liver pills
Alternatives. Tea: equal parts – Agnus Castus, Ladysmantle, Motherwort, Raspberry leaves, 1-2 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes; 1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Tablets/capsules. Cramp bark, Helonias.
Powders. Formula. Combine Blue Cohosh 1; Helonias 2; Black Haw 3. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Practitioner. Tincture Viburnum prunifolium BHP (1983), 20ml; Tincture Chamaelirium luteum BHP (1983) 20ml; Tincture Viburnum opulus BHP (1983), 20ml; Tincture Capsicum, fort, BPC 1934, 0.05ml. Distilled water to 100ml. Sig: 5ml tds pc c Aq cal.
Black Cohosh. Liquid Extract Cimicifuja BP 1898, 1:1 in 90 per cent alcohol. Dosage: 0.3-2ml. OR: Tincture Cimicifuja, BPC 1934, 1:10 in 60 per cent alcohol. Dosage: 2-4ml.
Squaw Vine (mother’s cordial) is specific for habitual abortion, beginning soon after becoming pregnant and continuing until the seventh month. Also the best remedy when abortion threatens. If attended by a physician for abortion, a hypodermic of morphine greatly assists; followed by Liquid Extract 1:1 Squaw Vine. Dosage: 2-4ml, 3 times daily.
Liquid extracts. Squaw Vine, 4 . . . Helonias, 1 . . . Black Haw bark, 1 . . . Blue Cohosh, 1. Mix. Dose: One teaspoon every 2 hours for 10 days. Thereafter: 2 teaspoons before meals, 3 times daily. Honey to sweeten, if necessary. (Dr Finlay Ellingwood)
Abortion, to prevent: Cramp bark, (Dr John Christopher)
Evening Primrose. Two 500mg capsules, at meals thrice daily.
Diet: High protein.
Vitamins. C. B6. Multivitamins. E (400iu daily).
Minerals. Calcium. Iodine. Iron. Selenium, Zinc. Magnesium deficiency is related to history of spontaneous abortion; magnesium to commence as soon as pregnant.
Enforced bed rest. ... abortion – to prevent
Symptoms. Skin of yellow tinge, failing eyesight, swollen ankles, feeble heart action, numbness of feet and legs, dyspepsia, tingling in limbs, diarrhoea, red beefy sore tongue, patches of bleeding under skin, unsteadiness and depression.
Treatment. Hospitalisation. Intramuscular injections of Vitamin B12. Herbs known to contain the vitamin – Comfrey, Iceland Moss. Segments of fresh Comfrey root and Garlic passed through a blender produce a puree – good results reported.
Alternatives:– Teas: Milk Thistle, Hops, Wormwood, Betony, White Horehound, Motherwort, Parsley, Nettles, Centuary.
Formula. Combine Centuary 2; Hyssop 1; White Horehound 1; Red Clover flower 1; Liquorice quarter. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water, infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Decoction. Combine Yellow Dock 1; Peruvian bark quarter; Blue Flag root quarter; Sarsaparilla 1; Bogbean half. 1 teaspoon to each cup of water, or 4oz (30 grams) to 1 pint (half litre) water. Simmer gently 10-15 minutes in covered vessel. Dose: Half-1 cup, thrice daily.
Decoction. Combine Yellow Dock 1; Peruvian bark quarter; Blue Flag root quarter; Sarsaparilla 1; Bogbean half. 1 teaspoon to each cup of water, or 4oz (30 grams) to 1 pint (one-half litre) water. Simmer gently 10-15 minutes in covered vessel. Dose: Half-1 cup, thrice daily.
Tablets/capsules. Echinacea, Dandelion, Kelp.
Powders. Formula. Equal parts: Gentian, Balm of Gilead, Yellow Dock. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon), thrice daily before meals.
Liquid Extracts. Combine, Echinacea 2; Gentian 1; Dandelion 1; Ginger quarter. Dose: 15-30 drops in water thrice daily.
Gentian decoction. 1 teaspoon dried root to each cup cold water.
Diet. Dandelion coffee. Calves’ liver. Absorption of nutritious food may be poor through stomach’s inability to produce sufficient acid to break down food into its elements. Indicated: 2-3 teaspoons Cider vinegar in water between meals. Contraindicated – vegetarian diet.
Supplements. Vitamin B12, (in absence of injections). Iron – Floradix. Desiccated liver. Vitamin C 1g thrice daily at meals. Folic acid. 400mcg thrice daily. ... anaemia: pernicious
See: MENORRHAGIA. ... menstruation, prolonged
Mild analgesics:– Black Cohosh, Black Willow, Catnep, Chamomile, Cowslip root (Bio-Strath), Cramp bark, Devil’s Claw, Gelsemium, Guaiacum, Hops, Jamaican Dogwood, Ladyslipper, Lobelia, Passion flower, Rosemary, Skullcap, St John’s Wort, Skunk Cabbage, Valerian, White Willow bark, Wild Lettuce, Wild Yam, Wintergreen, Yerbe Mate tea, Poke root, White Poplar.
Skullcap, Mistletoe, Valerian and Feverfew are herbs of choice. All four are believed to have an anti- prostaglandin effect, the first three given in combination; the latter (Feverfew) appearing to work best singly. ... analgesics - pain-relievers - anodynes
Alternatives:– Teas. Gotu Kola, Red clover flowers, Chickweed. Singly or in combination. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water: infuse 5-10 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Decoction. Fine cut: Burdock 2; Horsetail 1; Echinacea 1; Thuja quarter. Mix. 1oz to 1 pint water gently simmered 15 minutes. Wineglassful (or half a cup) thrice daily, before meals.
Tablets/capsules. Echinacea, Poke root, Prickly Ash bark.
Powders. Formula. Sarsaparilla 1; Echinacea 1; Boneset half; Thuja quarter. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Liquid extracts. Formula. Equal parts: Echinacea, Devil’s Claw, Gotu Kola. Dose: 30-60 drops thrice daily before meals.
Tinctures. Formula. Burdock 2; Echinacea 1; Boneset 1; Sarsaparilla 1; Thuja quarter. Fennel quarter. Mix. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily.
Cod Liver oil.
Topical. Comfrey poultice, Chickweed cream, Oils of Mullein, Jojoba or Evening Primrose.
Diet. Oily fish (or fish oils). Low salt, low fat.
Supplements. Vitamins A, B-complex, C, D, E, Magnesium, Sulphur, Zinc. ... arthritis – psoriatic
Blood tonic. Decoction, tablets, tinctures or fluid extracts:– Echinacea 3; Burdock 2; Goldenseal 1. See also: ALTERATIVES. ... blood purifiers
Rosemary. 1 teaspoon leaves to cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Tea. Formula. Equal parts leaves, Agnus Castus, Rosemary, Balm. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; 1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Evening Primrose oil. 10 drops (or 2 × 250ml capsules) 3 times daily.
Poke root. Internally and externally.
Yorkshire gypsy device: fix a cabbage or a rhubarb leaf beneath brassiere.
Liquid Extract Blue Cohosh BHP (1983): 0.5-1ml, Thrice daily. Alternative: Liquid Extract Rosemary BHP (1983): 2-4ml. Thrice daily.
Vitamins. All-round multivitamin and mineral supplement. Vitamin C (1g daily). Vitamin E (400iu daily). ... breast (female) tenderness, pain
To break dependency: White Willow bark, Guaiacum, Oats, Passion flower.
Overdosing may cause liver damage for which Fringe Tree bark is indicated. Nutrients: Vitamins B-complex, C. Zinc. ... paracetamol toxicity
While an internal mechanism slows down the body, caffeine in tea, cola and coffee restores alertness. Caffeine acts by blocking the action of the compound, adenosine – one of the building blocks of DNA which promotes cell energy. Caffeine interferes with natural metabolic processes. In the aged, coffee increases production of uric acid, causing irritation of the kidneys, joint and muscle pains. vCaffeinism is responsible for a wide range of disorders. Increases the heart beat, promotes excessive stomach acid and increases flow of urine. It may give rise to birth defects and should be taken with caution in pregnancy.
Symptoms. Restlessness, nervous agitation, extreme sensitiveness. Intolerance of pain, nervous palpitation, all senses acute.
To antidote. Chamomile tea.
Practitioner. Tincture Nux vom BP: 10 drops to 100ml water. Dose: 1 teaspoon thrice daily. Inhalation: Strong spirits of Camphor.
Diet. Plenty asparagus. ... caffeine poisoning
Constituents: flavone glycosides.
Action: hypnotic, sedative, nerve relaxant, anodyne.
Uses: Insomnia, migraine, stressful conditions, nervous bowel, anxiety, depression, neuralgia. Combines well with Passion Flower (equal parts) for hyperactivity and sleeplessness.
Preparations: Tea. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; morning and evening. Powder: capsule: 240mg. 2 capsules middle of afternoon; 4 capsules evening one hour after going to bed. (Arkocaps) ... californean poppy
Symptoms. Weight loss. Pain upper abdomen. Change of bowel habit. Phlebitis. Low blood sugar. Sugar in the urine. Jaundice when head of the pancreas is involved. As little benefit is said to be gained from chemotherapy or radiotherapy, and because a majority of these tumours are unresectable, there would appear to be good grounds for herbal medicine, either as primary or supportive treatment.
Of possible therapeutic value for relief of accompanying gastric and pressure symptoms only: Sarsaparilla, Liquorice, Dandelion, Peppermint, Fennel, German Chamomile.
Tea. Barberry bark. 1 teaspoon to each cup of cold water. Steep overnight. Dose: half-1 cup 3 or more times daily.
Formula. Equal parts: Barberry bark, Dandelion, Galangal. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon (5ml). Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Thrice daily to commence: after fourteen days increase as tolerated.
Primrose oil. High doses GLA believed to improve immune system and prevent weight loss.
Macrobiotic diet. A retired English doctor had cancer of the pancreas, inoperable, the size of a cricket ball, for which conventional treatment could do nothing. Regression being almost impossible, he would die within a few months. In the meantime he was advised to try the Macrobiotic diet comprising wholefoods, compost grown vegetables, vegetable oils and natural drinks such as carrot juice and herbal teas. He and his wife, living in Italy, carefully followed the diet, drank water only from a local spring and ate vegetables organically grown on their own land. The tumour diminished in size and the doctor recovered.
Note: Cessation of cigarette smoking will result in a decreased incidence of the disease in the male adult population. (American Journal of Public Health 1989 79 1016)
A substance found in fish oil has been shown experimentally to prevent cancer of the pancreas. Mackerel, herring and sardines are among fish with the ingredient.
