Habitat: This common English wild plant was formerly cultivated in gardens, but is now rarely seen away from the borders of fields and waysides.
Features ? The tough, slightly ribbed stems reach a height of two or three feet, terminating in the peculiar bunch of yellow, flat, button-like flowers by which the plant may be easily recognised in July and August; the flowers look, indeed, as if all the petals had been pulled off, leaving only the central florets. Leaf stalks grow on alternate sides of the stem, the leaves themselves being six to eight inches long by about four inches broad, deeply cut pinnately. The crushed leaves and flowers give a pronounced aromatic smell, and have a bitter taste.Tansy herb is probably the best of all the media for getting rid of worms in children, and a dose according to age should be given night and morning fasting. The infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint of boiling water is used.The medicine is also esteemed in some quarters for the treatment of hysteria and certain other of the nervous disorders of women. For this purpose a wineglassful of the infusion should be taken frequently.The old-time herbalists used Tansy as a stimulating tonic for a poor digestive apparatus, but to-day herbal compounds of greater efficacy are prescribed for dyspepsia.TOAD FLAX.Linaria vulgaris. N.O. Scrophulariaceae.Synonym: Butter and Eggs, Flaxweed, Pennywort. The name "Toad Flax" because of a supposed similarity between the mouth of the flower and that of the toad.Habitat: Hedgerows and cornfields.
Features ? Stem one to two feet higli, upright, only slightly branched. Leaves numerous, grass-like, tapering to a point. Stem and leaves are smooth, with a pale bluish hue. Flowers shaped like the snapdragon (antirrhinum), pale yellow, mouth closed by projecting orange-coloured lower lip ; clustered together at top of stem.Part used ? Herb.Action: Hepatic, alterative, astringent, detergent.
To some extent in prescriptions for jaundice, hepatic torpor and skin diseases. Is also sometimes included in pile ointments. The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion is taken in doses of 2 fl. ounces.... tansyGene therapy is currently used to treat disorders caused by a fault in a single recessive gene, when the defect can remedied by introducing a normal ALLELE. Treating disorders caused by dominant genes is more complicated. CYSTIC FIBROSIS is an example of a disease caused by a recessive gene, and clinical trials are taking place on the e?ectiveness of using LIPOSOMES to introduce the normal gene into the lungs of someone with the disorder. Trials are also underway to test the e?ectiveness of introducing tumour-suppressing genes into cancer cells to check their spread.
Gene therapy was ?rst used in 1990 to treat an American patient. Eleven European medical research councils (including the UK’s) recommended in 1988 that gene therapy should be restricted to correcting disease or defects, and that it should be limited to somatic cells. Interventions in germ-line cells (the sperm and egg) to e?ect changes that would be inherited, though technically feasible, is not allowed (see CLONING; HUMAN GENOME).... gene therapy
– resistant CTEV – which is harder to correct; and the infant has reduced calf-muscle bulk and abnormally shaped bones.
Treatment should be started at birth with the foot corrected to an improved position and then maintained in plaster of Paris or strapping
– a procedure performed weekly or more often. If the deformity is not corrected by around six weeks of age, a decision has to be made about whether to carry out surgical correction. If a deformity persists to maturity, a triple arthrodosis – fusion of three affected joints – may be required.... talipes
Tamoxifen is also used to treat INFERTILITY, being taken on certain days of the menstrual cycle (see MENSTRUATION).... tamoxifen
Tendon injuries are one of the hazards of sports (see SPORTS MEDICINE). They usually result from indirect violence, or overuse, rather than direct violence.
Rupture usually results from the sudden application of an unbalanced load. Thus, complete rupture of the Achilles tendon is common in taking an awkward step backwards playing squash. There is sudden pain; the victim is often under the impression that he or she has received a blow. This is accompanied by loss of function, and a gap may be felt in the tendon.
Partial Rupture is also accompanied by pain, but there is no breach of continuity or complete loss of function. Treatment of a complete rupture usually means surgical repair followed by immobilisation of the tendon in plaster of Paris for six weeks. Partial rupture usually responds to physiotherapy and immobilisation, but healing is slow.... tendon
(2) The second meaning (also called test feed) applies to a diagnostic procedure for congenital PYLORIC STENOSIS, whereby a paediatrician feels over the baby’s abdomen while he or she is feeding. The pyloric mass can be felt as a ?rm swelling with the consistency of a squash ball, which comes and goes under the examiner’s ?ngers.... test meal
The radio-isotope (see ISOTOPE) thallium201 is used as a tracer during special imaging studies of blood ?ow through the heart muscle in the diagnosis of myocardial ischaemia (see HEART, DISEASES OF.)... thallium
– and the embolism lodges in the pulmonary (lung) circulation. PULMONARY EMBOLISM is a potentially fatal condition and requires urgent anticoagulant treatment (see ANTICOAGULANTS) and sometimes surgery. Extended periods lying in bed or prolonged sitting in a con?ned position such as a car or aeroplane can cause DVT; venous thromboses in the legs may occur after surgery and preventive anticoagulant treatment with HEPARIN and warfarin is often used. Similar treatment is needed if a thrombus develops. STREPTOKINASE is also used to treat thromboembolism.... thromboembolism
Function The chief function of the thyroid gland is to produce a hormone (see HORMONES) rich in iodine – THYROXINE, which controls the rate of body METABOLISM. Thus, if it is de?cient in infants they fail to grow and suffer LEARNING DISABILITY, a condition formerly known as CRETINISM. If the de?ciency develops in adult life, the individual becomes obese, lethargic, and develops a coarse skin, a condition known as hypothyroidism (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF). Overactivity of the thyroid, or hyperthyroidism, results in loss of weight, rapid heart action, anxiety, overactivity and increased appetite. (See THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF – Thyrotoxicosis.)
The production of the thyroid hormone is controlled by a hormone of the PITUITARY GLAND – the thyrotrophic hormone.... thyroid gland
– Hypothyroidism).... thyroxine
The resting level of spontaneous neuronal activity in the hearing system is only just below that at which sound enters a person’s consciousness – a consequence of the ?ne-tuning of normal hearing; so it is not, perhaps, surprising that normally ‘unheard’ neuronal activity becomes audible. If a patient suffers sensorineural deafness, the body may ‘reset’ the awareness threshold of neural activity, with the brain attempting greater sensitivity in an e?ort to overcome the deafness. The condition has a strong emotional element and its management calls for a psychological approach to help sufferers cope with what are, in e?ect, physically untreatable symptoms. They should be reassured that tinnitus is not a signal of an impending stroke or of a disorder of the brain. COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY can be valuable in coping with the unwanted noise. Traditionally, masking sounds, generated by an electrical device in the ear, were used to help tinnitus sufferers by, in e?ect, making the tinnitus inaudible. Even with the introduction of psychological retraining treatment, these maskers may still be helpful; the masking-noise volume, however, should be kept as low as possible or it will interfere with the retraining process. For patients with very troublesome tinnitus, lengthy counselling and retraining courses may be required. Surgery is not recommended.
Under the auspices of the Royal National Institute for Deaf People, the RNID Tinnitus Helpline has been established. Calls are charged at local rates. (See also MENIÈRE’S DISEASE.)... tinnitus
Structure The substance of the tongue consists almost entirely of muscles running in various directions. The tongue also has numerous outside attachments: one muscle on each side unites it to the lower jaw-bone just behind the chin, and this muscle serves to protrude the tongue from the mouth; other muscles, which retract the tongue, attach it to the hyoid bone, the larynx, the PALATE, and the styloid process on the base of the SKULL.
The mucous membrane on the undersurface of the tongue is very thin. In the middle line, a fold of mucous membrane, the frenum, passes from the under-surface to the ?oor of the mouth; when this frenum is attached too far forwards towards the tip of the tongue, the movements of the organ are impeded – the condition being known as tongue-tie. On the upper surface or dorsum of the tongue, the mucous membrane is thicker, and in its front two-thirds is studded with projections or papillae, most of which are conical. Some of them end in long ?laments, and are then known as ?liform papillae. On the tip, and towards the edges of the tongue, small, red, rounded fungiform papillae are seen, which act as end-organs for the sense of taste – as do circumvallate papillae, each of which is surrounded by a trench along which open numerous taste-buds. These taste-buds are also found in the fungiform papillae, scattered over
the throat, FAUCES, and palate. Five nerves, originating from the ?fth, seventh, ninth, tenth and 12th cervical nerves supply the tongue.... tongue
Acute tonsillitis The infection is never entirely con?ned to the tonsils; there is always some involvement of the surrounding throat or pharynx. The converse is true that in many cases of ‘sore throat’, the tonsils are involved in the generalised in?ammation of the throat.
Causes Most commonly caused by the ?haemolytic STREPTOCOCCUS, its incidence is highest in the winter months. In the developing world it may be the presenting feature of DIPHTHERIA, a disease now virtually non-existant in the West since the introduction of IMMUNISATION.
Symptoms The onset is usually fairly sudden with pain on swallowing, fever and malaise. On examination, the tonsils are engorged and covered with a whitish discharge (PUS). This may occur at scattered areas over the tonsillar crypts (follicular tonsillitis), or it may be more extensive. The glands under the jaw are enlarged and tender, and there may be pain in the ear on the affected side: although usually referred pain, this may indicate spread of the infection up the Eustachian tube to the ear, particularly in children. Occasionally an ABSCESS, or quinsy, develops around the affected tonsil. Due to a collection of pus, it usually comes on four to ?ve days after the onset of the disease, and requires specialist surgical treatment.
Treatment Most cases need no treatment. Therefore, it is advisable to take a throat swab to assess the nature of any bacterial treatment before starting treatment. Penicillin or erythromycin are the drugs of choice where betahaemolytic streptococci are isolated, together with paracetamol or aspirin, and plenty of ?uids. Removal of tonsils is indicated: when the tonsils and adenoids are permanently so enlarged as to interfere with breathing (in such cases the adenoids are removed as well as the tonsils); when the individual is subject to recurrent attacks of acute tonsillitis which are causing signi?cant debility, absence from school or work on a regular basis (more than four times a year); when there is evidence of a tumour of the tonsil. Recurrent sore throat is not an indication for removing tonsils.... tonsillitis
Torsion is also the term applied to the twisting of the small arteries severed at an operation, by which bleeding from them is stopped.... torsion
Reasons for operation The cause of laryngeal obstruction should be treated but, if obstruction is acute and endangering the patient’s life, urgent intervention is necessary. In most cases the insertion of an endotracheal tube either through the nose or mouth and down the pharynx through the larynx to bypass the obstruction is e?ective (see ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION). If not, tracheostomy is performed. The majority of tracheostomies performed nowadays are for patients in intensive-therapy-unit situations. These patients require airway intervention for prolonged periods to facilitate arti?cial ventilation which is performed by means of a mechanical ventilator. The presence of a tube passing through the larynx for a prolonged period of time is associated with long-term damage to the larynx, and therefore any patients requiring prolonged intubation usually undergo a tracheostomy to prevent further damage. Endotracheal intubation is also the preferred method of airway-intervention for acute in?ammatory disorders of the upper airway (as opposed to tracheostomy); tracheostomy in these cases is performed only in the emergency situation if facilities for endotracheal intubation are not available or if they are unsuccessful. Tracheostomy may also be performed for large tumours which obstruct the larynx until some form of treatment is instituted. Similarly it may be needed in conditions whereby the nerve supply to the larynx has been jeopardised, impairing its protective function of the upper airway and its respiratory function.
Tracheostomy tubes When the trachea has been opened – by an incision through the skin between the Adam’s apple and the clavicles; another through the THYROID GLAND followed by a small vertical incision in the trachea
– a metal or plastic tube is inserted to maintain the opening. There is always an outer tube which is ?xed in position by tapes passing round the neck, and an inner tube which slides freely out of and into the other, so that it may be removed at any time for cleansing, and is readily coughed-out should it happen to become blocked by mucus.
After-treatment When the operation has been performed for some permanent obstruction, the tube must be worn permanently; and the double metal tube is in such cases replaced after a short time by a soft plastic single one. When the operation has relieved some obstruction caused, say, by diphtheria, the tube is left out now and then for a few hours, and ?nally, at the end of a week or so, is removed altogether, after which the wound quickly heals up.... tracheostomy
Transfusion of blood is a technique that has been used since the 17th century – although, until the 20th century, with a subsequent high mortality rate. It was only when incompatibility of BLOOD GROUPS was considered as a potential cause of this high mortality that routine blood-testing became standard practice. Since the National Blood Transfusion Service was started in the United Kingdom (in 1946), blood for transfusion has been collected from voluntary, unpaid donors: this is screened for infections such as SYPHILIS, HIV, HEPATITIS and nvCJD (see CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (CJD)), sorted by group, and stored in blood-banks throughout the country.
In the UK in 2004, the National Blood Authority – today’s transfusion service – announced that it would no longer accept donations from anyone who had received a blood transfusion since 1980 – because of the remote possibility that they might have been infected with the PRION which causes nvCJD.
A standard transfusion bottle has been developed, and whole blood may be stored at 2–6 °C for three weeks before use. Transfusions may then be given of whole blood, plasma, blood cells, or PLATELETS, as appropriate. Stored in the dried form at 4–21 °C, away from direct sunlight, human plasma is stable for ?ve years and is easily reconstituted by adding sterile distilled water.
The National Blood Authority prepares several components from each donated unit of blood: whole blood is rarely used in adults. This permits each product, whether plasma or various red-cell concentrates, to be stored under ideal conditions and used in appropriate clinical circumstances – say, to restore blood loss or to treat haemostatic disorders.
Transfusion of blood products can cause complications. Around 5 per cent of transfused patients suffer from a reaction; most are mild, but they can be severe and occasionally fatal. It can be di?cult to distinguish a transfusion reaction from symptoms of the condition being treated, but the safe course is to stop the transfusion and start appropriate investigation.
In the developed world, clinicians can expect to have access to high-quality blood products, with the responsibility of providing blood resting with a specially organised transfusion service. The cause of most fatal haemolytic transfusion reactions is a clerical error due to faulty labelling and/or failure to identify the recipient correctly. Hospitals should have a strict protocol to prevent such errors.
Arti?cial blood Transfusion with blood from donors is facing increasing problems. Demand is rising; suitable blood donors are becoming harder to attract; the processes of taking, storing and cross-matching donor blood are time-consuming and expensive; the shelf-life is six weeks; and the risk of adverse reactions or infection from transfused blood, although small, is always present. Arti?cial blood would largely overcome these drawbacks. Several companies in North America are now preparing this: one product uses puri?ed HAEMOGLOBIN from humans and another from cows. These provide oxygen-carrying capacity, are unlikely to be infectious and do not provoke immunological rejections. Yet another product, called Oxygene®, does not contain any animal or human blood products; it comprises salt water and a substance called per?ubron, the molecules of which store oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide more e?ectively than does haemoglobin. Within 24 hours of being transfused into a person’s bloodstream, per?ubron evaporates and is harmlessly breathed out by the recipient. Arti?cial blood is especially valuable in that it contains no unwanted proteins that can provoke adverse immunological reactions. Furthermore, it is disease-free, lasts for up to three years and is no more expensive than donor blood. It could well take the place of donor blood within a few years.
Autologous transfusion is the use of an individual’s own blood, provided in advance, for transfusion during or after a surgical operation. This is a valuable procedure for operations that may require large transfusions or where a person has a rare blood group. Its use has increased for several reasons:
fear of infection such as HIV and hepatitis.
shortages of donor blood and the rising cost of units of blood.
substantial reduction of risk of incompatible transfusions. In practice, blood transfusion in the UK is
remarkably safe, but there is always room for improvement. So, in the 1990s, a UK inquiry on the Serious Hazards of Transfusion (SHOT) was launched. It established (1998) that of 169 recently reported serious hazards following blood transfusion, 81 had involved a blood component being given to the wrong patient, while only eight were the result of viral or bacterial infections.
There are three ways to use a patient’s own blood in transfusion:
(1) predeposit autologous donation (PAD) – taking blood from a patient before operation and transfusing this blood back into the patient as required during and after operation.
(2) acute normovalaemic haemodilution (ANH) – diluting previously withdrawn blood and thus increasing the volume before transfusion.
(3) perioperative cell salvage (PCS) – the use of centrifugal cell separation on blood saved during an operation, particularly spinal surgery where blood loss may be considerable.
The government has urged NHS trusts to consider the introduction of PCS as a possible adjunct or alternative to banked-blood transfusion. In one centre (Nottingham), PCS has been used in the form of continuous autologous transfusion for several years with success.
Exchange transfusion is the method of treatment in severe cases of HAEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN. It consists of replacing the whole of the baby’s blood with Rh-negative blood of the correct blood group for the baby.... transfusion
Traveller’s diarrhoea is an all-toocommon a?iction of the traveller, which basks in a multiplicity of names: for example, Aden gut, Aztec two-step, Basra belly, Delhi belly, Gippy tummy, Hong Kong dog, Montezuma’s revenge, Tokyo trots, turista. It is caused by a variety of micro-organisms, usually E. coli. Some people seem to be more prone to it than others, although for no good cause. Obvious preventive measures include the avoidance of salads, unpeeled fruit and ice cream, and never drinking unboiled or unbottled water. If diarrhoea occurs, co-phenotrope and loperamide are often used to reduce the frequency of bowel movements in adults. Prophylactic antibacterial drugs are not advisable.... travel sickness
Treatment Drying of the feet overnight, where practicable, is the best method of prevention, accompanied by avoidance of constrictive clothing and tight boots, and of prolonged immobility. Frequent rest periods and daily changing of socks also help. The application of silicone grease once a day is another useful preventive measure. In the early stages, treatment consists of rest in bed and warmth; in more severe cases treatment is as for infected tissues and ulceration. ANALGESICS are usually necessary to ease the pain. Technically, smoking should be forbidden, but the adverse psychological effects of this in troops on active service may outweigh its advantages.... trench foot
Prevention is based on thorough inspection of meat in slaughterhouses; even cooking, unless the meat is in slices, is not an e?cient protection. Pigs should not be fed on unboiled garbage. Rats may be a source of sporadic outbreaks, as infected rats have been found near piggeries. The disease is widely distributed throughout the Americas, Asia, Africa and the Arctic. Sporadic cases and epidemics occur and outbreaks also appear in Europe, although rarely in Britain.
Treatment Thiabendazole or mebendazole are usually e?ective, while STEROID treatment helps patients with systemic illness and muscle tenderness.... trichinosis
Before applying a truss the wearer must make certain that the hernia has been reduced; this may mean lying down beforehand. A truss will rarely control a hernia satisfactorily, and it should be considered as a temporary measure only until surgical correction is possible. In the past, trusses have been supplied to patients considered too frail for surgery, but modern anaes-thetic techniques mean that most people can have their hernias surgically repaired.... truss
The weight loss and wasting associated with tuberculosis before treatment was available led to the disease’s popular name of consumption. Enlargement of the glands in the neck, formerly called scrofula, was known also as the ‘king’s evil’ from the supersition that a touch of the royal hand could cure the condition. Lupus vulgaris (see under LUPUS) is another of the skin manifestations of the disease.
The typical pathological change in tuberculosis involves the formation of clusters of cells called granulomas (see GRANULOMA) with death of the cells in the centre producing CASEATION.