Treatment by oncologist or general practitioner. ... cancer – pancreas
Aniseed, Benzoic acid as in Storax and the balsams of Tolu and Peru. Chaparral, Cinnamon oil, Garlic, Poke root, Rosemary, Rue, Thymol (oil of Thyme), Sassafras oil. (Topical use only) Quassia chips (cold infusion for head lice, fleas, scabies. ... parasiticides
Symptoms. Bladder irritability; increased frequency during the night. Feeble forked stream of urine. Sometimes blood. Three quarters of such tumours are located in the posterior lobe of the prostate gland – readily accessible to the examining finger through the front wall of the rectum. Rectal examination reveals a hard rugged prostate. Cystoscopy confirms. Bone pains in the low back or pelvis reflect a stage where the tumour has already spread. Anaemia, weight loss, urgency.
All symptoms are worse by alcohol and spicy foods.
Harvard University scientists report: heavy consumption of animal fat, especially the fat in red meat appears to increase the chance that a man will develop advanced prostate cancer.
Of therapeutic value. Comfrey, Echinacea, Horsetail, Poke root, Thuja, Cornsilk, Goldenseal.
Tea. Combination. Comfrey leaves, Horsetail, Cornsilk. Equal parts. 2-3 teaspoons to each cup boiling water. Drink freely.
Formula No. 1. Echinacea 2; Comfrey 1; Poke root half; Thuja half. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Thrice daily in water or cup of Cornsilk tea.
Formula No. 2. (Alternative) Echinacea 2; Goldenseal 1; Gotu Kola 1; Poke root half. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons in water or cup of Cornsilk tea.
Bee pollen. Of value.
Garlic. Of value.
Diet. See: DIET – CANCER.
There is a very low incidence of prostate cancer in countries where Soya products are widely consumed – Soya contains a female hormone which is a protector factor.
Supplements. Morning and evening.
Vitamin A 7500iu or more. Large doses may be required. Vitamin C 1-2g. Vitamin E 200iu. Calcium 500mg. Selenium 100mcg. Zinc.
Study. Men with prostate cancer may not need to undergo radical prostatectomy (removal of the prostate gland). A 10-year follow-up study of men with early prostate cancer left untreated showed that 10 years later only 8.5 per cent of the 223 patients had died from prostate cancer. The survival rate of 86.8 per cent in the untreated group was nearly identical to a subgroup who met all the conditions for radical prostatectomy. (Journal of American Medical Association, 22/29 April 1992)
Commonly treated with female sex hormone or by orchidectomy.
It would appear that surgical removal of the gland offers little benefit, and possibly a disadvantage to patients wishing to leave well alone, particularly the elderly. Treatment by a general medical practitioner or oncologist. ... cancer – prostate gland
By the blood and lymph cancer may be transferred (metastasised) to the lymph nodes under the arm, liver, brain or lungs. An association has been shown between a low intake of Vitamin A and lung cancer. Causes: occupational hazards, environmental pollution, radiation, keeping of pet birds. Cigarette smoking is a strong risk factor. Studies show that a high Vitamin A/carotene intake is protective against the disease in men. Among women, evidence of a similar protective effect has not been found. Vitamin C reduces cancer risk. The increased prevalence of smoking among women results in more female lung cancer. All smokers should drink freely carrot juice (Vitamin A).
Symptoms. Chronic irritative cough, difficult breathing, pain in the chest, recurrent spitting of blood, clubbing of fingers, weight loss.
Alternatives. Only transient benefit is obtainable, yet it may be sufficient to achieve a measure of relief from distressing symptoms. See: CANCER: GENERAL REMARKS. Mullein tea has its supporters. Bugleweed strengthens lung tissue and supports the action of the heart. Blood root is known to arrest bleeding (haemoptysis).
Tea. Equal parts: Red Clover, Gota Kola, Mullein. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. 1 cup three or more times daily.
Formula No 1. Equal parts: Elecampane, Violet, Red Clover, Echinacea. Mix. Dose: Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 1-3 teaspoons. Thrice daily and, if necessary, at bedtime for relief.
Formula No 2. Tincture Blood root 10 drops; Liquid extract Dogwood 20 drops; Liquid extract Elecampane 200 drops (14ml); Liquid extract Bugleweed (Lycopus europ) 30 drops. Flavour with Liquorice if necessary. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons in water 3 or more times daily. (W. Burns-Lingard MNIMH)
Where accompanied by active inflammation, anti-inflammatories are indicated: Mistletoe, Wild Yam, etc.
Diet. A substance in fish oil has been shown to experimentally prevent cancer of the lung. Mackerel, herring and sardines are among fish with the ingredient. See: DIET – CANCER.
Chinese Herbalism. See: CANCER – CHINESE PRESCRIPTION.
Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital oncologist. ... cancer – pulmonary
Drinking antifreeze initially produces effects similar to alcohol intoxication, but vomiting, stupor, seizures, and coma may follow; acute kidney failure may occur within 24–36 hours.
Antifreeze poisoning requires immediate medical attention.... antifreeze poisoning
Action: anti-allergenic, galactagogue. Canary Island nursing mothers bind leaves to the breast to increase secretion of milk. Vitality of cells is upgraded by contact with the oil. Oral contraceptive. (V.J. Brondegaard, Plants Med. 23, 167, 1973) A traditional purgative.
Uses: Internal. Rarely used, except for varied forms of allergy (penicillin, hay fever, etc): 5 drops oil in honey, 3-4 times daily. Mouth ulcers, smear with oil. Large doses avoided.
Topical. Anti-fungal, emollient, anodyne.
Application to warts, corns, bunions, skin disorders, psoriasis, eczema, nail infection, bedsores, pigmented mole, ringworm, itch, ear-infection in children (drops), leg ulcers – dab with smear for pain relief, rodent ulcers made bearable, gangrene (with tincture Myrrh drops). Oil massaged into scalp for 20 minutes daily for falling hair. Eyelids, to soothe and heal. Age spots: brown patches on face, arms or hands have been known to disappear when persevering with a smear of each – Castor oil and Bicarbonate of Soda.
Preparations: Internal use: oil – 5 to 20ml, as prescribed.
External use: Zinc and Castor oil cream, or ointment. Or, Castor oil only.
Castor oil pack, to stimulate the immune system: apply soft pad of material saturated with Castor oil; hold in position with elastic bandage for skin diseases, pains of arthritis or rheumatism; lacerated and well-sutured wounds that refuse to heal. Renew oil when pad becomes dry. Oil may be used as a vehicle for eye drops. ... castor oil plant
Records provide one of the few sources of information about medicinal plants in cultivation during the 18th century. The famous gardener Philip Miller took over in 1722 and developed it as the finest botanic garden in the world for its amazing variety of plants. In the 18th century cotton seeds were sent from the garden to form the crop of the new colony of Georgia, America.
From Chelsea, Madagascan Vinca rosea was distributed and which earned a place in modern medicine (vinplastine) for the treatment of leukaemia. After many years neglect, medical botany enjoys a renaissance during which the skills of the garden’s scientific staff are again in demand for the training of pharmacists and students of other disciplines. Its buildings house a valuable collection of botanical books, including John Parkinson’s “Paradisus”. ... chelsea physic garden
1. Powders: 3oz Bayberry, 1oz Ginger, half Cinnamon, half an ounce Cloves, quarter of an ounce Cayenne. Sift. Mix. (E.G. Jones MNIMH)
2. 2oz Bayberry, 1oz Ginger, 1oz Pleurisy root, half an ounce Cayenne. Sift. Mix. (Melville C. Keith MD) 3. 2oz Poplar bark, 1oz Balmony herb, half an ounce Goldenseal, half an ounce Cinnamon, three-quarters of an ounce Cayenne. Mix. Sift. “This brought the American physiomedical doctors immortal fame.” (F.H. England MD)
Dose: Quarter to 1 teaspoon in hot water, tea or honey. The powder may be fed into 00 capsules: 2-4 capsules swallowed or taken as above.
Composition powder is a harmless stimulant against winter’s ills, influenza and for the first stages of fevers. Long traditional reputation for stomach and bowel disorders, cramp, collapse, circulatory stasis, fainting, hypothermia, to promote perspiration, to assuage moderate degree pain. In the elderly it was given to rekindle the fires of life when burning low. ... composition powders
Treatment. Conventional medicine advises strong anti-depressants. Alternatives, until “hormones settle down”: Agnus Castus, Helonias, Milk Thistle. Raspberry leaf tea (tablets/capsules/liquid extracts/tinctures). Special attention to the thyroid gland.
Diet. See: GENERAL DIET.
Supplements. Vitamins: B group, E. Minerals: Calcium, Iodine, Magnesium, Zinc. Tyrosine. Supportives: Astute GP, helpful health visitor, thoughtful husband. ... depression – post-natal
1. It is illegal for anyone not a registered medical practitioner to attempt to procure an abortion: a member must not knowingly administer an abortifacient or known uterine muscle stimulant remedies to a pregnant patient, nor instruments for the purpose of procuring an abortion, nor assist in any illegal operation.
2. It is required that any intimate examinations on a patient of the opposite sex be conducted in the presence of a relative of the patient or a suitable assistant.
3. A member must not treat or prescribe any remedy for gonorrhoea, syphilis, or urinary affections of a venereal nature.
4. It is the duty of the practitioner to notify the District Medical Officer regarding any disease on the current list of notifiable diseases. In cases of industrial poisoning or accident the local district branch of the Health and Safety Executive should be notified.
5. A member must consider very carefully the implications of recommending a course of treatment contrary to the advice of the patient’s registered medical practitioner or of not recommending referral to a registered medical practitioner in the case of serious disease or uncertain diagnosis. Members must be aware of their vulnerability in law on this issue and must ensure in such a case that all available information is given to the patient and that the patient makes the final decision without coercion.
6. A parent or supervising adult must be present at any treatment or examination of a child under the age of 16, or of a mentally-retarded patient.
7. The Data Protection Act means that any practitioner keeping patient’s data on computer file must register under the terms of the Act.
8. A member must become familiar with the terms of the Medicine’s Act 1968 and subsequent statutory instruments, notably the Medicines (Retail Sale or Supply of Herbal Remedies) Order 1977. Particular care should be taken to become familiar with the statutory maximum doses of those remedies listed in Schedule III of the latter order. Detailed records of prescriptions and dispensing must also be kept.
9. The Medicines Act further states that to claim exemptions from the restrictions on the supply of certain herbal remedies, the practitioner should supply said remedies from premises occupied by the practitioner and able to be closed so as to exclude the public.
10. The Medicines Act adds that to claim the said exemptions, the person supplying the remedy “sells or supplies it for administration to a particular person after being requested by or on behalf of that person and in that person’s presence to use his own judgement as to the treatment required”. The member should avoid treatment through telephone or postal contact, although repeat prescriptions may be supplied on this basis for a limited period.
11. Dispensing and labelling of medicines should at least comply with the terms of the Medicines Act. All medicines should be labelled to clearly indicate the correct dosage or other directions for use (especially for those remedies subject to a statutory maximum dose), and with the name and address of the practitioner and the date of dispensing.
12. A member should never claim verbally or in print to be able to cure any life-threatening or serious disease.
13. The distribution or display of letter headings, business cards or practice information should be compatible with the highest professional medical standards. ... code of practice
Adolescents are most commonly affected.
The condition may result from knee injuries or sporting activities in which the knee is bent for long periods.
This action weakens the inner part of the quadriceps muscle (at the front of the thigh) causing the patella to tilt when the knee is straightened and rub against the lower end of the femur.
The cartilage that covers both bones becomes roughened, causing pain and tenderness.
Treatment is with analgesic drugs and exercises to strengthen the thigh muscles.
Rarely, surgery may be needed.... chondromalacia patellae
Side effects are dizziness, drowsiness, constipation, and nausea.
The drug may be habit-forming if taken over a long period.... co-proxamol
Defoliants are poisonous if swallowed.
Widely used defoliants include sodium chlorate, potassium chlorate, phenoxy herbicides, and paraquat.... defoliant poisoning
Action. Anticoagulant, nutritive, demulcent, anti-eczema. Reduces blood clotting time, which is of value for thrombosis. A precursor of Prostaglandin E1 which inhibits abnormal cell proliferation and reduces blood pressure. Reduces serum cholesterol levels. Externally: to protect moisture balance of the skin.
Use s. Stops platelet-clumping. Dilates coronary arteries and removes obstructions. Intermittent claudication. Raynaud’s disease. Said to slow down the progress of multiple sclerosis. Pre-menstrual tension and breast pain. Said to arrest rheumatoid arthritis in moderate cases. Prevention of liver damage. Dry scaly skin disorders; eczema, acne (with zinc). Soft brittle finger nails. Abnormal tear production. Hyperactive children. Mental depression. Diabetic retinitis. To allay the ageing process. Alleviates hangovers. Alcohol habit. Pruritus. Combined with Vitamin E which acts as a protective antioxidant. Trials have shown that the oil has significantly improved sensory function: muscle weakness, arm tendon reflex and numbness – which signs may be reversed in diabetes.
Preparations: “Efamol” 500: comprising 500mg Evening Primrose oil; 10mg natural Vitamin E. 4-6 capsules daily depending on requirement, for 6-8 weeks.
To maintain EFA and GLA levels. “Efamol” 250: comprising 250mg Evening Primrose oil; 200mg Safflower oil; 50mg Linseed oil; 10mg Vitamin E. 3-4 capsules daily, regularly.
Vitamins B6 and C; and minerals Magnesium and Zinc assist its action. Features in a wide range of cosmetic products as a moisturiser.
Poultice: leaves and flowers for abscesses, boils, etc.
Not given in epilepsy. ... evening primrose
Causes: foot-strain, deformity, osteoporosis, high heels throwing the body out of its normal posture, tight shoes.
Feet are often painful because one or more of the bones are out of alignment and which may be adjusted by simple osteopathy. The process can be assisted by foot-baths of Chamomile flowers, Arnica flowers, or Comfrey to relax muscles and tendons.
Alternatives. Alfalfa, Chaparral, Ligvites, Prickly Ash.
Topical. Aromatherapy. (Sensitive feet) Oils of Pine, Eucalyptus or Thyme – 6 drops, any one, to 2 teaspoons Almond oil. Warm. Massage into foot and wrap round with damp hot towel.
General. Acupuncture. Shoes should be bought in the afternoon, particularly if feet swell during the day. Shoes that fit well in the morning may have become too tight by tea-time. ... feet – pain in
Constituents: gum, resin, starch, saponin glycosides, volatile oil.
Uses: Physical weakness, neurasthenia, recovery after surgery. Promotes physical and intellectual efficiency. A mood-raiser. Induces a feeling of well being and stability. Depression, sexual debility, sleeplessness. The sportsman’s remedy, improving running ability and endurance. Retards build-up of lactic acid which normally occurs during hard exercise and causes fatigue. Increases resistance to excess cold or heat exposure and to a working environment with a noisy background. Lessens side-effects of insulin in diabetes. To help the body adapt to a changed environment (jet lag). Enhances mental performance in students. Promotes biosynthesis of DNA and RNA.
Preparations: Miscellaneous products available. Single morning dose.
Decoction. Half-1 teaspoon to each cup water gently simmered 10 minutes, or added to a cup of domestic tea.
Powder. Half-1g daily.
Contra-indications: hyperactivity in children, pregnancy, high blood pressure, menopause. Not taken continuously but for periods from 1 week to 1 month. Should not be taken with coffee. ... ginseng - king plant
Uveitis is a common cause of dull, aching pain. The redness is caused by widening of blood vessels around the iris. Another serious cause of pain and redness in one eye is acute closedangle glaucoma. Other causes include keratitis, usually due to a corneal ulcer, or a foreign body in the eye (see eye, foreign body in). The most common cause of redness and irritation in the eye is conjunctivitis.... eye, painful red
(a) The practitioner must supply remedies from premises (apart from a shop) in private practice ‘so as to exclude the public’. He is not permitted to exceed the maximum permitted dose for certain remedies, or to prescribe POM medicines.
(b) The practitioner must exercise his judgement in the presence of the patient, in person, before prescribing treatment for that person alone.
(c) For internal treatment, remedies are subject to a maximum dose restriction. All labels on internal medicines must show clearly the date, correct dosage or daily dosage, and other instructions for use. Medicines should not be within the reach of children.
(d) He may not supply any remedies appearing in Schedule 1. Neither shall he supply any on Schedule 2 (which may not be supplied on demand by retail).
He may supply all remedies included in the General Sales List (Order 2129).
(e) He must observe requirements of Schedule III as regards remedies for internal and external use.
(f) He must notify the Enforcement Authority that he intends to supply from a fixed address (not a shop) remedies listed in Schedule III.
(g) Proper clinical records should be kept, together with records of remedies he uses under Schedule III. The latter shall be available for inspection at any time by the Enforcement Authority.
The practitioner usually makes his own tinctures from ethanol for which registration with the Customs and Excise office is required. Duty is paid, but which may later be reclaimed. Accurate records of its consumption must be kept for official inspection.
Under the Medicines Act 1968 it is unlawful to manufacture or assemble (dispense) medicinal products without an appropriate licence or exemption. The Act provides that any person committing such an offence shall be liable to prosecution.
Herbal treatments differ from person to person. A prescription will be ‘tailored’ according to the clinical needs of the individual, taking into account race as well as age. Physical examination may be necessary to obtain an accurate diagnosis. The herbalist (phytotherapist) will be concerned not only in relieving symptoms but with treating the whole person.
If a person is receiving treatment from a member of the medical profession and who is also taking herbal medicine, he/she should discuss the matter with the doctor, he being responsible for the clinical management of the case.
The practitioner can provide incapacity certificates for illness continuing in excess of four days for those who are employed. It is usual for Form CCAM 1 5/87 to be used as issued on the authority of the Council for Complementary and Alternative medicine.
General practitioners operating under the UK National Health Service may use any alternative or complementary therapy they choose to treat their patients, cost refunded by the NHS. They may either administer herbal or other treatment themselves or, if not trained in medical herbalism can call upon the services of a qualified herbalist. The herbal practitioner must accept that the GP remains in charge of the patient’s clinical management.
See: MEDICINES ACT 1968, LABELLING OF HERBAL PRODUCTS, LICENSING OF HERBAL REMEDIES – EXEMPTIONS FROM. ... herbal practitioner
Misleading claims and the use of such words as “organic”, “wholesome”, “natural” or “biological” cannot be accepted on product labels. The Licensing Authority treats herbal manufacturers no differently than manufacturers of allopathic products for serious conditions.
The Advertising Standards Authority does not allow quotation of any medicinal claims, except where a Product Licence (PL) has been authorised by the Licensing Authority.
All labels must include: Name of product (as on Product Licence), description of pharmaceutical form (tablet, mixture etc), Product Licence No., Batch No., quantity of each active ingredient in each unit dose in metric terms; dose and directions for use; quantity in container (in metric terms); “Keep out of reach of children” or similar warning; Name and address of Product Licence Holder; expiry date (if applicable); and any other special warnings. Also to appear: excipients, method/route of administration, special storage instructions, and precautions for disposal, if any.
Where licences are granted, the following words should appear on the label of a product: “A herbal product traditionally used for the symptomatic relief of . . .”. “If symptoms persist see your doctor.” “Not to be used in pregnancy” (where applicable). “If you think you have . . . consult a registered medical practitioner before taking this product.” “If you are already receiving medical treatment, tell your doctor that you are taking this product.” These warnings are especially necessary should symptoms persist and be the start of something more serious than a self-limiting condition.
Herbal preparations should be labelled with the additives and colourings they contain, if any. This helps practitioners avoid prescribing medicines containing them to certain patients on whom they may have an adverse reaction.
Labels of medicinal products shall comply with the Medicines (Labelling) Regulations 1976 (SI 1976 No. 1726) as amended by the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1977 (SI 1977 No. 996), the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1981 (SI 1981 No. 1791) and the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1985 (SI 1985 No. 1558).
Leaflets issued with proprietory medicinal products shall comply with the requirements of the Medicines (Leaflets) Regulations 1977 (SI 1977 No. 1055).
See also: ADVERTISING: CODE OF PRACTICE. BRITISH HERBAL MEDICINE ASSOCIATION. ... labelling of herbal products
Genetic probes are mainly used in antenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders, and in investigating whether people with a family history of a genetic disorder carry the defective gene themselves.... genetic probe
Surgery may be needed to remove a damaged area of liver following injury, or to treat noncancerous liver tumours and hydatid disease.
Rarely, liver cancer is treated in this way.... hepatectomy, partial
Although medication with opiates is addictive and its abuse ranges from dependence to death, use of crushed poppyheads as a topical poultice for crippling pain, as in terminal disease of chest or abdomen, is worthy of consideration. In an age before modern drugs and anaesthetics this was one of the few solaces available. Even today, there are a few situations for which this deep-acting pain-killer is indicated as, for instance, wounds healed but not without pain.
In spite of the plethora of modern drugs to combat the pain of terminal illness, few are as effective as the greatest anodyne of all time which led the eminent Sydenham to say “. . . if it were expunged from the pharmacopoeia, I would give up the practise of medicine”. ... opium poppy
Constituents. Alkaloids, benzoic acid, asparagin, volatile oil.
Action: antispasmodic, sedative, diuretic, emmenagogue. CNS relaxant, antibacterial, hypotensive, anti- inflammatory, analgesic, liver protector, stimulant to circulatory vessels.