It is estimated that there are 7–8 million new cases of tuberculosis worldwide each year, with 2–3 million deaths. The incidence of tuberculosis in developed countries has shown a steady decline throughout the 20th century, mainly as a result of improved nutrition and social conditions and accelerated by the development of antituberculous chemotherapy in the 1940s. Since the mid-1980s the decline has stopped, and incidence has even started to rise again in inner-city areas. In 2002, 7,239 cases of tuberculosis were noti?ed in the UK compared with 6,442 a decade earlier; more than 390 deaths in 2003 were attributed to the disease. Factors involved in this rise are immigration from higher-prevalence areas, poorer social conditions and homelessness in some urban centres and the association with HIV infection and drug abuse. The incidence of tuberculosis is also rising in many developing countries because of the emergence of resistant strains of the tubercle bacillus (see below). In the UK recently there have been serious outbreaks in a handful of urban-based schools.... tuberculosis
Characteristic white streaks appear on the optic fundi (see EYE). Molecular genetic testing can identify up to 90 per cent of individuals with a tuberin gene. Genetic counselling of families is helpful. Relatives of those with this condition can obtain help and guidance from the Tuberous Sclerosis Association of Great Britain.... tuberous sclerosis
A lack of oestrogen induces hot flushes, night sweats, thinning of the bones (osteoporosis) with possible fractures, and a wide range of physical and emotional disorders.
HRT also prevents the increased frequency of coronary disease which may follow the menopause. With oestrogen only, HRT appears to increase the incidence of cancer of the uterine body. Use of oestrogen and progestogen avoids this.
HRT is available as a tablet, transdermal patch, implant or topical cream. Most women notice temporary improvement in their appearance and hot flushes as long as treatment is continued. HRT is not prescribed by the herbal practitioner. Soya and Hops are a mild alternative.
Side-effects of such treatment include blood pressure rise, weight gain and periods probably continue with a monthly bleed. Elderly women taking HRT for osteoporosis may develop bleeding problems, the risk of blood clot and gall bladder diseases.
Helonias has proved a useful alternative, effective in eliminating excess fluids, reducing hot flushes, and relieving that bloated feeling, thus helping the older woman to live a normal life.
Damiana. 1 heaped teaspoon leaves to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes; strain. 1 cup 2-3 times daily for 3-6 weeks.
Sarsaparilla. 1oz (30g) root in 1 pint (500ml) water; simmer gently 20 minutes; strain. 1 cup 2-3 times daily for 3-6 weeks.
Supplementation. Daily. Vitamin E, 400iu. Vitamin B-complex (high potency). Evening Primrose oil capsules, 500mg morning and evening. Dolomite, for Calcium and Magnesium, 2 tablets morning and evening.
Note: An extensive study of breast cancer risks with HRT revealed a positive link between the risk of cancer and length of use. Risk of the disease increased with all types of women using HRT with every year of use. Pre-menstrual women were more than twice at risk. It would appear that oestrogens cannot be taken without risk. (Centre for Disease Control, Atlanta, USA) See: OESTROGENS. ... hormone replacement therapy (hrt)
Disorders that can be helped or even cured include certain types of LEUKAEMIA and many inherited disorders of the immune system (see IMMUNITY).... bone marrow transplant
Computed tomography can distinguish soft tissues from cysts or fat, but in general soft-tissue masses have similar appearances, so that distinguishing an in?ammatory mass from a malignant process may be impossible. The technique is particularly useful in patients with suspected malignancy; it can also de?ne the extent of the cancer by detecting enlarged lymph nodes, indicating lymphatic spread. The main indications for computed tomography of the body are: mediastinal masses, suspected pulmonary metastases, adrenal disease, pancreatic masses, retroperitoneal lymph nodes, intra-abdominal abscesses, orbital tumours and the staging of cancer as a guide to e?ective treatment.... computed tomography
The earliest attempt at surgical separation is said to have been made by Dr Farius of Basle in 1689. The ?rst successful separation in Great Britain was in 1912: both twins survived the operation and one survived well into adult life. This is said to be the ?rst occasion on which both twins survived the operation. The success of the operation is largely dependent upon the degree of union between the twins. Thus, if this is only skin, subcutaneous tissue and cartilage, the prospects of survival for both twins are good; but if some vital organ such as the liver is shared, the operation is much more hazardous. (See MULTIPLE BIRTHS.)... conjoined twins
The ?rst ‘test-tube baby’ – to use the popular, and widely used, term for such a child – was born by CAESAREAN SECTION in England on 25 July 1978. Many other children conceived in this manner have since been born, and, though only 10 per cent of women conceive at the ?rst attempt, the overall success rate is improving. Embryo transplantation and research are controversial procedures and in many countries, including the UK, are controlled by legislation. Embryo transfer and research using embryos are regulated by the Human Fertilisation & Embryology Authority (see ASSISTED CONCEPTION; APPENDIX 7: STATUTORY ORGANISATIONS).... embryo transfer
The general term, psychoanalysis, is applied, in the ?rst place, to the method of helping the patient to recover buried memories by free association of thoughts. In the second place, the term is applied to the body of psychological knowledge and theory accumulated and devised by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his followers. The term ‘psychoanalyst’ has traditionally been applied to those who have undergone Freudian training, but Freud’s ideas are being increasingly questioned by some modern psychiatrists.... freudian theory
Habitat: U.S.A
Features ? A small tree with snow-white flowers which hang down like fringe—hence the common name and synonyms. Root about one-eighth inch thick, dull brown with irregular concave scars on outer surface, inside smooth, yellowish-brown. Fracture short, inner layer shows projecting bundles of stone cells. Very bitter taste.Part used ? Root bark.Action: Alterative, hepatic, diuretic, tonic.
In stomach and liver disorders, and poor digestive functioning generally. Also finds a place in gall-stone prescriptions and those for certain female disorders, in which latter Pulsatilla is another frequent constituent. The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion is taken internally in 1-4 tablespoonful doses, and is applied as lotion and injection.... fringe-treeEggs are obtained and mixed with the partner’s semen, then introduced into the woman’s Fallopian tubes for fertilisation to take place. The fertilised egg travels to the uterus where IMPLANTATION occurs and pregnancy proceeds. A variation of GIFT is zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) in which early development of the fertilised eggs happens in the laboratory before the young embryo is transferred to the Fallopian tubes. GIFT is best used in couples with unexplained infertility or with minor degrees of male or female cervical factor infertility. The success rate is about 17 per cent. (See also ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION.)... gamete intrafallopian transfer (gift)
Action: Although more popular among the old herbalists than among those of to-day. Holy Thistle is still valued for its tonic, stimulant and diaphoretic properties.
Mainly used in digestive troubles, the 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion, given warm in wineglass doses several times daily, is also found capable of breaking up obstinate colds. As it is held to stimulate the mammary glands, the infusion has been given with the object of promoting the secretion of milk.Tilke is enthusiastic in his praise of the herb ? "I have found it such a clarifier of the blood, that by drinking an infusion once or twice a day, sweeted with honey, instead of tea, it would be a perfect cure for the headache, or what is commonly called the meagrims." The same writer recommends it as a salad "instead of watercresses."The medicinal use of Holy Thistle goes back far beyond the days of Tilke, or even Johnson. William Turner, Domestic Physician to the Lord Protector Somerset in the reign of King Edward VI, in his Herbal published 1568, agrees with Tilke that the herb is "very good for the headache and the megram."... holy thistleThe haemagglutination inhibition test This, and the subsequent tests to be mentioned, are known as immunological tests. They are based upon the e?ect of the urine from a pregnant woman upon the interaction of red blood cells, which have been sensitised to human gonadotrophin, and anti-gonadotrophin serum. They have the great practical advantage of being performed in a test-tube or even on a slide. Because of their ease and speed of performance, a result can be obtained in two hours.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) This is the basis of many of the pregnancy-testing kits obtainable from pharmacies. It is a highly sensitive antibody test and can detect very low concentrations of human chorionic gonadotrophin. Positive results show up as early as ten days after fertilisation – namely, four days before the ?rst missed period.
Ultrasound The fetal sac can be detected by ULTRASOUND from ?ve weeks, and a fetal echo at around six or seven weeks (see also PRENATAL SCREENING OR DIAGNOSIS).... pregnancy tests
Static lung volumes and capacities can be measured: these include vital capacity – the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly and completely after a maximum deep breath; forced vital capacity is a similar manoeuvre using maximal forceful exhalation and can be measured along with expiratory ?ow rates using simple spirometry; total lung capacity is the total volume of air in the chest after a deep breath in; functional residual capacity is the volume of air in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration, with all respiratory muscles relaxed.
Dynamic lung volumes and ?ow rates re?ect the state of the airways. The forced expiratory volume (FEV) is the amount of air forcefully exhaled during the ?rst second after a full breath – it normally accounts for over 75 per cent of the vital capacity. Maximal voluntary ventilation is calculated by asking the patient to breathe as deeply and quickly as possible for 12 seconds; this test can be used to check the internal consistency of other tests and the extent of co-operation by the patient, important when assessing possible neuromuscular weakness affecting respiration. There are several other more sophisticated tests which may not be necessary when assessing most patients. Measurement of arterial blood gases is also an important part of any assessment of lung function.... pulmonary function tests
In the case of infestation with Taenia saginata, the host may not have any symptoms and only become aware that he or she is infested upon sight of the tapeworm – or rather, part of it – in the stools (FAECES). In the case of Taenia solium the outlook is more serious because the eggs, when swallowed, are liable to migrate into the tissues of the body (as they do in the pig) and cause hydatid cysts. If these occur in the muscles they may cause little trouble but, if they occur in the brain or liver, they can prove very serious.
Hydatid cysts often grow to a great size, budding o? smaller cysts in their interior. The symptoms produced by a hydatid cyst depend mainly upon the effects of its size and consequent pressure.
Treatment of tapeworm infestation is the administration (on a named-patient basis) of niclosamide or praziquantal. Hydatid disease is treated by surgical removal, sometimes in coordination with albendazole.... taeniasis
Action: Whole plant—infusion useful in cold and bronchitis, also in the treatment of rheumatism.
Flowers—alterative; juice used for bleeding piles. Leaves—styptic, applied externally to boils and carbuncles; muscle pains. Leaves and florets— emengagogue, diuretic, vermifuge.The flowers gave lutein esters of dipalmitate, dimyristate and mono- myristate. Fresh petals gave hydrox- yflavones, quercetagetin and tagetiin.The plant yields an essential oil containing limonene, ocimene, linalyl acetate, linalool, tagetone and n-nonyl aldehyde as major components.The aqueous extract of flowers showed activity against Gram-positive bacteria.Tagetes mmuta Linn., synonym T. glandulifera Schrank (North-west Himalayas; native to South America), known as Stinking-Roger, gives highest yield of the essential oil with high carbonyl content, calculated as tagetone among the Tagetes sp. grown in India.... tamarindus indicaA target cell is also a cell that is the focus of attack by macrophages (killer cells – see MACROPHAGE) or ANTIBODIES; it may also be the site of action of a speci?c hormone (see HORMONES).... target cell
In order to reduce the health hazards, tattooists – along with acupuncturists, cosmetic skinpiercers and hair electrolysers – are required by UK legislation to register their premises with health and local authorities before starting business. The practitioners have to satisfy the authorities that adequate precautions have been taken to prevent the transmission of infections.... tattooing
applied in the evening and continued for up to six weeks. Tazarotene is not suitable for those aged under 18.... tazarotene
Structure Each tooth is composed of enamel, dentine, cement, pulp and periodontal membrane. ENAMEL is the almost translucent material which covers the crown of a tooth. It is the most highly calci?ed material in the body, 96–97 per cent being composed of calci?ed salts. It is arranged from millions of long, six-sided prisms set on end on the dentine (see below), and is thickest over the biting surface of the tooth. With increasing age or the ingestion of abrasive foods the teeth may be worn away on the surface, so that the dentine becomes visible. The outer sides of some teeth may be worn away by bad tooth-brushing technique. DENTINE is a dense yellowish-white material from which the bulk and the basic shape of a tooth are formed. It is like ivory and is harder than bone but softer than enamel. The crown of the tooth is covered by the hard protective enamel and the root is covered by a bone-like substance called cement. Decay can erode dentine faster than enamel (see TEETH, DISORDERS OF – Caries of the teeth). CEMENT or cementum is a thin bone-like material which covers the roots of teeth and helps hold them in the bone. Fibres of the periodontal membrane (see below) are embedded in the cement and the bone. When the gums recede, part of the cement may be exposed and the cells die. Once this has happened, the periodontal membrane can no longer be attached to the tooth and, if su?cient cement is destroyed, the tooth-support will be so weakened that the tooth will become loose. PULP This is the inner core of the tooth and is
composed of a highly vascular, delicate ?brous tissue with many ?ne nerve-?bres. The pulp is very sensitive to temperature variation and to touch. If the pulp becomes exposed it will become infected and usually cannot overcome this. Root-canal treatment or extraction of the tooth may be necessary. PERIODONTAL MEMBRANE This is a layer of ?brous tissue arranged in groups of ?bres which surround and support the root of a tooth in a bone socket. The ?bres are interspersed with blood vessels and nerves. Loss of the membrane leads to loss of the tooth. The membrane can release and re-attach the ?bres to allow the tooth to move when it erupts, or (to correct dental deformities) is being moved by orthodontic springs.
Arrangement and form Teeth are present in most mammals and nearly all have two sets: a temporary or milk set, followed by a permanent or adult set. In some animals, like the toothed whale, all the teeth are similar; but in humans there are four di?erent shapes: incisors, canines (eye-teeth), premolars (bicuspids), and molars. The incisors are chisel-shaped and the canine is pointed. Premolars have two cusps on the crown (one medial to the other) and molars have at least four cusps. They are arranged together in an arch in each jaw and the
cusps of opposing teeth interdigitate. Some herbivores have no upper anterior teeth but use a pad of gum instead. As each arch is symmetrical, the teeth in an upper and lower quadrant can be used to identify the animal. In humans, the quadrants are the same: in other words, in the child there are two incisors, one canine and two molars (total teeth 20); in the adult there are two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three molars (total 32). This mixture of tooth-form suggests that humans are omnivorous. Anatomically the crown of the tooth has mesial and distal surfaces which touch the tooth next to it. The mesial surface is the one nearer to the centre line and the distal is the further away. The biting surface is called the incisal edge for the anterior teeth and the occlusal surface for the posteriors.
Development The ?rst stage in the formation of the teeth is the appearance of a down-growth of EPITHELIUM into the underlying mesoderm. This is the dental lamina, and from it ten smaller swellings in each jaw appear. These become bell-shaped and enclose a part of the mesoderm, the cells of which become specialised and are called the dental papillae. The epithelial cells produce enamel and the dental papilla forms the dentine, cement and pulp. At a ?xed time the teeth start to erupt and a root is formed. Before the deciduous teeth erupt, the permanent teeth form, medial to them. In due course the deciduous roots resorb and the permanent teeth are then able to push the crowns out and erupt themselves. If this process is disturbed, the permanent teeth may be displaced and appear in an abnormal position or be impacted.
Eruption of teeth is in a de?nite order and at a ?xed time, although there may be a few months’ leeway in either direction which is of no signi?cance. Excessive delay is found in some congenital disorders such as CRETINISM. It may also be associated with local abnormalities of the jaws such as cysts, malformed teeth and supernumerary teeth.
The usual order of eruption of deciduous teeth is:
Middle incisors 6–8 months Lateral incisors 8–10 months First molars 12–16 months Canines (eye-teeth) 16–20 months Second molars 20–30 months
The usual order of eruption of permanent teeth is:
First molars 6–7 years Middle incisors 6–8 years Lateral incisors 7–9 years Canines 9–12 years First and second premolars 10–12 years Second molars 11–13 years Third molars (wisdom teeth) 17–21 years
The permanent teeth of the upper (top) and lower (bottom) jaws.
Teeth, Disorders of
Teething, or the process of eruption of the teeth in infants, may be accompanied by irritability, salivation and loss of sleep. The child will tend to rub or touch the painful area. Relief may be obtained in the child by allowing it to chew on a hard object such as a toy or rusk. Mild ANALGESICS may be given if the child is restless and wakens in the night. A serious pitfall is to assume that an infant’s symptoms of ill-health are due to teething, as the cause may be more serious. Fever and ?ts (see SEIZURE) are not due to teething.
Toothache is the pain felt when there is in?ammation of the pulp or periodontal membrane of a tooth (see TEETH – Structure). It can vary in intensity and may be recurring. The commonest cause is caries (see below) when the cavity is close to the pulp. Once the pulp has become infected, this is likely to spread from the apex of the tooth into the bone to form an abscess (gumboil – see below). A lesser but more long-lasting pain is felt when the dentine is unprotected. This can occur when the enamel is lost due to decay or trauma or because the gums have receded. This pain is often associated with temperature-change or sweet foods. Expert dental advice should be sought early, before the decay is extensive. If a large cavity is accessible, temporary relief may be obtained by inserting a small piece of cotton wool soaked, for example, in oil of cloves.
Alveolar abscess, dental abscess or gumboil This is an ABSCESS caused by an infected tooth. It may be present as a large swelling or cause trismus (inability to open the mouth). Treatment is drainage of the PUS, extraction of the tooth and/or ANTIBIOTICS.
Caries of the teeth or dental decay is very common in the more a?uent countries and is most common in children and young adults. Increasing awareness of the causes has resulted in a considerable improvement in dental health, particularly in recent years; this has coincided with a rise in general health. Now more than half of ?ve-year-old children are caries-free and of the others, 10 per cent have half of the remaining carious cavities. Since the start of the National Health Service, the emphasis has been on preventive dentistry, and now edentulous patients are mainly found among the elderly who had their teeth removed before 1948.
The cause of caries is probably acid produced by oral bacteria from dietary carbohydrates, particularly re?ned sugar, and this dissolves part of the enamel; the dentine is eroded more quickly as it is softer (see TEETH – Structure). The exposed smooth surfaces are usually protected as they are easily cleaned during normal eating and by brushing. Irregular and overcrowded teeth are more at risk from decay as they are di?cult to clean. Primitive people who chew coarse foods rarely get caries. Fluoride in the drinking water at about one part per million is associated with a reduction in the caries rate.
Prolonged severe disease in infancy is associated with poor calci?cation of the teeth, making them more vulnerable to decay. As the teeth are formed and partly calci?ed by the time of birth, the diet and health of the mother are also important to the teeth of the child. Pregnant mothers and children should have a good balanced diet with su?cient calcium and vitamin
D. A ?brous diet will also aid cleansing of the teeth and stimulate the circulation in the teeth and jaws. The caries rate can be reduced by regular brushing with a ?uoride toothpaste two or three times per day and certainly before going to sleep. The provision of sweet or sugary juices in an infant’s bottle should be avoided.
Irregularity of the permanent teeth may be due to an abnormality in the growth of the jaws or to the early or late loss of the deciduous set (see TEETH – Development). Most frequently it is due to an imbalance in the size of the teeth and the length of the jaws. Some improvement may take place with age, but many will require the help of an orthodontist (specialist dentist) who can correct many malocclusions by removing a few teeth to allow the others to be moved into a good position by means of springs and elastics on various appliances which are worn in the mouth.