Uses: Old English traditional: epilepsy, chorea. Painful spasm induced by gall or renal stone, whooping cough, children’s convulsions, anal fissure, piles, ulceration of the perineum or coccyx (suppositories, or bathing with strong infusion).
Preparations: Strong infusion: 2oz bruised leaves to 1 pint boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. External use only.
Tincture of the fresh root gathered in spring. 2oz bruised root in 1 pint 45 per cent alcohol. Macerate 8 days, shake daily; filter. Bottle in stoppered amber-coloured bottle. Dose, 10-20 drops thrice daily for the above conditions or when epileptic attack is suspected.
Contra-indications: large doses toxic. For use by medical practitioner only. ... paeony
This operation was formerly used to treat severe psychiatric disorders; it is very rarely performed now.... lobotomy, prefrontal
Palming was initiated by Dr William Bates who, suffering from physical exhaustion and eye strain cupped his eyes in his palms to relax the tension. A few minutes later he felt refreshed and his eyes no longer ached. From this experience he devised the Bates Method to strengthen the eyes. ... palming
Added to the above are:– muscular rigidity, loss of reflexes, drooling – escape of saliva from the mouth. Muscles of the face are stiff giving a fixed expression, the back presents a bowed posture. The skin is excessively greasy and the patient is unable to express emotional feelings. Loss of blinking. Pin- rolling movement of thumb and forefinger.
Causes: degeneration of groups of nerve cells deep within the brain which causes a lack of neurotransmitting chemical, dopamine. Chemicals such as sulphur used by agriculture, drugs and the food industry are suspected. Researchers have found an increase in the disease in patients born during influenza pandemics.
Treatment. While cure is not possible, a patient may be better able to combat the condition with the help of agents that strengthen the brain and nervous system.
Tea. Equal parts: Valerian, Passion flower, Mistletoe. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup water; bring to boil; simmer 1 minute; dose: half-1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Gotu Kola tea. (CNS stimulant).
Tablets/capsules. Black Cohosh, Cramp bark, Ginseng, Prickly Ash, Valerian.
Formula. Ginkgo 2; Black Cohosh 1; Motherwort 2; Ginger 1. Mix. Dose. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 1-3 teaspoons in water or honey. Fava Bean Tea.
Case report. Two patients unresponsive to Levodopa treatment reported improvement following meals of fresh broad beans. (Vicia faba) The beans contain levodopa in large amounts. (Parkinson Disease Update Vol 8, No 66, p186, Medical Publications, PO Box 24622-H, Philadelphia, USA) See also: BROAD BEANS. L-DOPA.
Nacuna Pruriens. Appropriate. Essential active constituent: L-dopa. (Medicinal plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa, by Abayomi Sofowora, Pub: John Wiley)
Practitioner. To reduce tremor: Tincture Hyoscyamus BP. To reduce spasm: Tincture Belladonna BP. To arrest drooling: Tincture Stramonium BP.
Diet. It is known that people who work in manganese factories in Chile may develop Parkinson’s disease after the age of 30. Progress of the disease is arrested on leaving the factory. Two items of diet highest in manganese are wheat and liver which should be avoided, carbohydrates in place of wheat taking the form of rice and potatoes.
Supplements. Daily: B-complex, B2, B6, niacin. C 200mg to reduce side-effects of Levodopa. Vitamin E 400iu to possibly reduce rigidity, tremors and loss of balance.
Treatment of severe nerve conditions should be supervised by neurologists and practitioners whose training prepares them to recognise serious illness and to integrate herbal and supplementary intervention safely into the treatment plan.
Antioxidants. Evidence has been advanced showing how nutritional antioxidants, high doses of Vitamin C and E, can retard onset of the disease, delaying the use of Levodopa for an average of 2 and a half years. (Fahn S., High Dose Alpha-tocopherol and ascorbate in Early Parkinson’s Disease – Annals of Neurology, 32-S pp128-132 1992)
For support and advice: The Parkinson’s Disease Society, 22 Upper Woburn Place, London WC1H 0RA, UK. Send SAE. ... parkinson’s disease
uterus (an invasive mole). A molar pregnancy that becomes cancerous is called a choriocarcinoma.
If the dead embryo and placenta are not expelled from the uterus after a miscarriage, the dead tissue is called a carneous mole.... molar pregnancy
Back pain is usually caused by minor damage to the ligaments and muscles in the back. The lower back is especially vulnerable to these problems because it supports most of the body’s weight and is under continual stress from movements such as bending, twisting, and stretching. Less commonly, lower back pain may result from an underlying disorder such as a prolapsed intervertebral disc (see disc prolapse) in the spine.
In most cases, back pain can be treated with over-the-counter painkillers (see analgesic drugs) such as aspirin and related drugs, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, or muscle-relaxant drugs. If the pain persists, a heat pad, a wrapped hot-water bottle or, sometimes, an ice-pack, may provide additional relief. Generally, it is advisable to remain as active as the pain permits. People whose pain worsens or is still too severe to allow normal movement after several days should consult a doctor for medical tests.
Investigations for back pain, such as X-rays, CT scanning, or MRI, sometimes reveal abnormalities, such as disc prolapse, that require surgical treatment and can be treated by a microdiscectomy.
Other treatments for back pain include acupuncture, spinal injection, exercise, or spinal manipulation.... back pain
Behavioural problems that are common in babies and young children include feeding difficulties (see feeding, infant) and sleeping problems, such as waking repeatedly in the night. In toddlers, breath-holding attacks, tantrums, separation anxiety, and head-banging are problems best dealt with by a consistent and appropriate approach. Problems with toilet-training are usually avoided if the training is delayed until the child is physically and emotionally ready.
Between the ages of 4 and 8, behavioural problems such as nail-biting and thumb-sucking, clinginess, nightmares, and bed-wetting (see enuresis) are so common as to be almost normal.
They are best dealt with by a positive approach that concentrates on rewarding good behaviour.
In most cases, the child grows out of the problem, but sometimes medical help may be needed.... behavioural problems in children
Platelets may be given in transfusions for people with blood-clotting disorders. Patients who have life-threatening infections may be treated with granulocytes, a type of white blood cell. Fresh frozen plasma is used to correct many types of bleeding disorder because it contains all the clotting factors. Albumin, prepared from the plasma of whole blood, is used mainly to treat shock resulting from severe blood loss until compatible whole blood becomes available. Purified albumin preparations are used to treat nephrotic syndrome and chronic liver disease.
Concentrates of blood clotting factors and are used in the treatment of haemophilia and Christmas disease.
Immunoglobulins (also called antibodies), which are extracted from blood plasma, can be given by injection (see immunoglobulin injection) to protect people who are unable to produce their own antibodies or have already been exposed to an infectious agent, or to provide short-term protection against hepatitis A.
Immunoglobulins are given in large doses to treat certain autoimmune disorders.... blood products
Most nasal polyps are noncancerous, but they may need to be removed if they cause nasal obstruction.... nasal polyp
The disease resembles eczema and can cause itching and a burning feeling.
A non-healing sore may develop.
Without treatment, the tumour may spread into the breast.
Diagnosis is made with a biopsy.... paget’s disease of the nipple
tendon or bursa around the shoulder joint being squeezed between the scapula and humerus.
Treatment includes physiotherapy and injection of corticosteroid drugs.... painful arc syndrome
Other methods of pain relief include massage, ice-packs, poultices, TENS, acupuncture, or hypnosis. Surgery to destroy pain-transmitting nerves (as in a cordotomy) is occasionally performed when other treatments fail.... pain relief
wall. In Tietze’s syndrome, inflammation at the junctions of the rib cartilages causes pain on the front of the chest wall.
Pain within the chest may be caused by pleurisy, as a result of bronchitis, pneumonia, or, rarely, pulmonary embolism. Cancerous tumours of the lung (see lung cancer; mesothelioma) may cause pain as they grow and press on the pleura and ribs. Acid reflux may lead to heartburn, a burning pain behind the sternum. The common heart disorder angina pectoris causes pain in the centre of the chest that may spread outwards to the throat, jaw, or arms. Myocardial infarction (heart attack) and acute pericarditis both also produce severe pain in the centre of the chest. Mitral valve prolapse may cause sharp chest pain, usually on the left side. Chest pain may also be a result of anxiety and emotional stress (see hyperventilation; panic attack).... chest pain
hare lip refers only to a midline cleft lip, which is rare. Cleft palate is a gap that may extend from the back of the palate to behind the teeth and be open to the nasal cavity. Cleft palate is often accompanied by partial deafness and there may be other birth defects.
Surgery to repair a cleft lip may be undertaken in the first few days after birth or at about 3 months.
It improves appearance; after repair, speech defects are rare.
A cleft palate is usually repaired at about 12 months, but further surgery, orthodontic treatment, and speech therapy may be required.... cleft lip and palate
Gestational diabetes is usually detected in the second half of pregnancy.
The mother does not produce enough insulin to keep blood glucose levels normal.
True gestational diabetes disappears with the delivery of the baby but is associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes in later life.... diabetic pregnancy
Symptoms improve with time and analgesic drugs. However, in severe cases, surgical techniques, such as decompression of the spinal canal or removal of the protruding material and repair of the disc, may be necessary.... disc prolapse
Drug poisoning may cause drowsiness and breathing difficulty, irregular heartbeat, and, rarely, cardiac arrest, fits, and kidney and liver damage.
Antiarrhythmic drugs are given to treat heartbeat irregularity.
Fits are treated with anticonvulsants.
Blood tests to monitor liver function and careful monitoring of urine output are carried out if the drug is known to damage the liver or kidneys.... drug poisoning
Most commonly, perforation occurs as a result of the build-up of pus in the middle ear due to acute otitis media. Perforation may also be associated with cholesteatoma. Another cause is injury, for example from insertion of an object into the ear, a loud noise, barotrauma, or a fracture to the base of the skull.
Diagnosis is confirmed by examination of the ear (see ear, examination of).
Hearing tests may also be performed.
Analgesic drugs may relieve any pain and antibiotic drugs may be prescribed to treat or prevent infection.
Most perforations heal quickly.
If the perforation has failed to heal after 6 months, myringoplasty may be needed.... eardrum, perforated
Most examinations include palpation, by which the doctor examines relevant parts of the body for signs such as swelling, tenderness, or enlargement of organs. In some cases, percussion of the chest, or other parts of the body, may be performed by tapping with the fingers and then listening to the sound produced. Auscultation may be used to listen to blood flow through arteries and sounds made by the heart and lungs. The doctor may take the pulse or blood pressure, examine the eyes and ears, and assess the strength and coordination of the muscles.... examination, physical
Facial palsy is most often due to Bell’s palsy, which occurs for no known reason. Less commonly, facial palsy is associated with herpes zoster affecting the ear and facial nerve. Facial palsy may also result from surgical damage to this nerve or compression of the nerve by a tumour.
Facial palsy usually comes on suddenly. The eyelid and corner of the mouth droop on one side of the face and there may be pain in the ear on that side. The sense of taste may be impaired or sounds may seem to be unnaturally loud.
In many cases, facial palsy clears up without treatment. Pain can be relieved by taking analgesic drugs, and exercising the facial muscles may aid recovery. In some cases, it may be necessary to tape the eyelid shut at bedtime in order to avoid the risk of corneal abrasion. Bell’s palsy may be treated with corticosteroid drugs to reduce inflammation and speed recovery. Re-routing or grafting of nerve tissue may help people with palsies as a result of injury or a tumour.... facial palsy
The main symptom is a raised purplish rash on the buttocks and backs of the limbs. The joints are swollen and often painful, and colicky abdominal pain may occur. In some cases, there is intestinal bleeding, leading to blood in the faeces. The kidneys may become inflamed, resulting in blood and protein in the urine.
The only treatment usually required is bed rest and analgesic drugs. Complications may arise if kidney inflammation persists. In severe cases, corticosteroid drugs may be given.... henoch–schönlein purpura
The parotid glands lie above the angle of the jaw, below and in front of the ear, on each side of the face.... parotid glands
In men, superficial pain may be due to anatomical abnormalities such as chordee (bowed erection) or phimosis (tight foreskin). Prostatitis may cause a widespread pelvic ache, a burning sensation in the penis, or pain on ejaculation.
Scarring (after childbirth, for example) and lack of vaginal lubrication, especially after the menopause, may cause painful intercourse in women. Psychosexual dysfunction may also cause pain during intercourse. Vaginismus, a condition in which the muscles of the vagina go into spasm, is usually psychological in origin. Deep pain is frequently caused by pelvic disorders (such as fibroids, endometriosis, ectopic pregnancy, or pelvic inflammatory disease due to sexually transmitted infections), disorders of the ovary (such as ovarian cysts), and disorders of the cervix. Other causes are cystitis and urinary tract infections.Treatment is directed at the underlying cause of the pain.
If the discomfort is psychological in origin, special counselling may be needed (see sex therapy).... intercourse, painful
less fluid is produced and the eye becomes soft.... intraocular pressure
Polycystic kidney disease is distinguished from multiple simple kidney cysts, which occur commonly with age.
There are 2 types of polycystic disease.
The most common usually becomes apparent in middle age, producing abdominal swelling, pain, and blood in the urine.
As the disease progresses, hypertension and kidney failure may result.
The rare type causes enlargement of the kidneys and kidney failure in infants and young children.
There is no effective treatment for preserving kidney function in either type, but symptoms of kidney failure can be treated by dialysis and kidney transplant.... kidney, polycystic
The condition results from an imbalance of two gonadotrophin hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). This hormonal imbalance is associated with raised levels of testosterone and oestrogen.
Treatments include clomifene and oral contraceptives. Polycystic ovaries are often associated with high oestrogen levels in the body, which increase the risk of endometrial cancer (see uterus, cancer of); treatment with progesterone may be recommended for this problem. ... ovary, polycystic
Diagnosis usually requires ultrasound scanning, CT scanning or MRI of the upper abdomen, or ERCP.
In early stages, pancreatectomy, radiotherapy and anticancer drugs may provide a cure.
In later stages, little can be done apart from provision of palliative treatment.... pancreas, cancer of
Blood samples are taken from the child, from the suspected father, and sometimes from the mother.
The samples are tested for blood groups, histocompatibility antigens, and similarities in DNA.
Genetic fingerprinting provides the most decisive result.... paternity testing
Symptoms (a sense of breathing difficulty, chest pains, palpitations, feeling light-headed, dizziness, sweating, trembling, and faintness) begin suddenly. Hyperventilation often occurs, causing a pins-and-needles feeling, and feelings of depersonalization and derealization. The attacks end quickly.
Panic attacks are generally a feature of an anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, or other phobias. In some cases, such attacks are part of a somatization disorder or schizophrenia. Behaviour therapy and relaxation exercises may be used in treatment of this condition.... panic attack
After examination of the external genitalia, a speculum is inserted into the vagina to allow a clear view of the cervix.
A cervical smear test may be performed.
The doctor inserts 2 fingers into the vagina and, with the other hand, feels the abdomen to evaluate the position and size of the uterus and the ovaries and to detect any tenderness or swelling.... pelvic examination
These muscles and ligaments support the uterus, vagina, bladder, urethra, and rectum. Performing the exercises may help to prevent prolapse of the uterus (see uterus, prolapse of) and urinary stress incontinence (see incontinence, urinary). They may also help women who find achieving orgasm difficult.
The pelvic floor muscles are those that tighten when urine flow is stopped midstream. The exercises involve stopping and starting urine flow several times by contracting and relaxing the muscles. Ideally, they should be performed for 5 minutes every hour throughout the day. They can be done standing, sitting, or lying down, by imagining that urine is being passed, contracting and holding the muscles for 10 seconds, and then slowly releasing them, repeating 5–10 times as often as possible.... pelvic floor exercises
Natural penicillins are derived from the mould PENICILLIUM; others are synthetic preparations.
Penicillins are used to treat many infective conditions, including tonsillitis, bronchitis, bacterial endocarditis, syphilis, and pneumonia.
They are also given to prevent rheumatic fever from recurring.
Common adverse effects of penicillins are an allergic reaction causing a rash, and diarrhoea.... penicillin drugs
The various types include a silicone splint inserted in the tissues of the upper surface of the penis, and an inflatable prosthesis that is inflated by squeezing a small bulb in the scrotum.... penile implant
Diagnosis is made by a biopsy.
If the tumour is detected early, radiotherapy is usually successful.
Otherwise, removal of part or all of the penis may be necessary.... penis, cancer of
The condition, also known as Charcot–Marie– Tooth disease, is caused by degeneration of some peripheral nerves.
It is more common in boys, and usually appears in late childhood or adolescence.
Muscle wasting stops halfway up the arms and legs, making them look like inverted bottles; sensation may be lost.
There is no treatment, but the sufferer rarely becomes totally incapacitated because the disease usually progresses very slowly.
Life expectancy is normal.... peroneal muscular atrophy
Specific types of personality disorders are divided into 3 groups but there is often overlap. The 1st group is characterized by eccentric behaviour. Paranoid people show suspiciousness and mistrust of others, schizoid people are cold emotionally, and schizotypal personalities have behaviour oddities similar to those of schizophrenia, but less severe.In the 2nd group, behaviour tends to be dramatic. Histrionic people are excitable and constantly crave stimulation, narcissists have an exaggerated sense of their own importance (see narcissism), and people with antisocial personality disorder fail to conform to accepted social standards of behaviour.
People in the 3rd group show anxiety and fear. Dependent personalities lack the self-confidence to function independently (see dependence). Those with compulsive personalities are rigid in their habits (see obsessive–compulsive disorder), and passive-aggressive people resist demands from others.
Treatment is usually counselling, psychotherapy, and behaviour therapy.... personality disorders
The disease is a type of osteochondritis juvenilis, thought to be due to disrupted blood supply to the bone.
The condition is most common in boys aged 5–10, and usually affects 1 hip.
Symptoms include pain in the thigh and groin, and a limp on the affected side.
Diagnosis is made with X-rays.
Treatment may be rest for a few weeks, followed by splinting of the hip, or surgery.
The disease usually clears up by itself within 3 years, but the hip may be permanently deformed.... perthes’ disease
Cancerous tumours of the oropharynx (the middle section of the pharynx) usually cause difficulty swallowing, often with a sore throat and earache. Bloodstained sputum may be coughed up. Sometimes there is only the feeling of a lump in the throat or a visible enlarged lymph node in the neck. Cancer of the laryngopharynx (the lowermost part of the pharynx) initially causes a sensation of incomplete swallowing, then a muffled voice, hoarseness, and increased difficulty in swallowing. Tumours of the nasopharynx have different causes.Diagnosis of cancer of the pharynx is made by biopsy, often in conjunction with laryngoscopy, bronchoscopy, or oesophagoscopy.
The growth may be removed surgically or treated with radiotherapy.
Anticancer drugs may also be given.... pharynx, cancer of
The group includes chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, and perphenazine.... phenothiazine drugs
The cause is unclear.
Symptoms usually improve with weight loss.... pickwickian syndrome
The condition is common in toddlers.... pigeon toes
The causes of pituitary tumours are unknown. They may lead to inadequate hormone production, causing problems such as cessation of menstrual periods or reduced sperm production. They may also cause the gland to produce excess hormone. Overproduction of growth hormone causes gigantism or acromegaly; too much thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) can lead to hyperthyroidism. Investigations include blood tests, X-rays, MRI of the pituitary, and usually also vision tests. Treatment may be by surgical removal of the tumour, radiotherapy, hormone replacement, or a combination of these techniques. The drug bromocriptine may be used; it can reduce production of certain hormones and shrink some tumours.... pituitary tumours
Irregular, fine, scaly, pale patches appear on the face.
Caused by mild eczema, it usually clears up with emollients.... pityriasis alba
It is the chief cause of tooth decay (see caries, dental) and gingivitis, and forms the basis of a hard deposit (see calculus, dental).
Some of the microorganisms in plaque, particularly STREPTOCOCCUS MUTANS, break down sugar in the remains of carbohydrate food that sticks to the mucus, creating an acid that can erode tooth enamel.... plaque, dental
Prolonged use may cause weight gain.... pityriasis rosea
Diagnosis is confirmed by chest X-ray.
Some fluid may be removed with a needle and syringe and examined to find the cause.
A biopsy of the pleura may also be needed.
The underlying cause is treated and fluid may be drained off to relieve breathing problems.... pleural effusion
Poisons may also originate in the body, as when bacteria produce endotoxins, or when metabolic disorders produce poisonous substances or allow them to build up.
Poisoning may be acute (a large amount of poison over a short time) or chronic (gradual accumulation of poison that is not eliminated quickly).
Unintentional poisoning occurs mainly in young children.
Adults may be poisoned by mistaking the dosage of a prescribed drug (see drug poisoning), by taking very high doses of vitamin or mineral supplements, by exposure to poisonous substances in industry, or by drug abuse.
Poisoning may also be a deliberate attempt to commit suicide.... poisoning
Since there is a 50 per cent chance that children of an affected person will inherit the disease, medical surveillance is necessary from around the age of 12.
Individual polyps may be cauterized (see cauterization).
The high risk of developing cancer often means that a colectomy and an ileostomy are performed.... polyposis, familial
Polyunsaturated fats tend to protect against cardiovascular disease.... polyunsaturated fats
See neuralgia.... postherpetic neuralgia
The fluid may cause a cough, hoarseness, or the feeling of a foreign body.