Loosening of the teeth may be due to an accident or in?ammation of the GUM. Teeth loosened by trauma may be replaced and splinted in the socket, even if knocked right out. If the loosening is due to periodontal disease, the prognosis is less favourable.
Discoloration of the teeth may be intrinsic or extrinsic: in other words, the stain may be in the calci?ed structure or stuck on to it. Intrinsic staining may be due to JAUNDICE or the antibiotic tetracycline. Extrinsic stain may be due to tea, co?ee, tobacco, pan (a mixture of chuna and betel nuts wrapped in a leaf), iron-containing medicines or excess ?uoride.
Gingivitis or in?ammation of the gum may occur as an acute or chronic condition. In the acute form it is often part of a general infection of the mouth, and principally occurs in children or young adults – resolving after 10–14 days. The chronic form occurs later in life and tends to be progressive. Various microorganisms may be found on the lesions, including anaerobes. Antiseptic mouthwashes may help, and once the painful stage is past, the gums should be thoroughly cleaned and any calculus removed. In severe conditions an antibiotic may be required.
Periodontal disease is the spread of gingivitis (see above) to involve the periodontal membrane of the tooth; in its ?orid form it used to be called pyorrhoea. In this, the membrane becomes damaged by the in?ammatory process and a space or pocket is formed into which a probe can be easily passed. As the pocket becomes more extensive, the tooth loosens. The loss of the periodontal membrane also leads to the loss of supporting bone. Chronic in?ammation soon occurs and is di?cult to eradicate. Pain is not a feature of the disease but there is often an unpleasant odour (halitosis). The gums bleed easily and there may be DYSPEPSIA. Treatment is largely aimed at stabilising the condition rather than curing it.
Dental abscess is an infection that arises in or around a tooth and spreads to involve the bone. It may occur many years after a blow has killed the pulp of the tooth, or more quickly after caries has reached the pulp. At ?rst the pain may be mild and intermittent but eventually it will become severe and a swelling will develop in the gum over the apex of the tooth. A radiograph of the tooth will show a round clear area at the apex of the tooth. Treatment may be by painting the gum with a mild counter-irritant such as a tincture of aconite and iodine in the early stages, but later root-canal therapy or apicectomy may be required. If a swelling is present, it may need to be drained or the o?ending teeth extracted and antibiotics given.
Injuries to teeth are common. The more minor injuries include crazing and the loss of small chips of enamel, and the major ones include a broken root and avulsion of the entire tooth. A specialist dental opinion should be sought as soon as possible. A tooth that has been knocked out can be re-implanted if it is clean and replaced within a few hours. It will then require splinting in place for 4–6 weeks.
Prevention of dental disease As with other disorders, prevention is better than cure. Children should be taught at an early age to keep their teeth and gums clean and to avoid re?ned sugars between meals. It is better to ?nish a meal with a drink of water rather than a sweetened drink. Fluoride in some of its forms is useful in the reduction of dental caries; in some parts of the UK natural water contains ?uoride, and in some areas where ?uoride content is low, arti?cial ?uoridation of the water supply is carried out. Overcrowding of the teeth, obvious maldevelopment of the jaw and persistent thumbsucking into the teens are all indications for seeking the advice of an orthodontist. Generally, adults have less trouble with decay but more with periodontal disease and, as its onset is insidious, regular dental inspections are desirable.... teeth
Telemedicine is useful for remote locations, such as the Antartic, or on board ships, or aeroplanes, where it may be di?cult or impossible to get a doctor to the patient. It can also speed up the referral process, reduce unnecessary referrals and improve communication between professionals. It has potential value in pilot projects of ‘hospital at home’ care.... telemedicine
In humans the ‘normal’ temperature is around 37 °C (98·4 °F). It may rise as high as 43 °C or fall to 32 °C in various conditions, but the risk to life is only serious above 41 °C or below 35 °C.
Fall in temperature may accompany major loss of blood, starvation, and the state of collapse (see SHOCK) which may occur in severe FEVER and other acute conditions. Certain chronic diseases, notably hypothyroidism (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), are generally accompanied by a subnormal temperature. Increased temperature is a characteristic of many acute diseases, particularly infections; indeed, many diseases have a characteristic pattern that enables a provisional diagnosis to be made or acts as a warning of possible complications. In most cases the temperature gradually abates as the patient recovers, but in others, such as PNEUMONIA and TYPHUS FEVER, the untreated disease ends rapidly by a CRISIS in which the temperature falls, perspiration breaks out, the pulse rate falls, and breathing becomes quieter. This crisis is often preceded by an increase in symptoms, including an epicritical rise in temperature.
Body temperature is usually measured on the Celsius scale, on a thermometer reading from 35 °C to 43·3 °C. Measurement may be taken in the mouth (under the tongue), in the armpit, the external ear canal or (occasionally in infants) in the rectum. (See also THERMOMETER.)
Treatment Abnormally low temperatures may be treated by application of external heat, or reduction of heat loss from the body surface. High temperature may be treated in various ways, apart from the primary treatment of the underlying condition. Treatment of hyperthermia or hypothermia should ensure a gradual return to normal temperature (see ANTIPYRETICS.... temperature
Although the risks are nil or very small with most drugs, no medication should be given to a pregnant woman, particularly during the ?rst few months of pregnancy, unless it is absolutely essential for her health or that of her unborn child. Alcohol is regarded as ‘medication’ in this context.... teratogenesis
All the preparations are virtually identical, being active against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN). Derived from cultures of streptomyces bacteria, their value has lessened owing to increasing resistance to the group among bacteria. However, they remain the treatment of choice for BRUCELLOSIS, LYME DISEASE, TRACHOMA, PSITTACOSIS, Q FEVER, SALPINGITIS, URETHRITIS and LYMPHOGRANULOMA INGUINALE, as well as for infections caused by MYCOPLASMA, certain rickettsiae (see RICKETTSIA) and CHLAMYDIA. Additionally they are used in the treatment of ACNE, but are not advised in children under 12 as they may produce permanent discoloration of the teeth. Tetracyclines must not be used if a woman is pregnant as the infant’s deciduous teeth will be stained.... tetracyclines
All thiazides are active by mouth with an onset of action within 1–2 hours, and a duration of 12–24 hours. Chlorthalidone is a thiazide-related compound that has a longer duration of action and only requires to be given on alternate days. The other thiazide drugs available include bendro?uazide, cyclopenthiazide, hydrochlorothiazide, hydro?umethiazide, indapamide, mefruside, methychlothiazide, metolazone, polythiazide and xipamide.... thiazides
Touch sense proper, by which we perceive a touch or stroke and estimate the size and shape of bodies with which we come into contact, but which we do not see.
Pressure sense, by which we judge the heaviness of weights laid upon the skin, or appreciate the hardness of objects by pressing against them.
Heat sense, by which we perceive that an object is warmer than the skin.
Cold sense, by which we perceive that an object touching the skin is cold.
Pain sense, by which we appreciate pricks, pinches and other painful impressions.
Muscular sensitiveness, by which the painfulness of a squeeze is perceived. It is produced probably by direct pressure upon the nerve-?bres in the muscles.
Muscular sense, by which we test the weight of an object held in the hand, or gauge the amount of energy expended on an e?ort.
Sense of locality, by which we can, without looking, tell the position and attitude of any part of the body.
Common sensation, which is a vague term used to mean composite sensations produced by several of the foregoing, like tickling, or creeping, and the vague sense of well-being or the reverse that the mind receives from internal organs. (See the entry on PAIN.)
The structure of the end-organs situated in the skin, which receive impressions from the outer world, and of the nerve-?bres which conduct these impressions to the central nervous system, have been described under NERVOUS SYSTEM. (See also SKIN.)
Touch affects the Meissner’s or touch corpuscles placed beneath the epidermis; as these di?er in closeness in di?erent parts of the skin, the delicacy of the sense of touch varies greatly. Thus the points of a pair of compasses can be felt as two on the tip of the tongue when separated by only 1 mm; on the tips of the ?ngers they must be separated to twice that distance, whilst on the arm or leg they cannot be felt as two points unless separated by over 25 mm, and on the back they must be separated by more than 50 mm. On the parts covered by hair, the nerves ending around the roots of the hairs also take up impressions of touch.
Pressure is estimated probably through the same nerve-endings and nerves that have to do with touch, but it depends upon a di?erence in the sensations of parts pressed on and those of surrounding parts. Heat-sense, cold-sense and pain-sense all depend upon di?erent nerve-endings in the skin; by using various tests, the skin may be mapped out into a mosaic of little areas where the di?erent kinds of impressions are registered. Whilst the tongue and ?nger-tips are the parts most sensitive to touch, they are comparatively insensitive to heat, and can easily bear temperatures which the cheek or elbow could not tolerate. The muscular sense depends upon the sensory organs known as muscle-spindles, which are scattered through the substance of the muscles, and the sense of locality is dependent partly upon these and partly upon the nerves which end in tendons, ligaments and joints.
Disorders of the sense of touch occur in various diseases. HYPERAESTHESIA is a condition in which there is excessive sensitiveness to any stimulus, such as touch. When this reaches the stage when a mere touch or gentle handling causes acute pain, it is known as hyperalgesia. It is found in various diseases of the SPINAL CORD immediately above the level of the disease, combined often with loss of sensation below the diseased part. It is also present in NEURALGIA, the skin of the neuralgic area becoming excessively tender to touch, heat or cold. Heightened sensibility to temperature is a common symptom of NEURITIS. ANAESTHESIA, or diminution of the sense of touch, causing often a feeling of numbness, is present in many diseases affecting the nerves of sensation or their continuations up the posterior part of the spinal cord. The condition of dissociated analgesia, in which a touch is quite well felt, although there is complete insensibility to pain, is present in the disease of the spinal cord known as SYRINGOMYELIA, and a?ords a proof that the nerve-?bres for pain and those for touch are quite separate. In tabes dorsalis (see SYPHILIS) there is sometimes loss of the sense of touch on feet or arms; but in other cases of this disease there is no loss of the sense of touch, although there is a complete loss of the sense of locality in the lower limbs, thus proving that these two senses are quite distinct. PARAESTHESIAE are abnormal sensations such as creeping, tingling, pricking or hot ?ushes.... touch
(2) A band of CONNECTIVE TISSUE passing from the outer part of an organ to the interior, separating the organ into discrete chambers.... trabecula
The pioneering success was achieved with transplantation of the kidney in the 1970s; this has been most successful when the transplanted kidney has come from an identical twin. Less successful have been live transplants from other blood relatives, while least successful have been transplants from other live donors and cadaver donors. The results, however, are steadily improving. Thus the one-year functional survival of kidneys transplanted from unrelated dead donors has risen from around 50 per cent to over 80 per cent, and survival rates of 80 per cent after three years are not uncommon. For a well-matched transplant from a live related donor, the survival rate after ?ve years is around 90 per cent. And, of course, if a transplanted kidney fails to function, the patient can always be switched on to some form of DIALYSIS. In the United Kingdom the supply of cadaveric (dead) kidneys for transplantation is only about half that necessary to meet the demand.
Other organs that have been transplanted with increasing success are the heart, the lungs, the liver, bone marrow, and the cornea of the eye. Heart, lung, liver and pancreas transplantations are now carried out in specialist centres. It is estimated that in the United Kingdom, approximately 200 patients a year between the ages of 15 and 55 would bene?t from a liver transplant if an adequate number of donors were available. More than 100 liver transplants are carried out annually in the United Kingdom and one-year-survival rates of up to 80 per cent have been achieved.
The major outstanding problem is how to prevent the recipient’s body from rejecting and destroying the transplanted organ. Such rejection is part of the normal protective mechanism of the body (see IMMUNITY). Good progress has been made in techniques of tissue-typing and immunosuppression to overcome the problem. Drugs are now available that can suppress the immune reactions of the recipient, which are responsible for the rejection of the transplanted organ. Notable among these are CICLOSPORIN A, which revolutionised the success rate, and TACROLIMUS, a macrolide immunosuppressant.
Another promising development is antilymphocytic serum (ALS), which reduces the activity of the lymphocytes (see LYMPHOCYTE) cells which play an important part in maintaining the integrity of the body against foreign bodies.
Donor cards are now available in all general practitioners’ surgeries and pharmacies but, of the millions of cards distributed since 1972, too few have been used. The reasons are complex but include the reluctance of the public and doctors to consider organ donation; poor organisation for recovery of donor kidneys; and worries about the diagnosis of death. A code of practice for procedures relating to the removal of organs for transplantation was produced in 1978, and this code has been revised in the light of further views expressed by the Conference of Medical Royal Colleges and Faculties of the United Kingdom on the Diagnosis of Brain Death. Under the Human Tissue Act 1961, only the person lawfully in possession of the body or his or her designate can authorise the removal of organs from a body. This authorisation may be given orally.
Patients who may become suitable donors after death are those who have suffered severe and irreversible brain damage – since such patients will be dependent upon arti?cial ventilation. Patients with malignant disease or systemic infection, and patients with renal disease, including chronic hypertension, are unsuitable.
If a patient carries a signed donor card or has otherwise recorded his or her wishes, there is no legal requirement to establish lack of objection on the part of relatives – although it is good practice to take account of the views of close relatives. If a relative objects, despite the known request by the patient, sta? will need to judge, according to the circumstances of the case, whether it is wise to proceed with organ removal. If a patient who has died is not known to have requested that his or her organs be removed for transplantation after death, the designated person may only authorise the removal if, having made such reasonable enquiry as may be practical, he or she has no reason to believe (a) that the deceased had expressed an objection to his or her body being so dealt with after death, or (b) that the surviving spouse or any surviving relative of the deceased objects to the body being so dealt with. Sta? will need to decide who is best quali?ed to approach the relatives. This should be someone with appropriate experience who is aware how much the relative already knows about the patient’s condition. Relatives should not normally be approached before death has occurred, but sometimes a relative approaches the hospital sta? and suggests some time in advance that the patient’s organs might be used for transplantation after death. The sta? of hospitals and organ exchange organisations must respect the wishes of the donor, the recipient and their families with respect to anonymity.
Relatives who enquire should be told that some post-mortem treatment of the donor’s body will be necessary if the organs are to be removed in good condition. It is ethical (see ETHICS) to maintain arti?cial ventilation and heartbeat until removal of organs has been completed. This is essential in the case of heart and liver transplants, and many doctors think it is desirable when removing kidneys. O?cial criteria have been issued in Britain to recognise when BRAIN-STEM DEATH has occurred. This is an important protection for patients and relatives when someone with a terminal condition
– usually as a result of an accident – is considered as a possible organ donor.... transplantation
Triage is now operated in accident and emergency departments by a ‘triage nurse’ who allocates a degree of priority so that patients are seen in order of severity rather than according to their time of arrival.... triage
The following diseases and conditions are treated under their separate dictionary entries: ANCYLOSTOMIASIS; BERIBERI; BLACKWATER FEVER; CHOLERA; DENGUE; DRACONTIASIS; DYSENTERY; ELEPHANTIASIS; FILARIASIS; HEAT STROKE; LEISHMANIASIS; LEPROSY; LIVER, DISEASES OF; MALARIA; ORIENTAL SORE; PLAGUE; PRICKLY HEAT; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; SLEEPING SICKNESS; STRONGYLOIDIASIS; SUNBURN; YAWS; YELLOW FEVER.... tropical diseases
(2) A drug that has helped some patients with resistant DEPRESSION. Used as a supporting drug with other treatment, tryptophan was withdrawn because of side-effects; it has, however, been reintroduced for use in hospital for patients for whom no alternative treatment is suitable. (See also MENTAL ILLNESS.)... tryptophan
– is conjugated or unconjugated. If conjugated, this indicates that HAEMOLYSIS is causing the jaundice; if unconjugated, disease of the LIVER or BILE DUCT is the likely diagnosis.... van den bergh test
Cause: Septicaemia or infected embolism conveyed from elsewhere – veins of the face, sinuses, head. May be a complication of meningitis.
Symptoms: headache, nausea, swelling of eyelids and forehead, pupils distended, veins of temples prominent, fever with severe constitutional disturbance.
Prognosis: usually fatal in the absence of orthodox antibiotics, but anti-staphylococcal herbs are helpful. Tinctures. Formula. Echinacea 3; Goldenseal 2; Myrrh (Tincture) 1. 1 teaspoon in water every 2 hours (acute). Thrice daily (chronic).
Treatment by or in liaison with general medical practitioner. ... cavernous sinus thrombosis
Alternatives. Teas. Lime flowers, Nettles, Horsetail, Ginkgo, Oats, Mistletoe, Yarrow.
Tea. Mix equal parts: Ginkgo, Hawthorn, Yarrow. One heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes; 1 cup thrice daily.
Tablets/capsules. Ginkgo, Hawthorn, Prickly Ash.
Diet. See: DIET–HEART AND CIRCULATION.
Supplements. Daily: Vitamin E 1000mg; B6 50mg; B12 2mcg. Selenium 200mcg; Zinc 15mg. Strict bedrest; regulate bowels; avoid excessive physical and mental exertion. ... cerebral thrombosis
Symptoms include muscle weakness, loss of vision, or other sensory disturbances, speech difficulties, and epileptic seizures. Increased pressure within the skull can cause headache, visual disturbances, vomiting, and impaired mental functioning. Hydrocephalus may occur.
When possible, primary tumours are removed by surgery after opening the skull (see craniotomy).
In cases where a tumour cannot be completely removed, as much as possible of it will be cut away to relieve pressure.
For primary and secondary tumours, radiotherapy or anticancer drugs may also be given.
Corticosteroid drugs are often prescribed temporarily to reduce the size of a tumour and associated brain swelling.... brain tumour
The tumour is hard, with a well-defined edge.
The tumours occur most frequently in women who have had children.
They may also arise at the sites of old surgical incisions.
Surgical removal is the usual treatment.... desmoid tumour
When a viral infection such as a cold causes blockage of the eustachian tube, equalization cannot occur, resulting in severe pain and temporary impairment of hearing. A person with a blocked eustachian tube who is subjected to rapid pressure changes may suffer from barotrauma. Glue ear or chronic otitis media may occur if the tube is blocked, preventing adequate drainage from the middle ear. These conditions, which often result in partial hearing loss are more common in children. This is partly because their adenoids are larger and more likely to cause a blockage if they become infected and partly because children’s eustachhian tubes are shorter than those of adults.... eustachian tube
The tube opens into the uterus at one end, and the other end, which is divided into fimbriae (finger-like projections), lies close to the ovary. The tube has muscular walls lined by cells with cilia (hair-like projections). The fimbriae take up the egg after it is expelled from the ovary. The beating cilia and muscular contractions propel the egg towards the uterus. After intercourse, sperm swim up the fallopian tube from the uterus. The lining of the tube and its secretions sustain the egg and sperm, encouraging fertilization, and nourish the egg until it reaches the uterus.
Salpingitis is inflammation of the fallopian tube, usually the result of a sexually transmitted bacterial infection, that can lead to infertility.
An ectopic pregnancy (development of an embryo outside the uterus) most commonly occurs in the fallopian tube.... fallopian tube
It starts in childhood with repetitive grimaces and tics.
Involuntary barks, grunts, or other noises may appear as the disease progresses.
In some cases, the sufferer has episodes of issuing foul language.