The usual cause is rhinitis.... postnasal drip
Good posture consists of balancing the body weight around the body’s centre of gravity in the lower spine and pelvis.
Maintaining good posture helps prevent neck pain and back pain.... posture
may involve counselling or psychotherapy. (See also conversion disorder.)... pregnancy, false
Twins occur in about 1 in 80 pregnancies, triplets in about 1 in 8,000, and quadruplets in about 1 in 73,000.
Multiple pregnancies are more common in women who are treated with fertility drugs or if a number of fertilized ova are implanted during in vitro fertilization.... pregnancy, multiple
Problems may also be caused in a developing baby if a pregnant woman drinks alcohol, smokes (see tobaccosmoking), or takes drugs of abuse. The babies of women who use heroin during pregnancy tend to have a low birthweight and a higher death rate than normal during the first few weeks of life. Babies of women who abuse drugs intravenously are at high risk of HIV infection.... pregnancy, drugs in
Some 40 per cent of premature deliveries occur for no known reason. The remainder are due to conditions such as pre-eclampsia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, long-standing kidney disease, and heart disease. Other causes are antepartum haemorrhage, intrauterine infection, or premature rupture of membranes. A common cause is multiple pregnancy (see pregnancy, multiple).
A premature infant is smaller than a full-term baby, lacks subcutaneous fat, is covered with downy hair (lanugo), and has very thin skin. The baby’s internal organs are also immature. The major complication is respiratory distress syndrome. There is increased risk of brain haemorrhage, jaundice, and hypoglycaemia. The baby has a limited ability to suck and maintain body temperature, and is prone to infection. The earlier a baby is born, the more likely it is to have such problems.
Premature infants are usually nursed in a special baby unit that provides intensive care. The baby is placed in an incubator, and may have artificial ventilation to assist breathing, artificial feeding through a stomach tube or into a vein, and treatment with antibiotic drugs and iron and vitamin supplements. With modern techniques, some infants survive even if they are born as early as 24 weeks’ gestation.... prematurity
Prescription-only medicines are those whose safe use is difficult to ensure without medical supervision.... prescription-only medicine
Procainamide may cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and, rarely, confusion.
Prolonged treatment may induce lupus erythematosus.... procainamide
Progesterone is made in the ovaries, and small amounts are produced by the adrenal glands and testes.
During the menstrual cycle, changing progesterone levels cause thickening of the endometrium and menstruation.
If pregnancy occurs, progesterone is produced by the placenta; a fall in its level helps to initiate labour.
Progesterone also causes increased fat deposition and increased sebum production by glands in the skin.... progesterone hormone
Information from proprioceptors (sensory nerve endings in the muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear) passes to the spinal cord and the brain.
The information is used to make adjustments so that posture and balance are maintained.... proprioception
Dinoprostone is used with oxytocin for induction of labour.
Gemeprost softens and helps to dilate the cervix prior to inducing an abortion.
Alprostadil is used to treat newborn infants awaiting surgery for some congenital heart diseases.... prostaglandin drugs
An enlarged prostate (see prostate, enlarged) may cause symptoms including difficulty in starting to pass urine, poor urine flow, and increased frequency of urination. Urine flow may eventually cease altogether. When there are no urinary symptoms, the first sign may be pain in the bones from secondary cancers. Screening tests detect blood levels of a protein called prostate specific antigen;
if above a certain level, it may indicate prostate cancer.
Rectal examination allows a doctor to assess the size and hardness of the gland.
Ultrasound scanning and a biopsy confirm the diagnosis.
Blood tests and a bone scan (see radionuclide scanning) may also be done.
In an elderly man with a small prostate cancer that has not spread, no treatment may be recommended.
For younger men, prostatectomy or radiotherapy may be performed.
Widespread disease is usually controllable for some years with orchidectomy or drugs.... prostate, cancer of
Prostate enlargement is detected by a rectal examination.
Tests may include a blood test, ultrasound scanning, urography, and a recording of the strength of urine flow.
Mild cases do not require treatment, but more severe ones usually require prostatectomy.
Alternatively, drug treatment with alpha-blocker drugs or androgen drugs may be given.... prostate, enlarged
protease inhibitors A type of antiviral drug used to delay the progression of HIV infection (see AIDS).... prosthetics, dental
High doses may cause anxiety, nausea, and dizziness.
Occasionally, hypertension, headache, and palpitations occur.... pseudoephedrine
It is a hallucinogenic drug with properties similar to those of LSD.... psilocybin
There are 2 parts: psoas major and psoas minor.
Psoas major acts to flex the hip and rotate the thigh inwards.
Psoas minor bends the spine down to the pelvis.... psoas muscle
When absorbed into the skin, psoralens react with ultraviolet light to cause skin darkening or inflammation.
Psoralen drugs may be used in conjunction with ultraviolet light (a combination called PUVA) to treat psoriasis and vitiligo.
Overexposure to ultraviolet light during treatment, or to too high a dose of a psoralen drug, may cause redness and blistering of the skin.
Psoralens in perfumes may cause photosensitivity.... psoralen drugs
A local anaesthetic (see anaesthesia, local) is injected into either side of the vagina near the pudendal nerve.... pudendal block
The rate of flow is adjusted so that the level of blood glucose (sugar) is constant.... pump, insulin
It is caused by brain damage from several episodes of brief loss of consciousness due to head injury.... punch-drunk
Possible causes include arterial diseases, such as atherosclerosis; connective tissue diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis; and various drugs, such as beta-blocker drugs.
The disorder is an occupational disorder of people who use pneumatic drills, chain saws, or vibrating machinery; it is sometimes seen in typists, pianists, and others whose fingers suffer repeated trauma.
Treatment is the same as for Raynaud’s disease, along with treatment of the underlying disorder.... raynaud’s phenomenon
Senile purpura is a disease of middle to old age and is more common in women.... senile purpura
It is also used, incorrectly, to describe schizophrenia.... split personality
Symptoms begin soon after ingestion and include restlessness, stiffness of the face and neck, increased sensitivity of hearing, taste, and smell, and photosensitivity, followed by alternating episodes of seizures and floppiness. Death may occur from respiratory arrest.
The victim is given intravenous injections of a tranquillizer or a barbiturate, with a muscle-relaxant drug if needed.
Breathing may be maintained by a ventilator.
With prompt treatment, recovery usually occurs in about 24 hours.... strychnine poisoning
In rare cases, the vomiting becomes severe and prolonged. This can cause dehydration, nutritional deficiency, alterations in blood acidity, and weight loss. Immediate hospital admission is then required to replace lost fluids and chemicals by intravenous infusion, to rule out any serious underlying disorder, and to control the vomiting.... vomiting in pregnancy
Z-plasty is especially useful for revising unsightly scars on the face and for releasing scarring across those joints, such as on the fingers or in the armpits, that may restrict normal movement or cause deformity.... z-plasty
The most common cause, especially in women, is cystitis. Other causes include a bladder tumour, bladder stone (see calculus, urinary tract), urethritis, balanitis, prostatitis, vaginal candidiasis (thrush), or allergy to vaginal deodorants. Strangury is usually caused by spasm of an inflamed bladder wall, but it may be due to bladder stones. Mild discomfort when passing urine may be caused by highly concentrated urine.
Dysuria may be investigated by physical examination, urinalysis, urography, or cystoscopy. (See also urethral syndrome, acute.)... urination, painful
Stretching of the ligaments supporting the uterus (during childbirth, for example) is the most common cause. Prolapse is aggravated by obesity.
There are often no symptoms, but sometimes there is a dragging feeling in the pelvis. Diagnosis is made by physical examination.
Pelvic floor exercises strengthen the muscles of the vagina and thus reduce the risk of a prolapse, especially following childbirth. Treatment usually involves surgery (hysterectomy). Rarely, if surgery is not wanted or is not recommended, a plastic ring-shaped pessary may be inserted into the vagina to hold the uterus in position. (See also cystocele; rectocele; urethrocele.)... uterus, prolapse of
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) see omega-3 fatty acids.... eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis
ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography) the technique in which a catheter is passed through a *duodenoscope into the *ampulla of Vater of the common bile duct and injected with a radiopaque medium to outline the pancreatic duct and bile ducts radiologically. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP; see cholangiography) is often used to diagnose biliary and pancreatic disease followed by ERCP for diagnostic confirmation and therapeutic intervention. ERCP facilitates the removal of gallstones from the common bile duct, biopsy of lesions, and insertion of biliary *stents. See also papillotomy.... erb’s palsy
The FPH website... faculty of public health
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) a *retrovirus responsible for *AIDS. There are two varieties, HIV-1 and HIV-2; the latter is most common in Africa. See also HTLV.... histrionic personality disorder
MHRA section of the website... medicines and healthcare products regulatory agency
For example, a patient who has smoked 15 cigarettes a day for 40 years has a (15/20) × 40 = 30 pack-year smoking history.... pack years
Paediatric reference values... paediatric dentistry
Recombinant parathyroid hormone (Preotact) is given by subcutaneous injection to treat postmenopausal osteoporosis.... parathyroid hormone
UK government guidance on parental responsibility... parental responsibility
The affected leg may become swollen and tender. The main danger is that the clot may become detached and give rise to *pulmonary embolism. Regular leg exercises help to prevent deep vein thrombosis, and anticoagulant drugs (such as heparin and warfarin) are used in prevention and treatment. Large clots may be removed surgically in the operation of thrombectomy to relieve leg swelling.... phlebothrombosis
physo- combining form denoting air or gas.... physis
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) affects between 1 in 400 and 1 in 1000 individuals and is one of the most common hereditary diseases. Two types have been defined. ADPKD 1 is the commonest and responsible for about 85% of cases. It is due to a mutation in the PKD1 gene on chromosome 16, which encodes polycystin 1, an *ion-channel-regulating protein. ADPKD2 is due to a mutation in the PKD2 gene on chromosome 4, which encodes the protein polycystin 2, a calcium-release channel. ADPKD2 tends to be a milder disease with later presentation.
ADPKD is a multisystem disorder that is also associated with cyst formation in other organs (particularly the liver), cardiovascular disorders, and colonic diverticular disease. Renal disease presents in early adult life with haematuria, loin pain, urinary tract infection, hypertension, renal stone disease, or the finding of a mass in the abdomen. Other cases are identified by family contact tracing; the findings of a few cysts on renal ultrasonography in a young adult with a family history of ADPKD is highly suggestive of the disease. Renal disease is progressive and about 50% of patients will have reached end-stage by the time they enter their seventh decade. The progress of the renal failure can be slowed by good blood pressure control. In the UK, patients with ADPKD are responsible for 5–10% of the total on renal replacement therapy.