The syndrome is more common in males.
It is usually of lifelong duration, but antipsychotic drugs can help in some cases.... gilles de la tourette’s syndrome
The cause is overgrowth of the nerve structures that normally control blood flow and temperature in the skin.
The tumours are harmless but are surgically removed.... glomus tumour
Episodes occur during (nonrapid eye movement) sleep, usually half an hour to 3 and a half hours after falling asleep. Sufferers wake up screaming in a semiconscious state and remain frightened for some minutes. They do not recognize familiar faces or surroundings, and usually cannot be comforted. The sufferer gradually falls back to sleep and has no memory of the event the following day.
Night terror in children has no serious significance, but, in adults, is likely to be associated with an anxiety disorder.... night terror
Common causes include natural disasters, violence, rape, torture, serious physical injury, and military combat.
Symptoms, which may develop many months after the event, include recurring memories or dreams of the event, a sense of personal isolation, and disturbed sleep and concentration.
There may be a deadening of feelings, or irritability and feelings of guilt, sometimes building up to depression.
Most people recover, in time, with emotional support and counselling.... post-traumatic stress disorder
The blood is more acidic than normal, and the urine less acidic.
Causes include kidney damage due to disease, drugs, or a genetic disorder; but in many cases the cause is unknown.
The acidosis may result in osteomalacia, kidney stones (see calculus, urinary tract), nephrocalcinosis, and hypokalaemia (an abnormally low level of potassium in the blood).... renal tubular acidosis
The pulp is removed through a hole drilled in the crown. An antibiotic paste and a temporary filling are packed in. A few days later, the filling is removed and the canals are checked for infection. When no infection is detected the cavity is filled and the roots are sealed with cement. If the cavity is not filled completely, periodontitis may occur.
Treated teeth may turn grey but their appearance can be restored by bonding (see bonding, dental), fitting an artificial crown (see crown, dental), or by bleaching (see bleaching, dental).... root-canal treatment
Side effects include low blood pressure, drowsiness, dry mouth, and gastrointestinal disturbances.... tamsulosin
Tarsorrhaphy may be used as part of the treatment of corneal ulcer, or to protect the corneas of people who cannot close their eyes or those with exophthalmos.
The eyelids are later cut apart and allowed to open.... tarsorrhaphy
The cause is a defective response of the body tissues to testosterone.
The causative genes are carried on the X chromosome, and so females can be carriers. Affected individuals appear to be girls throughout childhood, and most develop female secondary sexual characteristics at puberty; but amenorrhoea occurs, and a diagnosis is usually made during investigations to find its cause. Chromosome analysis shows the presence of male chromosomes and blood tests show male levels of testosterone. Treatment of testicular feminization syndrome involves surgical removal of the testes, to prevent cancerous change in later life, and therapy with oestrogen drugs. An affected person is not fertile but can live a normal life as a woman.... testicular feminization syndrome
There are 2 types of thoracotomy: lateral and anterior. In a lateral thoracotomy the chest is opened between 2 ribs to provide access to the lungs, major blood vessels, and the oesophagus. In an anterior thoracotomy, an incision down the sternum (breastbone) provides access to the heart and the coronary arteries.... thoracotomy
The thymus lies behind the sternum and consists of 2 lobes that join in front of the trachea.
Each lobe is made of lymphoid tissue consisting of lymphocytes, epithelium, and fat.
The thymus conditions lymphocytes to become T-cells.
It plays a part in the immune response until puberty, gradually enlarging during this time.
After puberty, it shrinks, but some glandular tissue remains until middle-age.... thymus
Timolol may also be given after a myocardial infarction.
It is used as eye-drops to treat glaucoma.
Possible side effects, such as cold hands and feet, are typical of other beta-blockers.
Eye-drops may cause irritation, blurred vision, and headache.... timolol
Four tocopherols (alpha, beta, gamma, and delta) and several tocopherol derivatives together make up the vitamin.... tocopherol
The weakness may last for minutes, hours, or even days, but there is no lasting effect.
The cause is thought to be temporary damage to the motor cortex (the area of the brain that controls movement).... todd’s paralysis
It is less likely to cause dependence with long-term use than most opioids.
Possible side effects include nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, confusion, and impaired consciousness.... tramadol
Light from a small torch is shone on 1 side of the lump; if it can be seen on the other side, the lump contains clear fluid.... transillumination
TIAs may be caused by a blood clot (see embolism) temporarily blocking an artery that supplies the brain, or by narrowing of an artery as a result of atherosclerosis.
After a TIA, tests such as CT scanning, blood tests, ultrasound scanning, or angiography may be needed to determine a cause. In some cases, the heart is studied as a possible source of blood clots. Treatment is aimed at preventing stroke, which occurs within 5 years in up to one third of patients with TIA. Treatments include endarterectomy, anticoagulant drugs, or aspirin.... transient ischaemic attack
Possible side effects include drowsiness, constipation, dry mouth, dizziness, and, rarely, priapism.... trazodone
Possible adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, weakness, and rash.... triamterene
Tricyclic antidepressants prevent neurotransmitters in the brain from being reabsorbed, thereby increasing their level.
Examples are amitriptyline, clomipramine, and imipramine.... tricyclic antidepressants
The most common trisomy is of chromosome 21 (Down’s syndrome). Trisomy 18 (Edward’s syndrome) and trisomy 13 (Patau’s syndrome) are less common; trisomy 8 and trisomy 22 are very rare. Partial trisomy, with only part of a chromosome in triplicate, also occurs. Full trisomies cause abnormalities such as skeletal and heart defects and learning difficulties. Except in Down’s syndrome, babies usually die in early infancy. The effects of partial trisomies depend on the amount of extra chromosomal material present.
Diagnosis is made by chromosome analysis of cells, which may be obtained from the fetus by amniocentesis or after the birth. There is no specific treatment. Parents of an affected child should seek genetic counselling.... trisomy
Treatment with growth hormone from infancy helps girls with Turner’s syndrome to achieve near normal height. Coarctation of the aorta is treated surgically. Treatment with oestrogen drugs induces menstruation, but it does not make affected girls fertile.... turner’s syndrome
It is caused by an abnormally fast heart-rate due to serious heart disease, such as myocardial infarction or cardiomyopathy.
It may last for a few seconds or for several days.
Diagnosis is confirmed by ECG.
Emergency treatment is with defibrillation and an antiarrhythmic drug.... ventricular tachycardia
Habitat: Throughout India in the dry and intermediate zones; ascending to an altitude of about 1,200 m in the Himalayas.
Ayurvedic: Aadaari, Lataa Khadira (related sp., see. A. pennata).Siddha/Tamil: Kariyundu, Ingu.Folk: Araar, Chilar (Punjab), Aila (Maharashtra).Action: Flower—emmenagogue. Bark—anti-inflammatory, antiseptic (in skin diseases). Bark contains 17% tannins, triterpene alcohol, saponins of acacic acid, lupeol and a steroid, acaciol. An alkaloid, tryptamine, is present in the root and stem bark.
Various plant parts are used in cough, bronchitis, measles, tubercular fistula and in the treatment of menstrual disorders. The bark is used for washing the hair.... acacia tortaHabitat: Cultivated in Central and southern Europe.
English: Alkanet, Dyers' or Spanish Bugloss.Unani: Ratanjot. National Formulary of Unani Medicine equated Ratanjot with Onosma echioides Linn., found in Kashmir and Kumaon.Siddha/Tamil: Ratthapaalai, Surul- pattai, Dineshavalli.Action: Astringent, antimicrobial (used for indolent ulcers, wounds, erysipelas).
The root contains up to 5% alkan- nins, which are lipophilic isohexenyl- naphthazarin red pigments; tannins and wax. A pyrrolizidine (hepatotox- ic) alkaloid has also been isolated from the herb. The alkannins have antimicrobial and wound-healing properties and are non-toxic in mice. They have been used clinically for indolent ulcers.... alkanna tinctoriaHabitat: Cultivated throughout India.
English: Chinese Spinach, Garden Amaranth, Fountain Plant.Ayurvedic: Maarisha-rakta (red var.).Siddha/Tamil: Arai-keerai, Siru- keerai, Thandu-keerai, Mulakkerai (Tamil).Folk: Laal Shaak, Laal Marashaa.Action: Astringent (in menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhagic colitis); also used in cough, bronchitis and consumption; externally emollient.
The plant contains amarantin, isoa- marantin, betaine, amino acids, sterols.Dosage: Leaf, seed, root—10-20 ml juice. (API Vol. III.) Powder—2- 4 g. (CCRAS.)... amaranthus tricolorHabitat: Assam, Bengal, southwards to Andhra Pradesh and western Ghats.
English: Kadam.Ayurvedic: Kadamba, Priyaka, Vrtta-pushpa, Nipa, Halipriya. Kadambaka is equated with Adina cordifolia.Siddha/Tamil: Venkadambu, Vellai Kadambam.Action: Stembark—febrifugal, antidiuretic, anthelmintic, hypo- glycaemic. Fruit—cooling; anti- catarrhal, blood purifier, analgesic.
Family: Moraceae.Habitat: Western Ghats from Konkan southwards to Trivandrum, up to 600 m.
English: Sacking tree, Upas tree.Ayurvedic: Valkala vrksha.Siddha/Tamil: Aranthelli, Mara-uri, Nettavil.Folk: Jangali Lakuch, Jasund, Chaandakudaa.Action: Seed—febrifuge, antidysen- teric (in minute doses). Latex— circulatory stimulant (in minute doses.)
The latex contains a series of poisonous cardenolides, of which alpha- and/or beta-antiarin are the main components. The total amount of crystalline cardiac glycosides in the latex ranges from 0.1 to 2.5%; alpha-antiarin from 0.0 to 1.38% and beta-antiarin from 0.075 to 1.44%. Antiarins are said to act on the heart more powerfully than digitalin. Beta-antiarin is more potent than alpha-antiarin.Latex, in small quantities, is a mild cardiac and circulatory stimulant, whereas in large quantities it acts as a myocardial poison. It stimulates intestinal and uterine contractions.As many as 34 Kedde-positive substances were reported in the seed sample from Indonesia. The latex sample showed the presence of 29 Kedde- positive substances.... antiaris toxicariaAbsent CORNEAL REFLEX
Absent VESTIBULO-OCULAR REFLEX
No cranial motor response to somatic (physical) stimulation
Absent gag and cough re?exes
No respiratory e?ort in response to APNOEA despite adequate concentrations of CARBON DIOXIDE in the arterial blood.... b nosed. the test for brain-stem death are:
For adults with acute diarrhoea, short-term symptomatic treatment can be achieved with antimotility drugs such as codeine phosphate, co-phenotrope or loperamide hydrochloride. Adsorbent drugs, for example, KAOLIN, should not be used in acute diarrhoea, but bulk-forming drugs – ispaghula or methylcellulose
– can help to control the consistency of faeces in patients with ileostomies and colostomies (see ILEOSTOMY; COLOSTOMY), or those with diarrhoea caused by DIVERTICULAR DISEASE.
Irritable bowel syndrome, malabsorption syndrom, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease and diverticular disease are often accompanied by diarrhoea; for more information on these conditions, see under separate entries.
ANTIBIOTICS may sometimes cause diarrhoea and this side-e?ect should be borne in mind when the cause of the condition is being investigated.... antidiarrhoeal treatments
Habitat: Peninsular India, Orissa, West Bengal.
English: Mistletoe Berrythorn.Siddha/Tamil: Mulchangan.Folk: Kundali.Action: Root—diuretic (used in Siddha medicine for dropsy and rheumatism). Leaves—stimulant (used in rheumatism); expectorant, antispasmodic (used in cough and asthma); given to women after confinement. Bark—antiperiodic, astringent, expectorant.
The leaves contain the alkaloids az- imine, azcarpine and carpine. EtOH (50%) extract of aerial parts exhibited spasmogenic activity.... azima tetracanthaHabitat: Southern India, Assam and Bihar.
English: Yellow Bauhinia, St. Thomas tree, Bell Bauhinia.Ayurvedic: Pita Kovidaara (yellow- flowered var.), Pita Kanchana.Siddha/Tamil: Kokkumandarai, Tiruvaatti, Kanjani.Folk: Kachnaar.Action: Antidysenteric. Fruit— diuretic. Bark—astringent. Root bark—vermifuge. A decoction of the root bark is prescribed for liver diseases. Seed—used for wound healing.
Seeds yield a fatty oil called ebony oil, a water soluble mucilage and saponins. Flowers gave isoquercitrin (6%), rutin (4.6%) and quercetin (small amounts).... bauhinia tomentosaHabitat: The sub-Himalayan tract from Dehra Dun to Assam.
English: Bareilly Cane.Ayurvedic: Vetra (var.) (Vetasa, Salix caprea Linn., is a different drug).Action: See C. rotang.... calamus tenuis
Habitat: Deccan peninsula, from Malabar to Travancore.
English: Cane.Ayurvedic: Vetra.Siddha/Tamil: Pirambu.Action: Tender leaves are used in dyspepsia, biliousness and as an anthelmintic. See C. rotang.... calamus travancoricus
Habitat: Cultivated mainly as an oil-seed crop in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.
English: Safflower.Ayurvedic: Kusumbha, Vahin- shikhaa, Vastraranjaka, Kusum.Unani: Qurtum.Siddha/Tamil: Chendurakam.Action: Oil—aids prevention of arteriosclerosis, coronary heart disease and kidney disorders as a polyunsaturated fat. Flowers— stimulant, sedative, diuretic, emmenagogue; used in fevers and eruptive skin conditions, measles.
Charred safflower oil is used in rheumatism and for healing sores.Key application: Dried flowers— in cardiovascular diseases, amen- orrhoea, dysmenorrhoea and retention of lochia; also in wounds and sores with pain and swelling. (Pharmocopoeia of the People's Republic of China, 1997.)Safflower contains carthamone, lig- nans and a polysaccharide. The polysaccharide, composed of xylose, fructose, galactose, glucose, arabinose, rhamnose and uronic acid residues, stimulates immune function in mice. It induced antibody formation in mice following peritoneal injection. Extracts of flowers have also been tested in China on blood coagulation, where a prolongation of clothing time was observed and platelet aggregation inhibited. Chinese research indicates that Safflower flowers can reduce coronary artery disease, and lower cholesterol levels. Flowers and seeds exhibit lipase activity. The flower extract also exhibited anti-inflammatory, sedative and analgesic effect and inhibitory effect on spontaneous motor activity.The plant contains a propanetriol derivative, which can be used for the treatment of circulatory disorders.Recent research suggests that improving the lipid profile might not be as important to reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease as suggested. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Safflower is contraindicated in pregnancy, gastric disorders, excessive menstruation, haemorrhagic diseases.Wild and thorny Safflower, growing in the arid tract of Haryana and Punjab (locally known as Kantiaari, Poli, Poiyan) is equated with C. oxy- cantha Bieb. The plant is diuretic. Seed oil is applied topically to ulcers. The plant contains a sesquiterpene gly- coside. Aerial parts contain hinesol- beta-D-fucopyranoside. The plant also contains luteolin-7-glucoside.Dosage: Leaf—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... carthamus tinctoriusHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal, ascending to 1,000 m; throughout tropical India.
Ayurvedic: Chilhaka.Siddha/Tamil: Kadichai.Folk: Chillaa, Saptrangi.Action: Root—hypoglycaemic. Root bark is used as a tonic in anaemic conditions.
Fruit pulp—diuretic, purgative, Leaves—anti-inflammatory. Fruit pulp —diuretic.Ethanolic (80%) extract of the leaves showed significant anti-inflammatory activity in rats. Oil extracted from the seeds in rubbed on sprains. Various plant parts are used in neuralgia. and bladder. Chaksine has ganglion- blocking property. Chaksine and iso- chaksine possess a local anaesthetic effect intradermally. It produces a sustained fall in blood pressure of anaesthetized animals and produces a weak anti-acetylcholine effect. Roots also contains anthraquinones and aloe- emodin.Dosage: Seed—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... casearia tomentosaHabitat: Throughout India as a weed.
English: Sickle Senna, Ringworm Plant.Ayurvedic: Chakramarda, Chakri, Prapunnaada, Dadrughna, Me- shalochana, Padmaata, Edagaja.Unani: Penwaad Taarutaa.Siddha/Tamil: Ushittgarai.Folk: Chakavad, Daadamaari.Action: Leaves—taken internally to prevent skin diseases; applied against eczema and ringworm; pounded and applied on cuts, act like tincture of iodine. Seeds, soaked in water, are taken for spermatorrhoea. A paste made of equal parts of leaves and seeds is given for jaundice. Pods are used in dysentery.
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the seed in paralysis and hemiplegia as a supporting drug.The leaves contain chrysophanol, aloe-emodin, rhein and emodin. Mature leaves possess purgative properties and are sometimes utilized to adulterate the true senna; also used as an antiperiodic and anthelmintic.The leaf extract exhibited antifungal activity against the ringworm fungus Microsporon nanum.Seeds contain anthraquinone glyco- sides, naptho-pyrone glycosides, cas- siaside and rubrofusarin-6-beta-genti- obioside. These constituents showed significant hepatoprotective activity.Thrachrysone, isolated from seeds, showed stronger antioxidant activity than tocopherol and BHA.Chrysophanic acid-9-anthrone, extracted from the seed, was found to be active against ringworm fungi.Dosage: Seed—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. III.)... cassia toraHabitat: Sub-Himalayan tract, Assam and throughout hilly regions of Central and South India.
English: Red Cedar, Toon, Indian Mahogany tree.Ayurvedic: Tuunikaa, Nandi Vrksha.Siddha/Tamil: Tunumaram, Santhana Vembu.Folk: Toonaa.Action: Bark—astringent, an- tidysenteric, antiperiodic. Flow- ers—emmenagogue. Leaf— spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic, an- tiprotozoal.
Bark and heartwood yielded tetra- nortriterpenoids, including toonacilin. Heartwood also gave a coumarin, ger- anylgernalol and its fatty esters. Toona- cilin and its 6-hydroxy derivatives are antifeedant.... cedrela toonaHabitat: Central and Peninsular India up to 1,350 m.
Ayurvedic: Musali, Mushali.Unani: Musali.Siddha: Vallaimusali.Action: Dried tubers are used as tonic.
The commercial drug, Safed Musali, contains the tubers of C. arundinaceum Baker, C. tuberosum Baker and C. in- dicum (Willd.) Dress, synonym C. at- tenuatum Baker.C. indicum is found on the hills in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and on the hills near Udaipur in Rajasthan.Dosage: Dried tuber—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... chlorophytum tuberosumSpecial needs The Children Act 1989, Education Acts 1981, 1986 and 1993, and the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Legislation 1979 impose various statutory duties to identify and provide assistance for children with special needs. They include the chronically ill as well as those with impaired development or disabilities such as CEREBRAL PALSY, or hearing, vision or intellectual impairment. Many CDTs keep a register of such children so that services can be e?ciently planned and evaluated. Parents of disabled children often feel isolated and neglected by society in general; they are frequently frustrated by the lack of resources available to help them cope with the sheer hard work involved. The CDT, through its key workers, does its best to absorb anger and divert frustration into constructive actions.
There are other groups of children who come to the attention of child health services. Community paediatricians act as advisers to adoption and fostering agencies, vital since many children needing alternative homes have special medical or educational needs or have behavioural or psychiatric problems. Many see a role in acting as advocates, not just for those with impairments but also for socially disadvantaged children, including those ‘looked after’ in children’s homes and those of travellers, asylum seekers, refugees and the homeless.
Child protection Regrettably, some children come to the attention of child health specialists because they have been beaten, neglected, emotionally or nutritionally starved or sexually assaulted by their parents or carers. Responsibility for the investigation of these children is that of local-authority social-services departments. However, child health professionals have a vital role in diagnosis, obtaining forensic evidence, advising courts, supervising the medical aspects of follow-up and teaching doctors, therapists and other professionals in training. (See CHILD ABUSE.)
School health services Once children have reached school age, the emphasis changes. The prime need becomes identifying those with problems that may interfere with learning – including those with special needs as de?ned above, but also those with behavioural problems. Teachers and parents are advised on how to manage these problems, while health promotion and health education are directed at children. Special problems, especially as children reach secondary school (aged 11–18) include accidents, substance abuse, psychosexual adjustment, antisocial behaviour, eating disorders and physical conditions which loom large in the minds of adolescents in particular, such as ACNE, short stature and delayed puberty.
There is no longer, in the UK, a universal school health service as many of its functions have been taken over by general practitioners and hospital and community paediatricians. However, most areas still have school nurses, some have school doctors, while others do not employ speci?c individuals for these tasks but share out aspects of the work between GPs, health visitors, community nurses and consultant paediatricians in child health.
Complementing their work is the community dental service whose role is to monitor the whole child population’s dental health, provide preventive programmes for all, and dental treatment for those who have di?culty using general dental services – for example, children with complex disability. All children in state-funded schools are dentally screened at ages ?ve and 15.
Successes and failures Since the inception of the NHS, hospital services for children have had enormous success: neonatal and infant mortality rates have fallen by two-thirds; deaths from PNEUMONIA have fallen from 600 per million children to a handful; and deaths from MENINGITIS have fallen to one-?fth of the previous level. Much of this has been due to the revolution in the management of pregnancy and labour, the invention of neonatal resuscitation and neonatal intensive care, and the provision of powerful antibiotics.
At the same time, some children acquire HIV infection and AIDS from their affected mothers (see AIDS/HIV); the prevalence of atopic (see ATOPY) diseases (ASTHMA, eczema – see DERMATITIS, HAY FEVER) is rising; more children attend hospital clinics with chronic CONSTIPATION; and little can be done for most viral diseases.
Community child health services can also boast of successes. The routine immunisation programme has wiped out SMALLPOX, DIPHTHERIA and POLIOMYELITIS and almost wiped out haemophilus and meningococcal C meningitis, measles and congenital RUBELLA syndrome. WHOOPING COUGH outbreaks continue but the death and chronic disability rates have been greatly reduced. Despite these huge health gains, continuing public scepticism about the safety of immunisation means that there can be no relaxation in the educational and health-promotion programme.
Services for severely and multiply disabled children have improved beyond all recognition with the closure of long-stay institutions, many of which were distinctly child-unfriendly. Nonetheless, scarce resources mean that families still carry heavy burdens. The incidence of SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) has more than halved as a result of an educational programme based on ?rm scienti?c evidence that the risk can be reduced by putting babies to sleep on their backs, avoidance of parental smoking, not overheating, breast feeding and seeking medical attention early for illness.
Children have fewer accidents and better teeth but new problems have arisen: in the 1990s children throughout the developed world became fatter. A UK survey in 2004 found that one in ?ve children are overweight and one in 20 obese. Lack of exercise, the easy availability of food at all times and in all places, together with the rise of ‘snacking’, are likely to provoke signi?cant health problems as these children grow into adult life. Adolescents are at greater risk than ever of ill-health through substance abuse and unplanned pregnancy. Child health services are facing new challenges in the 21st century.... child development teams (cdts)
Habitat: A native of Peru and Brazil.
English: False Pareira Brava.Ayurvedic: Paatha, Ambashthaa (true Pareira is equated with Cissampelos pareira root).Action: Diuretic (used for chronic inflammation of urinary passages, calculus affections, jaundice, dropsy); also for leucorrhoea, rheumatism.
Roots and stem contain alkaloids, including delta-tubocurarine and l- curarine. Tubocurarine is a potent muscle relaxant. The plant contains toxic derivatives and must be used in medicinal doses with caution.Tubocurarine alkaloid is used as tubocurarine chloride to paralyse body’s muscles during operations.... chondodendron tomentosumHabitat: Hills of Sikkim, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and the Andamans.
English: Bastard Cedar, White Cedar, Indian Red Wood.Siddha/Tamil: Aglay, Melei Veppu.Folk: Chikrassy.Action: Bark—astringent, febrifuge, antidiarrhoeic, spasmolytic, diuretic. The plant is used in skeltal fractures.
The bark contains sitosterol, melia- none, scopoletin and 6,7-di-MeO- coumarin. The leaves gave querce- tin galactoside, galloyl glucocide and tannic acid. The bark and young leaves contain 15 and 20% tannin respectively. Seeds contain tetranortriterpenoids.EtOH (50%) extract of the stem bark exhibited spasmolytic, hypoten- sive and diuretic activity. The saline extract of seeds showed haemaggluti- nating activity.... chukrassia tabularisHabitat: The subtropical Himalayas, Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
English: Indian Cassia, Lignea.Ayurvedic: Tejapatra, Patra, Patraka, Utkat, Tamaalpatra, Naalukaa, Naalikaa.Unani: Saleekhaa, Saazaj Hindi (Also equated with Zarnab/Telispattar by National Formulary of Unani Medicine, Part I.)Siddha/Tamil: Talishpattiri (now equated with the leaf of Abies webbiana); Lavangappattiri.Folk: Tejpaata.Action: Leaf—Carminative, antidiarrhoeal, spasmolytic, an- tirheumatic, hypoglycaemic. Essential oil—fungicidal.
The oil from bark contains cin- namaldehyde (70-85%) as major constituent. (See.C.cassia.) Leaves from Nepal yield a volatile oil, containing mainly linalool 54.66%; cinnamalde- hyde 1.16%, alpha-and beta-pinene, p- cymene and limonene.Cinnamomum wighti Meissn. is also equated with Tejapatra. The bud, known as Sirunaagappoo in Siddha/ Tamil, is used as Naagakeshara (black var.). (Naagakeshara is obtained from Mesuaferra and Dilleniapentagyne.)C. impressinervium Meissn. (Sik- kim) and C. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees (the Central and Eastern Himalayas up to 2,100 m, Assam and Andaman Islands) are related species of Cinnamo- mum.The leaves and bark contain cin- namaldehyde.Dosage: Dried leaves—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... cinnamomum tamalaAn appreciation of the need to account for chance and bias has led to development of methods where new treatments are compared to either a PLACEBO or to the standard treatment (or both) in a controlled, randomised clinical trial. ‘Controlled’ means that there is a comparison group of patients not receiving the test intervention, and ‘randomised’ implies that patients have been assigned to one or other treatment group entirely by chance and not because of their doctor’s preference. If possible, trials are ‘double-blind’ – that is, neither the patient nor the investigator knows who is receiving which intervention until after the trial is over. All such trials must follow proper ethical standards with the procedure fully explained to patients and their consent obtained.
The conduct, e?ectiveness and duplication of clinical trials have long been subjects of debate. Apart from occasional discoveries of deliberately fraudulent research (see RESEARCH FRAUD AND MISCONDUCT), the structure of some trials are unsatisfactory, statistical analyses are sometimes disputed and major problems have been the – usually unwitting – duplication of trials and non-publication of some trials, restricting access to their ?ndings. Duplication occurs because no formal international mechanism exists to enable research workers to discover whether a clinical trial they are planning is already underway elsewhere or has been completed but never published, perhaps because the results were negative, or no journal was willing to publish it, or the authors or funding authorities decided not to submit it for publication.
In the mid 1980s a proposal was made for an international register of clinical trials. In 1991 the NHS launched a research and development initiative and, liaising with the COCHRANE COLLABORATION, set out to collect systematically data from published randomised clinical trials. In 1994 the NHS set up a Centre for Reviews and Dissemination which, among other responsibilities, maintains a database of research reviews to provide NHS sta? with relevant information.
These e?orts are hampered by availability of information about trials in progress and unpublished completed trials. With a view to improving accessibility of relevant information, the publishers of Current Science, in 1998, launched an online metaregister of ongoing randomised controlled trials.
Subsequently, in October 1999, the editors of the British Medical Journal and the Lancet argued that the case for an international register of all clinical trials prior to their launch was unanswerable. ‘The public’, they said, ‘has the right to know what research is being funded. Researchers and research funders don’t want to waste resources repeating trials already underway.’ Given the widening recognition of the importance to patients and doctors of the practice of EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE, the easy availability of information on planned, ongoing and completed clinical trials is vital. The register was ?nally set up in 2005.... clinical trials
Habitat: Throughout India in tropical areas; also cultivated in hedges.
English: Butterfly Pea, Winged- leaved Clitoria, Mezereon.Ayurvedic: Girikarnikaa, Aparaa- jitaa, Aasphota, Girimallikaa, Girikanyaa, Kokilaa,Yonipushpaa, Vishnukraantaa. (Evolvulus alsi- noides Linn. is also known as Vishnukraantaa, Vishnukranti). Used as Shankhapushpi in the South.Unani: Mezereon Hindi.Siddha/Tamil: Kakkanam.Folk: Koyal (Punjab).Action: Root—cathartic like jalap. Roots cause gripe and tenesmus, hence not recommended as purgative. Used in ascites. Root bark—diuretic (infusion used in irritation of bladder and urethra). Root juice—given in cold milk to liquefy phlegm in chronic bronchitis. The root, bark, seeds and leaves—used for gastric acidity. The root is administered with honey as a general tonic to children for improving mental faculty.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the dried leaf in migraine, psychoneurosis and mania.An alcoholic extract of the plant showed sedative and hypothermic effect in rodents.Rats, fed with ethanol extract of flowers, showed a significantly lowered serum sugar level in experimentally induced diabetes.The seeds contain a nucleoprotein with its amino acid sequence similar to insulin, but for the absence of his- tidine, threonine, proline and crystine.Seeds gave cinnamic acid, flavonol gly- coside. Leaves contain glycosides of kaempferol.In South India, the seeds and roots constitute the drug Shankhapushpi, used as a nervine tonic. In other regions, Canscora decussata, Convolvulus pluricaulis, Evolvulus alsinoides and Lavendula bipinnata are used as Shan- khapushpi.Dosage: Root—1-3 g powder (API Vol. II); dried leaf—2-5 g; seed—1- 3 g. (API Vol. IV.)... clitoria ternateaResearch has shown that cognitive therapy is very e?ective in depression and that it can also help in anxiety, OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER, and EATING DISORDERS such as anorexia and bulimia nervosa. This therapy is also proving useful in helping people cope with HALLUCINATIONS and other symptoms of SCHIZOPHRENIA.... cognitive behaviour therapy
Habitat: Native to Africa and Asia, found in north-western and southern India.
Folk: Navananji (Maharashtra), Vajradanti (Punjab).Action: Febrifuge (used in febrile attacks after childbirth. Applied locally to putrescent wounds.
In Indian medicine, Vajradanti, equated with Potentilla arbuscula D. Don and its related species (Rosaceae), is used topically for strengthening gums and teeth.... dicoma tomentosaHabitat: Kashmir, above 2,350 m.
Ayurvedic: Hiyaavali, Svarnakshiri (also equated with Argemone mexicana L., Papaveraceae.), Kanchanakshiri, Pitadugdhaa, Katuparni.Folk: Hiravi (Kashmir). Titari (Himachal Pradesh).Action: Root—purgative. Latex— used in eruptions and other skin diseases.... euphorbia thomsoniana
Habitat: Mishmi Hills in Arunachal Pradesh. Cultivated commercially in China.
Ayurvedic: Mamira, Maamiraa, Tiktamuulaa. (Pita-muulikaa and Hem-tantu are provisional synonyms.)Unani: Maamisaa, Maamiraa.Folk: Titaa (Bengal and Assam).Action: Stomachic, antiperiodic, antibacterial, antifungal. Prescribed in debility, convalescence, intermittent fevers, dyspepsia, dysentery and intestinal catarrh. Used as a local application in thrush.
The rhizomes contains berberine (9%) as the major alkaloid; other alkaloids present are: coptin (0.08%), cop- tisin 0.02%) and jatrorrhizine (0.01%). Samples from China contained 9.2612.23% berberine, 2.39-3.25% coptisin and 3.20-4.46% jatrorrhizine. In China, the herb is used as an antidiabetic; the ethanolic (50%) extract exhibited hypoglycaemic and hypotensive activity.The drug due to berberine and its related alkaloids promoted reticuloen- dothelium to increased phagocytosis of leucocytes in dog blood in vitro and in vivo.Coptis chinensis (Huang Lian) inhibited erythrocyte haemolysis, decreased lipid peroxidation in brain and kidney, decreased generation of superoxide peroxidation and decreased hy- droxyl radicals in rats. (Life Sci, 2000, 66(8), 725-735.)Dosage: Root—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... coptis teetaHabitat: Native to South-East Asia. Now cultivated in Assam, Bengal and South India.
English: Purging Croton.Ayurvedic: Jayapaala, Dravanti, Dantibija, Tintidiphala.Unani: Habb-us-Salaateen, Jamaal- gotaa, Hubb-ul-Malook.Siddha/Tamil: Nervaalam.Action: Cathartic, rubefacient, irritant. Used in ascites, anasarca, dropsy and enlargement of abdominal viscera.
The seed oil is purgative. It produces severe symptoms of toxicity when taken internally or applied externally to the skin.Croton oil showed tumour-promoting activity on mouse skin. The skin irritant and tumour promoting diterpene esters of the tigliane type (phorbol esters) and toxins have been isolated from the seeds. (In China, where the herb is employed for the treatment of gastro-intestinal disturbances, the highest incidence of naso- pharyngeal cancer has been reported.) 1 ml oil is usually fatal. Phorbols (terpenoids) from nonvolatile oil are toxic. Crotin, a toxic albuminous substance, is not extracted in the oil. The plant caused haematuria and swelling of lymph glands in animals.Dosage: Seed—6-12 mg powder. (API Vol. IV.)... croton tigliumHabitat: Wild throughout the drier upland tracts of India. Ayurvedic: Indravaaruni (var.). Siddha/Tamil: Kattutumatti. Folk: Vishlumbha, Bhakuraa.
Action: Pulp of fruit—drastic purgative. Decoction of roots— milder in purgative action. Seeds— cooling, astringent; useful in bilious disorders. The fruit is used as a substitute for Colocynth.
The fruits contain steroid and tri- terpenoid compounds, cucurbitacin B and proteolytic enzymes. EtOH extract exhibits analgesic and anti- inflammatory activity; stimulates isolated uterus of guinea pigs.... cucumis trigonusHabitat: Cultivated throughout India, particularly in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa.
English: Cluster bean, Guar.Ayurvedic: Kshudra Shimbi, Gorakshaphalini, Guaar, Gwaalin.Unani: Guaar phali.Action: Laxative, antibilious. Gum—hypoglycaemic, hypolipi- daemic, appetite depressor (weight loss not observed), reduces glyco- suria during gum supplementation.
The administration of Guar gum (15 g/day) with normal diet for 6 weeks produced significant reduction in plasma, total cholesterol and LDL-choles- terol. The gum (10 g daily) is reported to decrease blood-glucose level in normal and diabetic volunteers. The supplementation of the gum in the diet of insulin-dependent diabetics failed to improve the long-term diabetic control, but significantly reduced serum cholesterol levels.Taking Guar gum orally with meals was found to lower post-prandial glucose levels in patients with type 1 diabetes. (Am J clin Nutr, 56, 1992, 10561060.)Oral administration of an ethanol extract of powdered pods has shown significant antiulcer, antisecretory and cytoprotective effects on various experimentally-induced gastric lesions in rats.Guarmeal contains galactomannan, 3-epikatonic acid and a saponin.... cyamopsis tetragonolobaHabitat: Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Plaksha (related species).Siddha/Tamil: Itthi, Kal Itthi.Action: Bark—antileprotic (used for ulcers and venereal diseases). Aerial parts exhibit diuretic, spasmolytic, CNS depressant and hypothermic activity.... ficus talbotii
Habitat: Throughout India, in the plains ascending to 1,200 m in Kumaon and 1,800 m in Kashmir.
Ayurvedic: Tripaadi, Hamsapaadi (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil: Seruppadi.Folk: Jangali Methi, Ran-methi.Action: Fresh leaves—used internally as galactagogue and for diarrhoea; applied externally to wounds and abscesses. Root— diuretic. Also used for cough, asthma.
The leaf contains alkaloids (0.010.15%), major being beta-phenylethyl- amine; also contains tyramine and hy- paphorine. Hypaphorine is present in roots as well. Root contains 0.010.02% alkaloids.... desmodium triflorumDDT has thus had a wide use in medicine, public health, veterinary medicine, horticulture, and agriculture. Unfortunately, the indiscriminate use of DDT is potentially hazardous, and its use is now restricted or banned in several countries, including the United Kingdom.
The danger of DDT is that it enters the biological food chain with the result that animals at the end of the food chain such as birds or predators may build up lethal concentrations of the substance in their tissues.
In any case, an increasing number of species of insects were becoming resistant to DDT. Fortunately, newer insecticides have been introduced which are toxic to DDT-resistant insects, but there are doubts whether this supply of new insecticides can be maintained as insects develop resistance to them.... dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane
Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tract from Ravi to Nepal, also in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orrisa.
English: Nepal Ebony Persimmon.Ayurvedic: Viralaa, Tinduka (var.).Siddha/Tamil: Tumbi.Action: Astringent, anti- inflammatory, styptic. Various plant parts are used for dry cough, bronchitis, pleurisy, pneumonia, dysuria, fistula, tumours, bleeding gums, haemorrhagic conditions.
The leaves and stems gave beta- sitosterol, lupeol, betulin, betulinic and oleanolic acids.Unsaponifiable matter of seeds showed CNS depressant activity.... diospyros tomentosaHabitat: The Andamans and Assam.
English: Common Gurjun tree, Wood Oil tree.Ayurvedic: Ajakarna, Chhaagakar- na, Ashwakarna.Siddha/Tamil: Enney, Saara.Folk: Gurjan.Action: Oleo-resin (known as Gurjan Oil or Gurjan Balsam)— stimulant to genitourinary system, diuretic, spasmolytic; used externally on ulcers, ringworm and other cutaneous affections. Bark—a decoction is prescribed rheumatism.
Essential oil from oleo-resin contained humulene, beta-caryophyllene, a bicyclic sesquiterpene hydrocarbon and a sesquiterpene alcohol.The twig bark contains 9% tannin and 7.3% soluble non-tans.Dosage: Oil—3-5 ml. (CCRAS.)... dipterocarpus turbinatusHabitat: Throughout India, also planted as an ornamental.
Ayurvedic: Krishnamokshaka.Siddha/Tamil: Selluppaimaram.Folk: Kaalaa-mokhaa, Ratangaruur. Jamrasi (gum).Action: Astringent, anti- inflammatory, emetic.