There are a number of separate rare autosomal dominant conditions other than ADPKD1 and ADPKD 2 that can present with polycystic kidneys. These include *von Hippel-Lindau disease and *tuberous sclerosis.... polycystic disease of the kidneys
Information from the NHS Resolution website... practitioner performance advice
A detailed guide to publication ethics from COPE... publication ethics
Public Health England website... public health england
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Broad-leaf peppermint, blue peppermint, menthol-scented gum.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A robust, medium-sized eucalyptus tree, with a short trunk, spreading branches and fibrous grey bark. The young leaves are blue and heart-shaped, the mature leaves are very aromatic, thick and tapering at both ends.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia, especially New South Wales and Victoria. Oil is also produced in South Africa.
OTHER SPECIES: There are two types of broad-leaved peppermint although they look identical – one is rich in cineol (E. dives var. C.) and one is rich in ‘piperitone’ (E. dives var. Type). It is also similar to the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita) and the grey or narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra). See also entry on Eucalyptus, blue gum and Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The aborigines used the burning leaves in the form of a fumigation for the relief of fever; ‘heat went out of sick man and into fire’.
ACTIONS: See Eucalyptus, blue gum.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, camphoraceous, spicy-minty odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Piperitone (40–50 per cent), phellandrene (20–30 per cent), camphene, cymene, terpinene and thujene, among others. It is sold as Grades A, B or C according to the exact balance of constituents.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. Eucalyptus oil is toxic if taken internally (see entry on eucalyptus blue gum).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, sores, ulcers etc.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sports injuries, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, throat and mouth infections, etc.
Immune System: Colds, fevers, ’flu, infectious illness, e.g. measles.
Nervous System: Headaches, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, sciatica.
OTHER USES: Little used medicinally these days except in deodorants, disinfectants, mouthwashes, gargles and in veterinary practice. ‘Piperitone’ rich oils are used in solvents. Employed for the manufacture of thymol and menthol (from piperitone).
EUCALYPTUS, ... eucalyptus, broad-leaved peppermint
FAMILY: Graminaceae
SYNONYMS: Andropogon martinii, A. martinii var. motia, East Indian geranium, Turkish geranium, Indian rosha, motia.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A wild-growing herbaceous plant with long slender stems and terminal flowering tops; the grassy leaves are very fragrant.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to India and Pakistan; now grown in Africa, Indonesia, Brazil and the Comoro Islands.
OTHER SPECIES: Of the same family as lemongrass and citronella; also closely related to gingergrass which is a different chemotype known as C. martinii var. sofia. Gingergrass is considered an inferior oil but in some parts of India the two types of grass are distilled together.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: ‘The oil term “Indian” or “Turkish” geranium oil, which formerly was applied to palmarosa oil, dates back to the time when the oil was shipped from Bombay to ports of the Red Sea and transported partly by land, to Constantinople and Bulgaria, where the oil was often used for the adulteration of rose oil.’.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, bactericidal, cicatrisant, digestive, febrifuge, hydrating, stimulant (digestive, circulatory), tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam or water distillation of the fresh or dried grass.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive liquid with a sweet, floral, rosy, geranium-like scent. It blends well with cananga, geranium, oakmoss, rosewood, amyris, sandalwood, guaiacwood, cedarwood and floral oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly geraniol; also farnesol, geranyl acetate, methyl heptenone, citronellol, citral, dipentene and limonene, among others. Several chemotypes depending upon source – the cultivated varieties are considered of superior quality.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis and minor skin infections, scars, sores, wrinkles; valuable for all types of treatment for the face, hands, feet, neck and lips (moisturizes the skin, stimulates cellular regeneration, regulates sebum production).
Digestive system: Anorexia, digestive atonia, intestinal infections – ‘This is an essence which acts on the pathogenic intestinal flora, in particular on the coli bacillus, the Eberth bacillus and the bacillus of dysentery ... this essence favours the transmutation of the pathogenic agent into normal cells of intestinal mucous membranes. Thus it arrests the degeneracy of the cells for the latter, swiftly impels groups of normal cells towards an inferior form in their hierarchy. The essence does not appear to contain any acid.’.
Nervous system: Nervous exhaustion, stressrelated conditions.
OTHER USES: Used extensively as a fragrance component in cosmetics, perfumes and especially soaps due to excellent tenacity. Limited use as a flavouring agent, e.g. tobacco. Used for the isolation of natural geraniol.... palmarosa
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Brandy mint, balm mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb up to 1 metre high with underground runners by which it is easily propagated. The ‘white’ peppermint has green stems and leaves; the ‘black’ peppermint has dark green serrated leaves, purplish stems and reddish-violet flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Originally a cultivated hybrid between M. viridis and M. aquatica, known to have been propagated from before the seventeenth century in England. Naturalized throughout Europe and America, it is cultivated worldwide. The oil is produced mainly in France, England, America, Russia, Bulgaria, Italy, Hungary, Morocco and China.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different strains or chemotypes of peppermint. In addition there are numerous other species of mint, such as spearmint, apple mint, pennyroyal, water mint and pineapple mint – some of which are used to produce essential oils (see Botanical Classification section). Peppermints grown in northern regions, including the Mitcham peppermint, are considered of superior quality.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Mints have been cultivated since ancient times in China and Japan. In Egypt evidence of a type of peppermint has been found in tombs dating from 1000 BC. It has been used extensively in Eastern and Western medicine for a variety of complaints, including indigestion, nausea, sore throat, diarrhoea, headaches, toothaches and cramp.
It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for intestinal colic, flatulence, common cold, vomiting in pregnancy and dysmenorrhoea.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antipruritic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, cordial, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stomachic, sudorific, vasoconstrictor, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb (approx. 3–4 per cent yield).
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or greenish liquid with a highly penetrating, grassy-minty camphoraceous odour. It blends well with benzoin, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, lemon, eucalyptus and other mints.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Menthol (29–48 per cent), menthane (20–31 per cent), menthyl acetate, menthofuran, limonene, pulegone, cineol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization due to menthol. Use in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, ringworm, scabies, toothache.
Circulation muscles and joints: Neuralgia, muscular pain, palpitations.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, halitosis, sinusitis, spasmodic cough – ‘When inhaled (in steam) it checks catarrh temporarily, and will provide relief from head colds and bronchitis: its antispasmodic action combines well with this to make it a most useful inhalation in asthma.’.
Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, fevers.
Nervous system: Fainting, headache, mental fatigue, migraine, nervous stress, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals, and ingredient in cough, cold and digestive remedies. Flavouring agent in many foods, especially chewing gum and sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks; also widely used to flavour tobacco. Fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics, colognes and perfumes.... mint, peppermint
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: P. patchouly, patchouly, puchaput.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial bushy herb up to 1 metre high with a sturdy, hairy stem, large, fragrant, furry leaves and white flowers tinged with purple.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially Indonesia and the Philippines. It is extensively cultivated for its oil in its native regions as well as India, China, Malaysia and South America. The oil is also distilled in Europe and America from the dried leaves.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the Java patchouli (P. heyneanus), also known as false patchouli, which is also occasionally used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil is used in the East generally to scent linen and clothes, and is believed to help prevent the spread of disease (prophylactic). In China, Japan and Malaysia the herb is used to treat colds, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and halitosis. In Japan and Malaysia it is used as an antidote to poisonous snakebites.
ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antitoxic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, nervine, prophylactic, stimulant (nervous), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried leaves (usually subjected to fermentation previously). A resinoid is also produced, mainly as a fixative.
CHARACTERISTICS: An amber or dark orange viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, herbaceous earthy odour – it improves with age. It blends well with labdanum, vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, oakmoss, geranium, clove, lavender, rose, neroli, bergamot, cassia, myrrh, opopanax, clary sage and oriental-type bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Patchouli alcohol (40 per cent approx.), pogostol, bulnesol, nor patchoulenol, bulnese, patchoulene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, athlete’s foot, cracked and chapped skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema (weeping), fungal infections, hair care, impetigo, insect repellent, sores, oily hair and skin, open pores, wounds, wrinkles.
Nervous system: Frigidity, nervous exhaustion and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in cosmetic preparations, and as a fixative in soaps and perfumes, especially oriental types. Extensively used in the food industry, in alcoholic and soft drinks. It makes a good masking agent for unpleasant tastes and smells.... patchouli
FAMILY: Piperaceae
SYNONYMS: Piper, pepper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial woody vine up to 5 metres high with heart-shaped leaves and small white flowers. The berries turn from red to black as they mature – black pepper is the dried fully grown unripe fruit.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south west India; cultivated extensively in tropical countries. Major producers are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and Madagascar. It is also distilled in Europe and America from the imported dried fruits.
OTHER SPECIES: The so-called white pepper is the dried ripe fruit with the outer pericarp removed. Not to be confused with cayenne pepper or paprika from the capsicum species, which are used to make an oleoresin.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both black and white pepper have been used in the East for over 4000 years for medicinal and culinary purposes. In Chinese medicine, white pepper is used to treat malaria, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, stomach ache and other digestive problems. In Greece it is used for intermittent fever and to fortify the stomach. ‘The mendicant monks of India who cover daily considerable distances on foot, swallow 7–9 grains of pepper a day. This gives them remarkable endurance.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant (nervous, circulatory, digestive), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the black peppercorns, dried and crushed. (‘Light’ and ‘heavy’ oils are produced by the extraction of the low or high boiling fractions respectively.) An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction, mainly for flavour use.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white to pale olive mobile liquid with a fresh, dry-woody, warm, spicy scent. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, spices and florals (in minute quantities).
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes (70–80 per cent): thujene, pinene, camphene, sabinene, carene, myrcene, limonene, phellandrene, and sesquiterpenes (20–30 per cent) and oxygenated compounds.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, irritant in high concentration due to rubefacient properties. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains.
Circulation muscles and joints: Anaemia, arthritis, muscular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, poor muscle tone (muscular atonia), rheumatic pain, sprains, stiffness.
Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections and viruses.
OTHER USES: Used in certain tonic and rubefacient preparations. Used for unusual effects in perfumery work; for example, with rose or carnation in oriental or floral fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are used extensively in the food industry, as well as in alcoholic drinks.... pepper, black
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: C. bigaradia, petitgrain bigarade (oil), petitgrain Paraguay (oil). See also bitter orange.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The oil of petitgrain is produced from the leaves and twigs of the same tree that produces bitter orange oil and neroli oil: see bitter orange and neroli.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern China and north east India. The best quality petitgrain oil comes from France but a good-quality oil is also produced in North Africa, Paraguay and Haiti from semi-wild trees.