The bark and the leaves contain 813.5 and 8-15% tannin respectively.Powdered leaves have a sternutatory action and are used as snuff to relieve headache and as a fumigatory in hysteria (in folk medicine it is believed that the smoke wards off ghosts.)Fresh root bark is rubbed into a paste with water and applied to swellings. A cold water extract of the crushed roots is used as an emetic (fatal in overdoses).Family: Elaeocarpaceae.Habitat: Western Ghats from Kanara southwards. Ayurvedic: Rudraaksha (var.).... elaeocarpus tuberculatus
Before treatment, the patient will have been fasted for at least eight hours. After checking for any potential drug ALLERGY or interactions, the patient is given a general anaesthetic and muscle relaxants. Depending on the side of the patient’s dominance, either unilateral (on the side of the non-dominant hemisphere of the BRAIN) or bilateral (if dominance is uncertain,
e.g. in left-handed people) positioning of electrodes is used. Unilateral ECT has the advantage of being associated with less anterograde AMNESIA. When the current passes, the muscles will contract for approximately 10 seconds, with further tonic spasms lasting up to a minute. The patient should then be put in the COMA or recovery position and observed until fully conscious. Up to 12 treatments may be given over a month, improvement usually showing after the third session. Widely used at one time, the treatment is now given only rarely. It can be extremely frightening for patients and relatives and is not recommended for children.... electroconvulsive therapy (ect)
Habitat: Tropical Himalayas from Simla to Bhutan between 2,150 and 3,200 m, and in Assam.
English: Spindle Wood, Wahoo. (Euonymus atropurpureus, found in Eastern and Central USA and Canada, is equated with Wahoo and Spindle tree.Ayurvedic: Bhillotaka.Folk: Chopra, Mermahaul, Kunku, Barphali.Action: Cholagogue, laxative, diuretic, circulatory stimulant. Used for constipation, torpidity of liver, gall bladder disorders, jaundice and dyspepsia. Bark is used in diseases of the eye.
Key application: Bark—as laxative.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The plant yielded triterpenes—epi- friedelinol, taraxerol, dulcitol, pris- timerin and tingenins A and B. Pris- timerin exhibited antitumour activity.Only bark and root bark is used medicinally. The seeds are poisonous.Toxic constituents of E. atropur- pureus are furan-a-carboxylic acid; d- phenyl-glucosone (sterol glucoside); euatroside; euatromonoside (steroid glycosides). (Francis Brinker.)... euonymus tingensHabitat: Native to Brazil; naturalized in many parts of India; grown in gardens of Maharashtra.
English: Ayapana Tea.Ayurvedic: Vishalyakarani, Ayaapaana.Siddha/Tamil: Ayapanai.Folk: Ayapani (Maharashtra).Action: Cardiac stimulant, laxative, emetic, expectorant, bechic, antiscorbutic, alterative. Used in ague, also in dyspepsia. Leaf— anticholerin, haemostatic.
The leaves contain ayapanin and ayapin, with pronounced haemostatic properties. The leaves also contain carotene and free vitamin C (25 mg/ 100 g); there is 100% increase in vitamin C content on frying the leaves in oil.A aqueous extract of dried leaves and shoots exhibits cardiac stimulant activity, increasing the force of the heartbeat but diminishing its frequency.The plant is comparable to chamo- mile (Anthemis sp.).... eupatorium triplinerveHabitat: Smaller var., equated with E. thymifolia, is found in tropical plains and low hills of India, ascending to 1,750 m. Bigger var., E. pilulifera/E. hirta Linn. is found in warmer parts of India from Punjab eastwards, and southwards to Kanyakumari.
Ayurvedic: Dudhi (smaller var.), Dugdhikaa, Naagaarjuni, Swaaduparni.Siddha/Tamil: Sittrapaladi.Action: Plant—antispasmodic, bronchodilator, antiasthmat- ic (used in bronchial asthma), galactagogue (also used for spermatorrhoea). Root—used in amenorrhoea. Latex—used in ringworm, dandruff. Leaf, seed and latex—purgative. A decoction of the plant, with honey, is given to treat haematuria.
Aerial parts gave epitaraxerol, n- hexacosanol, euphorbol, two derivatives of deoxyphorbol-OAC, 24-meth- ylene cycloartenol and quercetin galactoside. Co-carcinogenic activity is due to phorbol derivatives. The plant exhibits antimicrobial activity due to alkaloids.Dosage: Whole plant—10-20 g paste. (CCRAS.)Family: Euphorbiaceae.Habitat: Native to Africa; naturalized in the warmer parts of India.
English: Milk-Bush, Milk Hedge, Indian tree Spurge, Aveloz, Petroleum PlantAyurvedic: Saptalaa, Saatalaa.Siddha/Tamil: Tirukalli.Folk: Angulia-thuuhar.Action: Purgative, emetic, antiasthmatic, bechic. Used for whooping cough, asthma, dyspepsia, biliousness, jaundice, enlargement of spleen, leucorrhoea. Latex—applied externally on warts.
Used as a purgative and for rheumatism and neuralgia. Stem bark—used for gastralgia, colic, asthma.The latex contains an ingol ester besides triterpenoids, euphorbinol and cycloeuphordenol.Presence of a number of ingenol and phorbol esters (diterpenoids), and tri- terpenoids are reported from the plant. The stem gave hentriacontane, hentri- acontanol, beta-sitosterol, Me-ellagic and ellagic acids and kaempferol glu- coside.The latex is a weak tumour promoter.... euphorbia thymifoliaas the organ of the sense of taste, and as an organ provided with a delicate sense of touch; and
to play a part in the production of speech. (See VOICE AND SPEECH.) It is usual to classify any taste as: sweet, bitter,
salt and acid, since ?ner distinctions are largely dependent upon the sense of smell. The loss of keenness in taste brought about by a cold in the head, or even by holding the nose while swallowing, is well known. Sweet tastes seem to be best appreciated by the tip of the tongue, acids on its edges, and bitters at the back. There are probably di?erent nerve-?bres and end-organs for the di?erent varieties of taste. Many tastes depend upon the ordinary sensations of the tongue.
Like other sensations, taste can be very highly educated for a time, as in tea-tasters and wine-tasters, but this special adaptation is lost after some years.... functions the chief uses of the tongue are:
Habitat: Throughout greater parts of India.
Folk: Vana-methi.Action: Astringent, antileucor- rhoeic, antirheumatic, alterative, restorative.
The seeds contain crude protein 31.5 pentosan 7.3, water soluble gum 3.0%.... indigofera trifoliataThe imaging systems of COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (see MRI) have powerful computer techniques underlying them.
Computerised statistical analysis of study data, population databases and disease registries is now routine, leading to enhanced understanding of the interplay between diseases and the population. And the results of research, available on computerised indexes such as MEDLINE, can be obtained in searches that take only seconds, compared with the hours or days necessary to accomplish the same task with its paper incarnation, Index Medicus.
Medical informatics The direct computerisation of those activities which are uniquely medical – history-taking, examination, diagnosis and treatment – has proved an elusive goal, although one hotly pursued by doctors, engineers and scientists working in the discipline of medical informatics. Computer techniques have scored some successes: patients are, for example, more willing to be honest about taboo areas, such as their drug or alcohol consumption, or their sexual proclivities, with a computer than face to face with a clinician; however, the practice of taking a history remains the cornerstone of clinical practice. The examination of the patient is unlikely to be supplanted by technological means in the foreseeable future; visual and tactile recognition systems are still in their infancy. Skilled interpretation of the result by machine rather than the human mind seems equally as remote. Working its way slowly outwards from its starting point in mathematical logic, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE that in any way mimics its natural counterpart seems a distant prospect. Although there have been successes in computer-supported diagnosis in some specialised areas, such as the diagnosis of abdominal pain, workable systems that could supplant the mind of the generalist are still the dream of the many developers pursuing this goal, rather than a reality available to doctors in their consulting rooms now.
In therapeutics, computerised prescribing systems still require the doctor to make the decision about treatment, but facilitate the process of writing, issuing, and recording the prescription. In so doing, the system can provide automated checks, warning if necessary about allergies, potential drug interactions, or dosing errors. The built-in safety that this process o?ers is enhanced by the superior legibility of the script that ensues, reducing the potential for error when the medicine is dispensed by the nurse or the pharmacist.
Success in these individual applications continues to drive development, although the process has its critics, who are not slow to point to the lengthier consultations that arise when a computer is present in the consulting room and its distracting e?ect on communication with the patient.
Underlying these many software applications lies the ubiquitous personal computer – more powerful today than its mainframe predecessor of only 20 years ago – combined with networking technology that enables interconnection and the sharing of data. As in essence the doctor’s role involves the acquisition, manipulation and application of information – from the individual patient, and from the body of medical knowledge – great excitement surrounds the development of open systems that allow di?erent software and hardware platforms to interact. Many problems remain to be solved, not least the fact that for such systems to work, the whole organisation, and not just a few specialised individuals, must become computer literate. Such systems must be easy to learn to use, which requires an intuitive interface between user(s) and system(s) that is predictable and logical in its ordering and presentation of information.
Many other issues stand in the way of the development towards computerisation: standard systems of nomenclature for medical concepts have proved surprisingly di?cult to develop, but are crucial for successful information-sharing between users. Sharing information between existing legacy systems is a major challenge, often requiring customised software and extensive human intervention to enable the previous investments that an organisation has made in individual systems (e.g. laboratory-result reporting) to be integrated with newer technology. The beginnings of a global solution to this substantial obstacle to networking progress is in sight: the technology that enables the Internet – an international network of telephonically linked personal computers – also enables the establishment of intranets, in which individual servers (computers dedicated to serving information to other computers) act as repositories of ‘published’ data, which other users on the network may ‘browse’ as necessary in a client-server environment.
Systems that support this process are still in early stages of development, but the key conceptualisations are in place. Developments over the next 5–10 years will centre on the electronic patient record available to the clinician on an integrated clinical workstation. The clinical workstation – in essence a personal computer networked to the hospital or practice system – will enable the clinician to record clinical data and diagnoses, automate the ordering of investigations and the collection of the results, and facilitate referral and communication between the many professionals and departments involved in any individual patient’s care.
Once data is digitised – and that includes text, statistical tables, graphs, illustrations and radiological images, etc. – it may be as freely networked globally as locally. Consultations in which live video and sound transmissions are the bonds of the doctor-patient relationship (the techniques of telemedicine) are already reality, and have proved particularly convenient and cost-e?ective in linking the patient and the generalist to specialists in remote areas with low population density.
As with written personal medical records, con?dentiality of personal medical information on computers is essential. Computerised data are covered by the Data Protection Act 1984. This stipulates that data must:
be obtained and processed fairly and lawfully.
be held only for speci?ed lawful purposes.
•not be used in a manner incompatible with those purposes.
•only be recorded where necessary for these purposes.
be accurate and up to date.
not be stored longer than necessary.
be made available to the patient on request.
be protected by appropriate security and backup procedures. As these problems are solved, concerns about
privacy and con?dentiality arise. While paper records were often only con?dential by default, the potential for breaches of security in computerised networks is much graver. External breaches of the system by hackers are one serious concern, but internal breaches by authorised users making unauthorised use of the data are a much greater risk in practice. Governing network security so that clinical users have access on a need-to-know basis is a di?cult business: the software tools to enable this – encryption, and anonymisation (ensuring that clinical information about patients is anonymous to prevent con?dential information about them leaking out) of data collected for management and research processes – exist in the technical domain but remain a complex conundrum for solution in the real world.
The mushroom growth of websites covering myriad subjects has, of course, included health information. This ranges from clinical details on individual diseases to facts about medical organisations and institutes, patient support groups, etc. Some of this information contains comments and advice from orthodox and unorthodox practitioners. This open access to health information has been of great bene?t to patients and health professionals. But web browsers should be aware that not all the medical information, including suggested treatments, has been subject to PEER REVIEW, as is the case with most medical articles in recognised medical journals.... information technology in medicine
Habitat: Throughout the greater part of India, up to 1,360 m
Ayurvedic: Mahaapindi, Karahaata, Kharahaara. (Bark is sold as Bhaargi.) Thanella.Siddha/Tamil: Nanjundam, Malan- garai.Action: Root—used as a remedy for indigestion in children. Fruits— used in affections of the mammary glands. Pounded pulp is applied to forehead in fever.
The bark and wood gave beta-sitos- terol, hederagenin, Me-esters of olea- nolic and gypsogenic acids. Root gave gardnins.Saponins from bark decreased formation of histamine and may find use in asthma. (Market drug is expectorant and weak spasmolytic, but was not found effective in asthma.)... gardenia turgidaHabitat: Upper Gengetic plain, Bihar, Bengal, Central and Peninsular India.
English: Dhaman.Ayurvedic: Dhanvana, Dhanur- vriksha.Siddha/Tamil: Tarra, Unnu, Sadachi.Folk: Dhaamin, Dhaaman.Action: Bark—antidysenteric. Stem bark—semen coagulant. Plant— used in fractures.
The roots and bark gave triterpe- noids.A related species, Grewia optiva, found in sub-Himalayan tract at 5002,000 m, is also known as Dhaaman.... grewia tiliaefoliaHabitat: Watery and swampy places in Bihar and Orissa and in some parts of South India.
Ayurvedic: Jala-lavanga (var.).Action: See J. suffruticosa.
An infusion of the root is given in syphilis. The plant is employed in poultice for pimples.... jussiaea tenellaHabitat: Cultivated in many parts of India.
English: Indigo.Ayurvedic: Nilikaa, Nilaa, Nila, Nili, Nilini, Nilapushpa, Ranjani, Shaaradi, Tutthaa.Unani: Habb-ul-Neel.Siddha/Tamil: Nili, Averi, Asidai, Attipurashadam.Action: Plant—antiseptic, hepato- protective, hypoglycaemic, nervine tonic. Used in enlargement of liver and spleen, skin diseases, leucoder- ma, burns, ulcers, piles, nervous disorders, epilepsy, asthma, lumbago, gout. Leaf—anti-inflammatory. Used in blennorrhagia. Root— diuretic. Used in hepatitis. Root and stem—laxative, expectorant, febrifuge, anticephalalgic, anti- tumour, anthelmintic, promote growth of hair.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of dried whole plant in phobia, delusion and disturbed mental state.Indicine (5-15 mg/g, dry basis) and the flavonoids, apigenin, kaempferol, luteolin and quercetin are present in various plant parts, maximum in the leaves and minimum in the roots (however quercetin was minimum in leaves). The presence of coumarins, cardiac glycosides, saponins and tannins is also reported.Alcoholic extract of the aerial parts showed hepatoprotective activity in experimental animals against CCl4- induced hepatic injury. The extract increased bile flow and liver weight in rats. The alcoholic extract also exhibited hypoglycaemic activity in rats.The plant is used in the treatment of endogenous depression. It contains appreciable amounts of conjugated in- doxyl (indican). The use of indigo and its constituents, indirubin and indigotin, prevents allergic contact dermatitis. The 8 weeks old tissues in culture contain maximum histamine content (5.0 mg/g dry weight).Dosage: Dried leaf—50-100 g for decoction; root—48 g for decoction (API Vol. II); whole plant—10-20 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)... indigofera tinctoriaHabitat: Native to Japan; grows in Indian gardens.
Action: Used for obstinate skin diseases.
The rhizomes contain inulin and beta-dimethylacrylic acid.... ligularia tussilagineaHabitat: Native to North America; introduced into hill stations in India.
English: Tulip tree.Action: Bark—antipyretic, diaphoretic; used in rheumatism, dyspepsia and as antimalarial.
The root contains an alkaloid tulip- iferin, traces of a glycoside, essential oil and tannin.... liriodendron tulipiferaHabitat: Native to Afghanistan and Western Tibet. Now cultivated as an ornamental.
English: Dyer's Woad.Action: Plant—used in the form of an ointment for ulcers, oedematous and malignant tumours. Leaves— antimicrobial, antifungal.
The aerial parts yield tryptanthrin, indole-3-acetonitrile and p-coumaric acid methylester.The roots contain anti-blood platelet aggregation constituents, uridine, hy- poxanthine, uracil and salicylic acid together with indigo, palmitic acid and beta-sitosterol.In China, tablets made from the leaves and roots of Isatis tinctoria and Artemisia scoparia have been found to be effective in treating hepatitis B patients.... isatis tinctoriaHabitat: Deccan, Mysore southwards.
Folk: Sivanarvembu (Tamil Nadu).Action: Leaves—cooling, aperient; given for smallpox to children, bruised leaves applied to contusions.
The alcoholic extract of the aerial parts yielded several lignans, phy- tosterols, brassicasterol, campesterol, 7,22-ergostadienol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, spinasterol, 28-isofucostil and a sterol glucoside, beta-sitosterol-3-O- glucoside.Justica vasculosa Wall. (Eastern Himalayas, Assam Khasi Hills) is also used for inflammations.... justica tranquebariensisHabitat: Peru, Bolivia. Reported to be imported into India.
English: Peruvian Rhatany, Krameria.Action: Astringent, styptic, antidiarrhoeal, vulnerary. Used for menorrhagia; topically for wounds, haemorrhoids and chilblains; as a lozenge, gargle or mouthwash for gingivitis and pharyngitis.
Key application: For topical treatment of mild inflammations of oral and pharyngeal mucosa. (German Commission E.)The astringency of the drug is due to condensed tannins composed of pro- cyanidins and propelargondins.In India, the roots of Hemidesmus indicus are sometimes used as a substitute for Rhatany.... krameria triandraHabitat: Northwestern India, Gujarat, Rajasthan and South India.
Ayurvedic: Nirvishaa (var.) Mustaka (var.), Apivisha.Folk: Mustu (Maharashtra).Action: Root—febrifuge and antidermatosis. Also used for diabetes.
Kyllinga monocephala Rottb., synonym Cyperus kyllinga Endl., common throughout India, is also known as Nirvishaa, Nirbishi and Mustaa (var.). The root is used as diuretic (in polyuria), demulcent, refrigerant and antipyretic. It is prescribed for fistula, pustules, tumours, measles, diarrhoea and other intestinal affections.Traces of hydrocyanic acid are reported to be present in the root, stems and nutlets.... kyllinga tricepsHabitat: North-west Himalayas and Sikkim and from Bihar to central, western and southern India.
Folk: Safed Raasnaa (Bihar). Hiran-chaaro, Paniru (Gujarat).Action: Plant—bitter tonic. Used for rheumatic affections. (Raasnaa is equated with Pluchea lanceolata.)
Related species of Lepidagathis: L. cristata Willd., and L. hamiltoniana Wall. ex Nees. These are used as a bitter tonic in fevers and are applied to itchy affections of the skin. The leaves of L. incurva D. Don, synonymL. hyali- na Nees are chewed to relieve cough.... lepidagathis trinervisHabitat: Native to China and Japan; cultivated in Indian gardens.
English: Tiger Lily, Crumple Lily.Action: Bulbs—used as a cardiac tonic. Flowers—used for ovarian neuralgia, also recommended in myoptic astigmia.
The bulbs of Lilium martagon Linn., Turk's Cap Lily, also possesses cardio- tonic properties and are used in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea; externally for ulcers.Folk: Findora. Badai (Lushai).Action: Dried bulb scales— demulcent; used like salep in pectoral complaints.... lilium tigrinum
A localised (focal) form of liver disease in all tropical/subtropical countries results from invasive Entamoeba histolytica infection (amoebic liver ‘abscess’); serology and imaging techniques assist in diagnosis. Hydatidosis also causes localised liver disease; one or more cysts usually involve the right lobe of the liver. Serological tests and imaging techniques are of value in diagnosis. Whilst surgery formerly constituted the sole method of management, prolonged courses of albendazole and/or praziquantel have now been shown to be e?ective; however, surgical intervention is still required in some cases.
Hepato-biliary disease is also a problem in many tropical/subtropical countries. In southeast Asia, Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverini infections cause chronic biliary-tract infection, complicated by adenocarcinoma of the biliary system. Praziquantel is e?ective chemotherapy before advanced disease ensues. Fasciola hepatica (the liver ?uke) is a further hepato-biliary helminthic infection; treatment is with bithionol or triclabendazole, praziquantel being relatively ine?ective.... liver disease in the tropics
Habitat: The Western Himalayas, Punjab and Upper Gangetic Plain.
English: Darnel, Taumelloolch.Ayurvedic: Mochani.Folk: Mostaki, Visha-ghaasa (Bihar).Action: Sedative.
The overground parts of the grass gave alkaloids—loline and perloline. The caryopses of the plant contain volatile alkaloids—N-acetylloline, N- formylloline and N-acetylnorloline.Loline dihydrochloride did not show CNS toxicity.... lolium temulentumBehavioural therapy and cognitive therapy, often carried out by psychologists, attempt to clarify with the patient speci?c features of behaviour or mental outlook respectively, and to identify step-by-step methods that the patient can use for controlling the disorder. Behaviour therapy is commonly used for AGORAPHOBIA and other phobias, and cognitive therapy has been used for depression and anxiety. (See MENTAL ILLNESS.)... long-term supportive psychotherapy
Habitat: Himalayas from Kumaon to Assam, up to 1,500 m, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Deccan Peninsula.
English: White Turpeth.Ayurvedic: Muurvaa, Atirasaa, Madhurasaa, Gokarni, Morataa, Madhulikaa, Suvaa, Devi, Tejani, Tiktavalli.Siddha/Tamil: Perunkurinjan.Folk: Maruaa-bel.Action: Root—purgative, antispas- modic, mild CNS depressant; used in colic.
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the bark in lipid disorders, also in polyuria and haemorrha- gic diseases.Roots and seeds are rich in pregnane glycosides of 2-deoxysugars, which on hydrolysis gave genins and sugars. Stem yielded tenacissosides A to E. In folk medicine, the root is known as White Turpeth (Safed Nishoth). Op- erculina turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso synonym Ipomoea turpethum R. Br. is the source of Turpeth (Nishoth) in Indian medicine.Dosage: Root—2-6 g powder, 1020 g for decoction. (API, Vol.II.)... marsdenia tenacissimaHabitat: Native to Britain and Europe; found in Kashmir.
English: Bogbean, Buckbean, Goat's bean, Marsh Trefoil.Folk: Buckbean.Action: Bitter tonic, deobstruent. Laxative in large doses. Used for diseases of liver and gallbladder, and rheumatism. (Contraindicated in diarrhoea, dysentery and colitis.)
Key application: Leaf—in loss of appetite, peptic discomforts. (German Commission E.) As a bitter tonic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) The drug stimulates saliva and gastric juice secretion. (German Commission E.)The herb contains iridoid glyco- sides, foliamenthin, dihydrofoliamen- thin, menthiafolin and loganin; pyri- dine alkaloids including gentianine; coumarins (scopoletin); phenolic acids (caffeic, with protocatechuic, ferulic, sinapic, vanillic including others; fla- vonoids including rutin, hyperoside.Choleretic action of the herb is attributed to the synergistic action of caffeic and ferulic acids and iridoid glycosides.Scoparone and scopoletin (cou- marins isolated from the aerial parts) exhibit antihepatotoxic, choleretic and cholagogue properties.The rhizomes contain dihydrofolia- menthin, loganin, menthiafolin and a triterpenoid saponin menyantho- side. Aqueous extract of the rhizome showed greater preserved renal function and higher glomerular filtration rate, possibly due to Platelet Activating Factor (PAF)-antagonistic effect of the extract.... menyanthes trifoliataHabitat: Upper Gangetic Plain, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, South India and Gujarat.
Ayurvedic: Prasaarini (Kerala and Karnataka), Tala-nili.Siddha/Tamil: Mudiyaakunthal.Action: Laxative, astringent, anti-inflammatory. Used in piles, swellings, rheumatic affections, stiffness of the joints, hemiplegia and urinary affections.
The aerial parts contain the flavo- noids, diometin, luteolin and their 7- O-beta-D-glucosides.... merremia tridentataHabitat: Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, in bushes along the banks of water courses. (It is not cultivated.)
Ayurvedic: Kaarali-Kanda, Kudu- hunchi.Siddha/Tamil: AthalaikaiFolk: Kakrol (Maharashtra).Action: Tuberous root—emmena- gogue, abortifacient; acrid; contains a bitter glycoside.... momordica tuberosa
Depression, giddiness, nausea and vomiting are the most prominent.
Causes Although the vast majority of people appear to be liable to this ailment at sea, they do not all suffer alike. Many endure acute distress, whilst others are simply conscious of transient feelings of nausea and discomfort. A smaller proportion of people suffer from air and car sickness. The symptoms are a result of over-stimulation of the organs of balance in the inner EAR by continuous changes in the body’s position. The movements of the horizon worsen this situation.
Symptoms The symptoms generally show themselves soon after the journey has started, by the onset of giddiness and discomfort in the head, together with a sense of nausea and sinking at the stomach, which soon develops into intense sickness and vomiting. Most people recover quickly when the motion stops.
Treatment Innumerable preventives and remedies have been proposed. Cinnarizine 30 mg orally is useful 2 hours before travel, then 15 mg every 8 hours during the journey if necessary. Dimenhydrinate and promethazine are also commonly taken for motion sickness.... motion (travel) sickness
Habitat: All over Europe. Grown in Indian gardens.
English: Narcissus, Daffodil, Lent Lily.Unani: Nargis.Action: Bulbs—powerfully emetic, diuretic, purgative. Poisonous. Oil is applied for curing baldness.
The bulbs are imported into India. Dried and sliced bulbs are sold as a substitute for bitter hermodactyls.Alkaloids, lycorine, pseudolycorine, galanthamine, haemanthamine and narcisine, have been isolated from the bulbs of the species. The alkaloid nar- cisine is toxic.The mucilage, narcissus T-gluco- mannan, isolated from the bulbs, was found to exhibit significant hypogly- caemic activity in mice.... narcissus tazettaII. Optic, to the eye (sight).
III. Oculomotor
Trochlear, to eye-muscles.
Abducent
VI. Trigeminal, to skin of face.
VII. Facial, to muscles of face.
VIII. Vestibulocochlear, to ear (hearing and balancing).
IX. Glossopharyngeal, to tongue (taste).
X. Vagus, to heart, larynx, lungs, and stomach.
XI. Spinal accessory, to muscles in neck.
XII. Hypoglossal, to muscles of tongue.... nerves twelve nerves come off the brain:
The symptoms depend upon the site of the infection. General symptoms such as fever, weight loss and night sweats are common. In the most common form of pulmonary tuberculosis, cough and blood-stained sputum (haemoptysis) are common symptoms.
The route of infection is most often by inhalation, although it can be by ingestion of products such as infected milk. The results of contact depend upon the extent of the exposure and the susceptibility of the individual. Around 30 per cent of those closely exposed to the organism will be infected, but most will contain the infection with no signi?cant clinical illness and only a minority will go on to develop clinical disease. Around 5 per cent of those infected will develop post-primary disease over the next two or three years. The rest are at risk of reactivation of the disease later, particularly if their resistance is reduced by associated disease, poor nutrition or immunosuppression. In developed countries around 5 per cent of those infected will reactivate their healed tuberculosis into a clinical problem.
Immunosuppressed patients such as those infected with HIV are at much greater risk of developing clinical tuberculosis on primary contact or from reactivation. This is a particular problem in many developing countries, where there is a high incidence of both HIV and tuberculosis.
Diagnosis This depends upon identi?cation of mycobacteria on direct staining of sputum or other secretions or tissue, and upon culture of the organism. Culture takes 4–6 weeks but is necessary for di?erentiation from other non-tuberculous mycobacteria and for drug-sensitivity testing. Newer techniques involving DNA ampli?cation by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can detect small numbers of organisms and help with earlier diagnosis.
Treatment This can be preventative or curative. Important elements of prevention are adequate nutrition and social conditions, BCG vaccination (see IMMUNISATION), an adequate public-health programme for contact tracing, and chemoprophylaxis. Radiological screening with mass miniature radiography is no longer used.
Vaccination with an attenuated organism (BCG – Bacillus Calmette Guerin) is used in the United Kingdom and some other countries at 12–13 years, or earlier in high-risk groups. Some studies show 80 per cent protection against tuberculosis for ten years after vaccination.
Cases of open tuberculosis need to be identi?ed; their close contacts should be reviewed for evidence of disease. Adequate antibiotic chemotherapy removes the infective risk after around two weeks of treatment. Chemoprophylaxis – the use of antituberculous therapy in those without clinical disease – may be used in contacts who develop a strong reaction on tuberculin skin testing or those at high risk because of associated disease.
The major principles of antibiotic chemotherapy for tuberculosis are that a combination of drugs needs to be used, and that treatment needs to be continued for a prolonged period – usually six months. Use of single agents or interrupted courses leads to the development of drug resistance. Serious outbreaks of multiply resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis have been seen mainly in AIDS units, where patients have greater susceptibility to the disease, but also in developing countries where maintenance of appropriate antibacterial therapy for six months or more can be di?cult.
Streptomycin was the ?rst useful agent identi?ed in 1944. The four drugs used most often now are RIFAMPICIN, ISONIAZID, PYRAZINAMIDE and ETHAMBUTOL. Three to four agents are used for the ?rst two months; then, when sensitivities are known and clinical response observed, two drugs, most often rifampicin and isoniazid, are continued for the rest of the course. Treatment is taken daily, although thrice-weekly, directly observed therapy is used when there is doubt about the patient’s compliance. All the antituberculous agents have a range of adverse effects that need to be monitored during treatment. Provided that the treatment is prescribed and taken appropriately, response to treatment is very good with cure of disease and very low relapse rates.... nature of the disease tuberculosis has
Habitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated mainly in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.
English: Tobacco.Ayurvedic: Taamraparna, Dhuu- mrapatraa.Unani: Tambaakhu.Action: Leaves—decoction is locally applied for muscle relaxation in dislocation, strangulated hernia and orchitis. Also for arthralgia, lumbago, rheumatism and gout (an ointment is made by simmering the leaves in lard). Not used internally as a medicine.
The plant contains nicotine as the major alkaloid.Toxic influence of cigarette and bidi smoking on carboxyhaemoglobin levels of the blood of regular smokers was compared and no significant difference was observed in both of them. A py- rolysed tobacco product, used in India as a dentifrice, when administered to rats, showed activity comparable to benzo(a)pyrene, a potent carcinogen.Habitual consumption of betel quid containing tobacco shows a strong cy- totoxic potential.Nicotiana rustica Linn. is known as Kalakatiyaa or Vfilaayati tobacco. Its nicotine content is high and is not suitable for cigarettes, cigars or bidis. Different variants of this tobacco are used for hookah, chewing and snuff.... nicotiana tabacumIn developed countries ORT is useful in treating gastroenteritis. There are a number of proprietary preparations, often dispensed as ?avoured sachets, including Dioralyte® and Rehydrate®.... oral rehydration therapy (ort)
Habitat: Outer Himalaya, Assam, West Bengal; cultivated in many parts of India.
English: Tree of Sorrow, Night Jasmine, Coral Jasmine.Ayurvedic: Paarijaata, Shephaali, Shephaalikaa, Mandaara.Unani: Harasingaar.Siddha: Pavazha mattigai.Action: Leaves—bitter tonic, chola- gogue, febrifuge, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, hypotensive, respiratory stimulant. Used for fevers, rheumatism, obstinate sciatica.
The leaves and seeds contain iri- doid glycosides; other constituents reported from the leaves are mannitol, beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, hentria- contane, benzoic acid, astragalin, nico- tiflorin, oleanolic acid, nyctanthic acid, friedelin and lupeol. The seeds contain a polysaccharide glucomannan.All parts of the plant are used for allergic disorders. Alcoholic extract of the plant was found to inhibit passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in experimental animals. The inhibition was comparable to standard drugs used for allergy and bronchial asthma.Ethanolic extract of the leaves, flowers and seeds demonstrated strong stimulation of antigen specific and non-specific immunity in mice.The 50% ethanolic extracts of the leaves, flowers, seeds and roots were found effective in treating caecal amoe- biasis caused by Entamoeba histolytica in rats. But the extracts did not exhibit direct amoebicidal activity in vitro against trophozoites of the parasite.The iridoid glucosides showed an- tileishmanial activity both in vivo and in vitro.Dosage: Leaf—10-20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)Seeds—used in diabetes, also in cutaneous diseases. Filaments— astringent and cooling; prescribed for bleeding piles and menorrhagia. Plant—toxic on the nervous system.The flowers contain flavonoids including quercetin, kaempferol, api- genin. Cardiac glucoside, nymphalin, showed sedative action in small doses.The petroleum ether extract of the plant of Nymphaea species, given at a dose of 300 mg/kg i.p. prevented necrosis of the liver tissue and promoted, to some extent, liver regeneration in CCl4-induced toxicity.Dosage: Dried flowers—3-6 g (API, Vol. III); seed—3-6 g. powder (CCRAS.).... nyctanthes arbor-tristisHabitat: Throughout India up to 1,000 m; occasionally grown in gardens.
English: Indian Jalap, Turpeth.Ayurvedic: Trivrta, Trivrtaa, Trib- handi, Triputaa, Saralaa, Suvahaa,Rechani, Nishotra, Kumbha, Kaalaa, Shyaama, Shyaamaa.Unani: Turbud, Nishoth.Siddha/Tamil: Karunchivadai.Action: Root—purgative, antiinflammatory (particularly used in rheumatic and paralytic affections; also in fevers, oedema, hepatic and haemophilic diseases).
White Turpeth is preferred to Black Turpeth as cathartic; the latter produces drastic purgation and causes vomiting, fainting and giddiness. White Turpeth is derived from Mars- denia tenacissima in folk medicine.The active principle of O. turpethum is a glycosidic resin present in the drug up to 10%. It is similar to jalap resin and is concentrated mostly in the root bark. It contains an ether insoluble glycoside, turpethin, which constitutes about half of the resin and two ether soluble gly- cosides, alpha-and beta-turpethein (8 and 6% respectively).Dosage: Root—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... operculina turpethumHabitat: Orissa, Gujarat, South India, ascending up to 1,000 m in the hills.
Ayurvedic: Prataanikaa (non- classical).Folk: Tulasi (var.), Kattu-thrithava (Kerala).Action: Plant—a decoction is given in diarrhoea. Leaves—applied externally to cuts and wounds.... orthosiphon tomentosus
Habitat: Native to West Indies; cultivated as an ornamental.
English: Slipper Plant, Bird-Cactus.Folk: Vilaayati-sher (Maharashtra), Naagaphani, Naagadaman (Madhya Pradesh).Action: Latex—used for warts, leucoderma, venereal diseases. Root—emetic (used in West Indies as Ipecacuanha).
An extract of the air-dried and powdered whole plant contains oc- tacosanol, cycloartenone, oxime and beta-sitosterol.The latex from the stem contains the proteolytic enzyme, pedilanthain. It exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema and was more effective than the control drug phenylbutazone. The enzyme also showed anthelmintic property.The leaves contain n-hentriaconta- nol and dehydrodammaronol-A. The root gave azafrin.... pedilanthus tithymaloidesHabitat: Sikkim, Bengal, Manipur, Khasi and Jaintia hills.
Folk: Jangali Paan.Action: Root—(macerated in water) diuretic.... piper thomsoni
– may be dried and in powder form kept almost inde?nitely; when wanted it is reconstituted by adding sterile distilled water. In powder form it can be transported easily and over long distances. Transfusion of plasma is especially useful in the treatment of SHOCK. One advantage of plasma transfusion is that it is not necessary to carry out testing of blood groups before using it.... plasma transfusion
Habitat: Throughout India, up to an elevation of 2,100 m in the northeast.
English: Wild Gram.Ayurvedic: Mudgaparni, Kaaka- parni, Suuryaparni, Alpikaa, Sahaa, Kaakamudraa, Maarjaargandhikaa. (P. adenanthus G. F. W., and Vigna pilosa Baker are used as Mudgaparni in the South. Dried aerial parts, root and seed are used.)Siddha/Tamil: Kaatupayaru.Folk: Jangali Moong, Mugavan.Action: Whole plant—febrifuge. Leaves—sedative, cooling, an- tibilious. A decoction is used in intermittent fever. The plant contains friedelin, epifriedelin, stigmasterol and tannins. The bean contains methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine; also strepogenin, uridine, diphosphate-galacturonic acid. The seed protein contained lysine, valine, leucine and phenyl- alanine.
Dosage: Seed—50-100 ml. decoction (CCRAS.); whole plant— 3-5 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... phaseolus trilobusHabitat: The sub-tropical Himalayas, Upper Gangetic Plain, Bihar, North Bengal and Assam.
Folk: Dieng-soh kajut (Meghalaya), Chuhai (Bihar), Titaaphul (Assam).Action: Whole plant—used like Adhatoda vasica in whooping cough and menorrhagia. Fruits and leaves—burnt and prescribed for fevers. The leaves are reported to contain diterpene lactone, phlogantholide A and its glucoside.
A related species, P. jenkinsii C. B. Clarke, found in Assam, is also known as Titaaphul. A decoction of leaves is given for diseases of spleen and liver and for fevers.... phlogacanthus thyrsiflorusHabitat: Native to Mexico; cultivated for ornamental use.
English: Tuberose.Ayurvedic: Rajanigandhaa.Siddha/Tamil: Nilasampangi.Folk: Gulcheri, Gulshabbu.Action: Flowers and bulbs— diuretic. Externally used for skin eruptions. The bulbs are rubbed with turmeric and butter and applied over red pimples of infants. The bulbs are reported to contain an alkaloid, lycorin, which causes vomiting.
Dried and powdered bulbs are used for gonorrhoea.... polianthes tuberosaHabitat: Peninsular India, near sea-coasts.
Ayurvedic: Bichhuu-buuti.Folk: Jangali Gaajar (Gujarat), Sanjivani (Bihar).Action: Leaves—an infusion is given internally in dysuria; externally applied to erysipelas. The herb shows diuretic, calculolythic, analgesic and antipyretic properties.