OTHER SPECIES: A type of petitgrain is also produced in small quantities from the leaves, twigs and small unripe fruit of the lemon, sweet orange, mandarin and bergamot trees.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: At one time the oil used to be extracted from the green unripe oranges when they were still the size of a cherry – hence the name petitgrains or ‘little grains’. One of the classic ingredients of eau-de-cologne.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, deodorant, digestive, nervine, stimulant (digestive, nervous), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs. An orange ‘leaf and flower’ water absolute is also produced, known as petitgrain sur fleurs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow to amber liquid with a fresh-floral citrus scent and a woody-herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rosemary, lavender, geranium, bergamot, bitter orange, labdanum, neroli, oakmoss, clary sage, jasmine, benzoin, palmarosa, clove and balsams.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 40–80 per cent esters: mainly linalyl acetate and geranyl acetate, as well as linalol, nerol, terpineol, geraniol, nerolidol, farnesol, limonene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing, non-phototoxic.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, excessive perspiration, greasy skin and hair, toning.
Digestive system: Dyspepsia, flatulence.
Nervous system: Convalescence, insomnia, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially colognes (sometimes used to replace neroli). Employed as a flavour component in many foods, especially confectionery, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... petitgrain
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: P. mugo, P. montana, P. pumilio, mountain pine, Swiss mountain pine, pine needle (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A pyramidal shrub or small tree up to 12 metres high with a black bark, stiff and twisted needles borne in clusters, and brown cones, initially of a bluish hue.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of central and southern Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Austria (Tirol), Yugoslavia, Denmark and Italy.
OTHER SPECIES: There are very many species of pine used to produce essential oil from their needles and wood or employed in the production of turpentine. NB: The so-called huon pine (Dacrydium franklinii), the essential oil of which is also a skin irritant, belongs to a different family, the Podcarpaceae. For further details see Scotch pine and the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A preparation made from the needles has been used internally for bladder, kidney and rheumatic complaints, as a liniment for rheumatism and muscular pain, and as an inhalant for bronchitis, catarrh, colds, etc.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, antiviral, balsamic, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white liquid with a very pleasant, balsamic-sweet, spicy-woody scent of good tenacity. This is the favoured pine fragrance for perfumery use due to its unique delicate odour, which blends well with cedarwood, lavandin, rosemary, sage, cananga, labdanum, juniper and other coniferous oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons; limonene, pinenes, phellandrene, dipentene, camphene, myrcene and bornyl acetate among others. The unusual scent is believed to be due to its aldehyde content.
SAFETY DATA: Dermal irritant, common sensitizing agent; otherwise non-toxic. It is best avoided therapeutically due to irritant hazards.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance and flavour component in pharmaceutical preparations for coughs and colds, nasal congestion and externally in analgesic ointments and liniments. Extensively employed in soaps, bath preparations, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially ‘leather’ and ‘woody’ type fragrances. It is also used in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... pine, dwarf
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: Longleaf yellow pine, southern yellow pine, pitch pine, pine (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree with long needles and a straight trunk, grown extensively for its timber. It exudes a natural oleoresin from the trunk, which provides the largest source for the production of turpentine in America – see also entry on turpentine.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south eastern USA, where the oil is largely produced.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous other species of pine all over the world which are used to produce pine oil, as well as pine needle and turpentine oil – see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Pine sawdust has been used for centuries as a highly esteemed household remedy for a variety of ailments. ‘It is a grand, gentle, although powerful external antiseptic remedy, applied as a poultice in rheumatism when localised, hard cancerous tumours, tuberculosis in the knee or ankle joints, disease of the bone, in short, all sluggish morbid deposits ... I have used it behind the head for failing sight, down the spine for general debility, on the loins for lumbago, etc. all with the best results.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), antirheumatic, antiseptic, bactericidal, expectorant, insecticidal, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: The crude oil is obtained by steam distillation from the sawdust and wood chips from the heartwood and roots of the tree (wastage from the timber mills), and then submitted to fractional distillation under atmospheric pressure to produce pine essential oil.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a sweet-balsamic, pinewood scent. It blends well with rosemary, pine needle, cedarwood, citronella, rosewood, ho leaf and oakmoss.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpineol, estragole, fenchone, fenchyl alcohol and borneol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic; non-irritant (except in concentration); possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, debility, lumbago, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, stiffness, etc.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, sinusitis.
OTHER USES: Used extensively in medicine, particularly in veterinary antiseptic sprays, disinfectants, detergents and insecticides (as a solvent carrier). Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, bath products and perfumes. Also used in paint manufacture although it is increasingly being replaced by synthetic ‘pine oil’.... pine, longleaf
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: Forest pine, Scots pine, Norway pine, pine needle (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree, up to 40 metres high with a flat crown. It has a reddish-brown, deeply fissured bark, long stiff needles which grow in pairs, and pointed brown cones.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Eurasia; cultivated in the eastern USA, Europe, Russia, the Baltic States and Scandinavia, especially Finland.
OTHER SPECIES: Like the fir tree, there are numerous species of pine which yield an essential oil from their heartwood as well as from their twigs and needles and are also used to produce turpentine. The oil from the needles of the Scotch pine is one of the most useful and safest therapeutically. Other species which produce pine needle oil include the eastern white pine (P. strobus) from the eastern USA and Canada, the dwarf pine (P. mugo var. pumilio) grown in central and southern Europe, and the black pine (P. nigra) from Austria and Yugoslavia.
Many varieties, such as the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), are used to produce turpentine. In addition, the oil commonly known as Siberian pine needle oil is actually from the Siberian fir (Abies sibirica). See also dwarf pine and the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The young macerated shoots are added to the bath for nervous exhaustion, circulatory disorders, slow, healing wounds, arthritis, rheumatism and skin disorders. It was used by the American Indians to prevent scurvy, and to stuff mattresses to repel lice and fleas.
As an inhalation it helps relieve bronchial catarrh, asthma, blocked sinuses, etc. The pine kernels are said to be excellent restoratives for consumptives, and after long illness.
ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, hepatic), antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cholagogue, choleretic, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, hypertensive, insecticidal, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (adrenal cortex, circulatory, nervous), vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by dry distillation of the needles. 2. Gum turpentine is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin: see entry on turpentine. (An inferior essential oil is also produced by dry distillation from the wood chippings, etc.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pine needle oil is a colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, dry-balsamic, turpentine-like aroma. It blends well with cedarwood, rosemary, tea tree, sage, lavender, juniper, lemon, niaouli, eucalyptus and marjoram. 2. See entry on turpentine.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 50–90 per cent monoterpene hydrocarbons: pinenes, carene, dipentene, limonene, terpinenes, myrcene, ocimene, camphene, sabinene; also bornyl acetate, cineol, citral, chamazulene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization. Avoid in allergic skin conditions.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Cuts, lice, excessive perspiration, scabies, sores.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urinary infection.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu.
Nervous system: Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, toiletries (especially bath products) and, to a limited extent, perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in major food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.... pine, scotch
FAMILY: Zingiberaceae
SYNONYMS: Z. montanum, Z. cassumunar ‘Roxburgh’, Z. purpureum ‘Roscoe’, cassumunar ginger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The root of this tropical perennial plant is tuberous, with long fleshy fibres and jointed appendages, much like ginger but slightly larger. The fresh rhizome, which is yellow inside, has a cool, green, camphoraceous, spicy-warm scent. The stem is made of green leaf sheathes which are grass-like with brownish-purple pointed shoots bearing pale yellow flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Thailand, Indonesia and India: it is now commonly found throughout Asia. Since plai is an important medicinal plant in Thailand, there are many regions where plai is cultivated and there are now at least three native varieties or sub-species found in Thailand.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several sub-species (and essential oil chemotypes) of plai depending on the location of the plant from which it has been extracted. Essential oil produced from rhizomes grown in the north-west region is the most typical from Thailand and contains almost as much terpinen-4-ol as tea tree oil. Terpinen-4-ol has been well researched, and is to known to activate white blood cells: it also has significant antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties. Oil produced from the central region contains more sabinene. Zingiber cassumunar is a close relative of ginger and galangal, both of which are used to produce essential oils.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Zingiber cassumunar is widely used in folklore remedies as a single plant or as component of herbal recipes in Thailand and many Asian countries for the treatments of conditions, such as inflammation, sprains and strains, rheumatism and muscular pain. Although it is derived from the same plant family as ginger (Zingiber officinale), it does not possess the classic warming effect common to ginger. Instead, plai has a cooling action on inflamed areas, making it an excellent choice for treating injuries, post-operative pain and all types of muscular and joint pain such as torn muscles and ligaments as well as conditions such as arthritis and rheumatism. For this reason, plai has long been regarded by Thai massage therapists as one of the most essential oils to have at their disposal. Although generally diluted with a carrier oil, it can be applied directly to the skin when treating areas of severe pain or inflammation that are close to the surface of the skin. It is reported to ease pain for up to 16–20 hours – it is even used by Thai boxers for pain relief!
Used in skin care, the oil exhibits good antioxidant properties and is used in Thai culture to treat stretch marks and scars; also to heal wounds. Plai herbal compound is used traditionally in the form of a poultice and decoction for the treatment of a range of digestive disorders including colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, nausea heartburn. Zingiber cassumunar is also a traditional Thai remedy for respiratory conditions, including asthma, catarrh, colds and coughs, fever and influenza.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antioxidant, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antihistamine, antineuralgic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, antiviral, carminative, digestive, diuretic, febrifugal, laxative, rubefacient, rejuvenating, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the fresh rhizome (roots) of the Plai plant (Zingiber cassumunar).
CHARACTERISTICS: The oil is a pale amber colour with a fresh, herbaceous, spicy-green scent and a resinous, slightly floral undertone. It will blends well with black pepper, bergamot, ginger, grapefruit, lemongrass, lime, jasmine, lavender, neroli, petitgrain, rosemary, sandalwood and tea tree.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The main active chemical constituents of the oil are terpinen-4-ol (up to 49 per cent) sabinene (up to 45 per cent), DMPBD (up to per cent), g-terpinene and a-terpinene – depending on the source of the oil.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing. Best to check for any possible sensitization due to variants in chemo-types available.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, cuts, stretch marks, scars, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: All types of aches and pains caused by inflammation, including arthritis and rheumatism, cramp, gout, joint problems, muscle spasm, sprains and strains, torn muscles and ligaments as well as post-operative pain.
Digestive system: Cramps, colic, constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, indigestion, heartburn.
Respiratory system: Asthma, catarrh, chronic colds, bronchitis, congestion, fever, flu, sinusitis.
Genito-urinary system: Menstrual cramps.
Immune system: Stimulates the immune system and boosts vitality.
Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension, stress.
OTHER USES: The fresh rhizome or powdered root is much used in traditional Thai cuisine. The oil is used in the pharmaceutical industry, for example, in mosquito repellant formulations.... plai
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