The aerial parts contain diterpe- noids, pilosanone A and B. leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, arthritis, cramps, kidney stones, bleeding piles; as a mouth wash in pyrrhoea, gingivitis and sore throat.Key application: In mild dismenor- rhoeal disorders; as a support for treatment of milder, nonspecific, acute diarrhoea and in light inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. (German Commission E.)The plant gave anthocyanins—cy- anidin and delphinidin. Aerial parts gave tannins (2-10%). The plant also gave choline, betaine, histidine, an essential oil and vitamin E.The maximum amounts of tannins occur in the root stock (up to 17.5% on dry basis). The ethanolic and aqueous extract of the herb (1 : 5) contain 0.3 to 0.8% of tannin. The tannin fraction exhibited anti-mutagenic effect.Potentilla fruticosa HK. (temperate Himalaya) is also used like Silverweed.The flowers and young shoots contain flavonoids, quercetin, terniflorin, tribuloside and (-)-catechin. The plant also contains stigmasterol, beta-sitos- terol and campesterol; (-)-epicatechol gallate, (±)-catechol, (-)-epicatechol, (-)-epigallocatechol and (-)-epigallo- catechol gallate have been isolated from aerial parts.... portulaca tuberosaHabitat: Peninsular India and Bihar up to 1,200 m.
English: Bastard Teak.Ayurvedic: Agnimanth (var.).Siddha/Tamil: Kolakottathekku pinari, Pondanganari.Folk: Gineri (var.).Action: Bark and essential oil of root—used in stomach disorders. Leaf—diuretic, vulnerary; prescribed as a tonic after child birth; used in dropsical affections. Pounded leaves—vulnerary.
The heartwood gave apigenin derivatives. The leaves gave essential oil containing d-and dl-limonene, beta- caryophyllene a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, a diterpene hydrocarbon and a sesquiterpene tertiary alcohol.The roots and rhizomes of P. veris and P. elatior contain a saponin, yielding a sapogenin, primulagenin A. A fla- vonol glycoside named primulaflavo- noloside has been reported in the flowers of P. veris. The root of P. veris are considered as a substitute for Senega (Polygala senega) roots.Anthocyanidins have been detected in most of the Primula species, also a highly toxic allergenic substance, primin, in the leaves and glandular hairs. The floral and foliar parts of the different genotypes showed presence of kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin.... premna tomentosaHabitat: Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Central India.
English: Indian Kudze.Ayurvedic: Vidaari, Swaadukandaa, Ikshugandhaa, Gajavaajipriyaa, Kandapalaasha, Bhuumikushmaan- da. (Substitute for Jivaka and Rshabhaka.)Folk: Bhui-kumhadaa, Suraal.Action: Tuber—diuretic, cardiac tonic, galactagogue. Also used for fertility control. Root—used as a demulcent, and refrigerant in fevers, as cataplasm for swelling of joints, as galactagogue.
The butanolic extract of Pueraria tuberosa showed significant protection against hepatic damage in rats. The ethanolic extract of the tubers and its butanol and pre-puerarin fractions exhibited anti-implantation effect. The pure compounds, puerarin, daidzein and tuberosin, exhibited significant anti-implantation activity in hamsters.In Indian medicine, Vidaari and Kshira-vidaari are used for promoting breast milk and semen, and as a restorative tonic. Most authors have equated Vidaari with Pueraria tuberosa and Kshira-vidaari with Ipomoea digi- tata.In Western herbal, Pueraria lobata and P. tuberosa roots are used alone or in combination with other products for symptoms due to alcoholism. But preliminary research shows that Kudze does not improve sobriety in chronic alcoholics. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Dosage: Tuber—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... pueraria tuberosaHabitat: Kashmir to Sikkim.
English: Water Crowfoot, Water Fennel.Ayurvedic: Kaandira (var.).Folk: Tohlab (Kashmir).Action: Herb—used in intermittent fevers, rheumatism and asthma.
Ranunculus muricatus Linn. (Punjab and Kashmir) is used in intermittent fevers, gout and asthma in Europe. The herb is rubefacient, vesicant and narcotic.... ranunculus trichophyllusHabitat: Abundant in moist and warm regions of West Bengal, particularly in 24 Parganas and Howrah, and Kerala (as a weed).
Folk: Badaa Chaand.Action: Root—sedative, hypotensive. Plant juice, mixed with castor oil, is applied to skin diseases and to destroy parasites.
The plant contains a number of alkaloids, including rauvolscine, aj- malicine, canescine, reserpine, pseu- doyohimbine; yohimbine, corynan- thene, raunescine, iso-raunescine and recanescine.The major alkaloid is rauwolscine (alpha-yohimbine), present in the root bark (0.1%), stem bark (0.2%) and leaves (0.5%).The roots are often used as a substitute or adulterant of those of R. serpentina, though the reserpine content of the dried root was found to be comparatively low (0.03-0.05%).Family: Linaceae.Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim; commonly grown in gardens.
English: Winter-Flax, Yellow Flax.Ayurvedic: Baasanti.Folk: Abai (Maharashtra).Action: Plant—used for the treatment of paralysis in Bihar. The crushed leaves and stems are applied to wounds infested with maggots.... rauvolfia tetraphylla
In 1997 the Royal College of Psychiatrists in the UK produced a comprehensive report which was sceptical about the notion that the awareness of recurrent severe sexual abuse in children could be pushed entirely out of consciousness. The authors did not believe that events could remain inaccessible to conscious memory for decades, allegedly provoking vague non-speci?c symptoms to be recovered during psychotherapy with resolution of the symptoms. Supporting evidence pointed to the lack of any empirical proof that unconscious dissociation of unpleasant memories from conscious awareness occurred to protect the individual. Furthermore, experimental and natural events had shown that false memories, created through suggestion or in?uence, could be implanted. Many individuals who had claimed to have recovered memories of abuse subsequently withdrew and, often, non-speci?c symptoms allegedly linked to suppression worsened rather than improved as therapy to unlock memories proceeded. The conclusion is that recovered memory therapy should be viewed with great caution.... repressed memory therapy
Habitat: China.
Rheum palmatum was once transported from China through Persia to Turkey and was consequently known as "Turkey Rhubarb" ; when conveyed via India it was called "East Indian Rhubarb." This Chinese root is the popular medicinal Turkey Rhubarb of to-day, the best kind being that from the Shansi province of China.Features ? The root is smooth and heavy, and arrives in this country peeled. It is identifiable by the dark brown spots and a reticulation of white lines. The Canton rhubarb is more fibrous, unspotted, and the white network is less prominent than that from Shansi. The quality of these roots is judged by the fracture, which should show bright, the inferior kinds being a dull brown.Action: Aperient, stomachic, astringent, tonic.
Small doses of the powdered root are used in diarrhea, larger quantities acting as a thorough yet gentle purgative. Dose of powdered root, 3 to 30 grains.... rhubarb, turkeyHabitat: Native to Southern Europe and parts of Asia; also found in Kashmir.
English: Alizari, European Madder.Action: Root—used for menstrual and urinary disorders and liver diseases.
The root contains anthraquinone and their glycosides, including alizarin, purpurin, purpuroxanthin, pseudopurpurin, rubiadin, ruberythric acid and lucidin primeveroside. There are indications that lucidin is carcinogenic. All parts of the plant contained an iri- doid, asperuloside.... rubia tinctorumHabitat: Native to central America; grown in Indian gardens.
English: Meadow-weed.Siddha/Tamil: Tapas-kaaya.Action: Herb—emetic; used as a substitute for ipecacuanha. A decoction is given in chronic bronchitis; also used as a diuretic for the treatment of stones in the bladder.... ruellia tuberosa
Habitat: Hills of Assam, in damp places and in the Andamans.
Folk: Bhedeli (Assam).Action: Leaf—carminative, eaten to relieve flatulence and stomachache. A poultice is used after parturition.... saprosma ternatum
Habitat: Marshy areas and on the banks of streams up to an altitude of 3,000 m.
English: Sea Clubrush.Ayurvedic: Raaj Kasheruka.Action: Tuberous root—astringent, diuretic, laxative.
Oil from rhizomes on hydrolysis gave phellonic acid.... scirpus tuberosusHabitat: Throughout the plains of India.
English: Old world Arrowhead.Folk: Chhotaa Kuuta, Muyaa (Bengali).Action: Plant—discutient, anti- galactagogue, astringent, antiinflammatory. Tuber—used for cutaneous diseases. Leaves—powder dusted in pruritus; mashed with molasses used in sore throat and inflammation of the breasts.
The plant contains a diterpene, sagit- tariol, beta-sitosterol, its glucoside and hentriacontanone. The diterpenes, tri- foliones A, B, C and D, inhibited his- tamine release from rat mast cells.The bulbs contain sandaracopimar- ic acid which suppressed the immune function of animal T-cells.... sagittaria trifoliaHabitat: Throughout the greater part of India, along the banks of rivers and streams.
English: Indian Willow.Ayurvedic: Jalavetasa, Naadeya, Niketan, Baishi.Siddha/Tamil: Attupalai.Folk: Vaanira, Vaalunja.Action: Dried leaves—antiinflammatory, given in rheumatism, swellings, piles. Bark—febrifuge.
The bark is reported to contain 6.5% tannin, also salicin A.... salix tetraspermaHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at altitudes of 1,800-4,200 m.
Ayurvedic: Muraa, Surabhi, Daitya, Gandhakuti, Gandhavati. (Substitute for Nardostachys jatamansi.)Siddha/Tamil: Mural.Folk: Bhuutakeshi (Kashmir), Muur (Garhwal).Action: Roots—sedative, analgesic.
Isoimperatorin and oxypeucedanin have been isolated as major inotropic constituents from the rhizomes.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the root in syncope, giddiness, also for asthma.Dosage: Root—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... selinum tenuifoliumHabitat: Nilgiris, as ornament. (A common garden plant in Britain and Europe.)
English: HouseleekAction: Leaves—refrigerant, astringent, antispasmodic; applied as poultice to inflammatory conditions of skin. Juice of the leaves is applied topically for treating corns.
The leaves sliced in two and the inner surface applied to warts, act as a positive cure for corns.The leaves contain tannin, malic acid and mucilage. Three related species are found in the alpine Himalayan range from Kumaon to Kashmir.... sempervivum tectorumThe incidence of STDs rose sharply during World War II but the advent of PENICILLIN and subsequent antibiotics meant that syphilis and gonorrhoea could be treated e?ectively. The arrival of oral contraception and more tolerant public attitudes to sexual activities resulted in an increase in the incidence of sexually transmitted infections. The diagnosis of NONSPECIFIC URETHRITIS (NSU), once given to many patients whose symptoms were not due to the traditional recognised infections, was in the 1970s realised to be wrong, as the condition was proved to be the result of infection by chlamydia.
Most STDs are treatable, but herpes is an infection that could become chronic, while hepatitis B and, of course, AIDS/HIV are potentially fatal – although treatment of HIV is now proving more e?ective. As well as the treatment and subsequent monitoring of patients with STDs, one of the important functions of clinics has been the tracing, treatment and follow-up of sexual contacts of infected individuals, a procedure that is conducted con?dentially.
Apart from AIDS/HIV, the incidence of STDs fell during the 1980s; however in some countries the agents causing syphilis and gonorrhoea began to develop resistance to antibiotics, which showed the continued importance of practising safe sex – in particular by restricting the number of sexual partners and ensuring the regular use of condoms. In the United Kingdom the rates per million of the male population infected by syphilis rose from 8.8 in 1991 to 9.7 in 1999; in females the ?gures were 4.0 to 4.5, respectively. For gonorrhoea, the ?gures for men were 399.4 in 1991 and 385 in 1999, with women also showing a reduction, from
216.5 to 171.3. In 1991, 552.6 per million of men had chlamydia, a ?gure which rose to
829.5 in 1999; for women in the same period the incidence also rose, from 622.5 to 1,077.1 per million. For genital herpes simplex virus, the infection rate for men fell from 236.6 per million to 227.7, whereas the ?gures for women showed a rise, 258.5 to 357. The incidence of AIDS/HIV is given under the relevant entry. (These ?gures are based on information in United Kingdom Health Statistics, 2001 edition, UKHSI, published by the O?ce of National Statistics.)... sexually transmitted diseases (stds)
Habitat: Throughout tropical parts of India, in waste places.
English: West Indian Turkey Berry.Ayurvedic: Brihati (White-flowered- var.), Goshtha-vaartaaku.Siddha/Tamil: Chundai.Folk: Ran-Baingan, Goth-begun.Action: Plant—digestive, diuretic, sedative. Leaves—haemostatic. Fruits—useful in liver and spleen enlargement (cooked and eaten as a vegetable); decoction used for cough. Root—used for poulticing cracks in feet.
Unripe fruits and leaves contain the glycoalkaloid, solasonine (0.37% total alkaloids in air-dried fruits of the plant from Khasi and Jaintia hills). Hydrolysis of the neutral glucosidal fraction yields a steroidal sapogenin, chloro- genin, which is rare in Solanum sp.The fruits gave sitosterol-D-gluco- side.Extracts of the plant affect the rate and amplitude of respiration, also blood pressure. They also contract isolated ileum of guinea-pig. Leaves contain no vitamin K or derivatives of naphthoquinone; their haemostatic action may be due to the oil or pectins or both.... solanum torvumHabitat: Deccan Peninsula.
English: Climbing Brinjal.Ayurvedic: Alarka, Valli- kantakaarikaa, Kantakaari-lataa.Siddha/Tamil: Toothuvilai.Action: Berries and flowers—a decoction is used for cough and chronic bronchitis.
The steroidal alkaloid, solasodine, is present in fruit and leaf of the plant (air-dried fruits and leaves from Coim- batore gave 0.96 and 0.36% respectively). A crude glycoalkaloid mixture, isolated from the plant material, contained about 20% beta-solamarine. The plant exhibited antimitotic, antitu- mour, antibacterial and antifungal activities and showed promising results in two cancer test systems—KB cell and sarcoma 180 in mice.... solanum trilobatumHabitat: Native to South America; grown almost throughout India.
English: Patoto.Ayurvedic: Aaluka, Aaruka, Golaalu. (Aaluka, yam of Indian medicine, is equated with species of Dioscorea.)Folk: Aaluu.Action: Potatoes are consumed as food. Extract of leaves is used as antispasmodic in cough. Potato juice is given as an adjuvant in the treatment of peptic ulcer for bringing relief from pain and acidity. Starch and very small quantities of atropine alkaloids reduce digestive secretions and stomach acids. Potatoes are good for patients suffering from hyperacidity; boiled potatoes make an excellent diet for those having hypertension.... solanum tuberosum
Habitat: Grown in gardens for its bright-yellow flowers.
English: Sea coast Laburnum, Silver Bush.Action: Seeds—dangerously emetocatharitc, toxic, febrifugal, stomachic. Seeds yield a fatty oil with expectorant properties. Decoction of seeds and roots is given in bilious disorders. Leaves— emetocathartic.
Constituents of the aerial parts include benzofurans; flavonoids including sophoraisoflavone A and B, sopho- ronol, iso-sophoranone-and iso-bava- chin. The leaves and seeds contain al- kaloids—matrine, cytisine and small amounts of methylcytisine. Cytisine is also present in the roots.Cytisine possesses insecticidal and physiological properties similar to those of nicotine.Sophoraisoflavone A exhibits anti- fungal activity.... sophora tomentosaTabban, Tabann, Tabanne, Tabana, Tabanna... taban
Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tract. Cultivated in gardens.
English: East Indian Rosebay.Ayurvedic: Tagar, Nandivriksha (The Wealth of India); Nandi Pushpa. (Tagar is equated with Valeriana hardwickii and Nandivrksha with Cedrela toona.)Siddha/Tamil: Nandiyavattam.Folk: Tengari, Chaandani.Action: Leaves—milky juice, antiinflammatory; applied to wounds. Flowers—mixed with oil, used in skin diseases. Root—acrid, anodyne; relieves toothache, also used as a vermicide.
Various parts of the plant are used in the indigenous system of medicine for the treatment of skin diseases and cancer. A decoction of leaves is used as antihypertensive and diuretic.The plant from Sri Lanka (root, leaves and flowers) contain several indole alkaloids including voacristine, voacangine, coronaridine, vobasine, tabernaemontanine and dregamine. Isovoacristic hydrochloride, found in the plant, caused bradycardia in frogs and rabbits. The flowers contain an alkaloid tabersonine which is reported to show hypotensive effect on anaesthetized cats.Coronaridine showed autonomic as well as CNS activity when tested for biological action in animals. It produced analgesia and was effective in suppressing foot-shock-induced rage in mice.Indole alkaloid (I) inhibited HC1- induced ulcer in mice by 48.8%.The crude alkaloid extracts of the leaves, bark and flowers exhibit antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus.... tabernaemontana coronariaHabitat: Western Ghats at low elevations.
English: Eve's Apple, Forbidden Fruit.Siddha/Tamil: Kandalaippalai, Kattalari-palai.Folk: Tengari (Var.).Action: Seed, leaves, bark— purgative. Latex—cathartic.
The fruit gave the alkaloid, coronaridine. Root bark gave alkaloids— heyneanine and voacristine hydrox- yindolenine. The petroleum ether-ex- tractable alkaloids of the fruit showed CNS depressant and hypotensive activities.Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall., synonym, Ervatamia heyneana Cooke is also equated with Tengari of Indian medicine.The wood and stembark yielded indole alkaloids; ursolic acid, beta-amy- rin andbeta-amyrin acetate. A number of alkaloids showed cytotoxic activity. (Phytochemistry, 19,1980.)... tabernaemontana dichotomaTablitah, Tableta, Tableeta, Tablyta, Tableyta, Tableata... tablita
Taborrie, Taborry, Taborrey, Taborree, Tabori, Taborie, Tabory, Taborey, Taboree, Taborea... taborri
Synonym: T. leontopetaloides (Linn.) Kuntze.
Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat: Native to Mexico; cultivated in gardens all over India.... tacca pinnatifida
Habitat: Aka hills in Arunachal Pradesh.
Ayurvedic: Vaaraahikanda (substitute), Vaaraahi. (Dioscorea bulbifera is equated with Vaaraahikanda.)Folk: Duukarkand (Gujarat).Action: Tuber—nutritive and digestive; applied to haemorrhagic diathesis, cachexia, leprosy and other cutaneous affections.
The tuber contains gamma-amino- butyric acid, glycine, leucine, valine, quercetin-3-arabinoside, D (-)-ribose, n-triacontanol, betulinic acid, castano- genin and taccalin.Habitat: Entire Deccan Peninsula, extending into Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.
English: Fiji Arrowroot, Tahiti Arrowroot.Ayurvedic: Suurana. (Instead of wild var., cultivated elephant-foot- yam, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius var. campanulatus, is used.)Siddha/Tamil: Karachunai.Action: Tuber—acrid, astringent, carminative, anthelmintic. Used in the treatment of piles, haemophilic conditions, internal abscesses, colic, enlargement of spleen, vomiting, asthma, bronchitis, elephantiasis and intestinal worms.
The tuber, macerated and repeatedly washed with water, yield a starch (76.0%).The presence ofbeta-sitosterol, ceryl alcohol and taccalin (a bitter principle) has been reported in the tuber.Taccagenin and leontogenin have been isolated froma acid hydrolysate of leaf extract. Diosgenin and its derivatives, isonarthogenin and isonu- atigenin together with nuatigenin have also been isolated.A bitter extract, prepared by washing the grated tubers in running water, is a rubefacient; and is also given in diarrhoea and dysentery.... tacca asperaTacincalah, Tacyncala, Tacyncalah, Tacincalla, Tacyncalla... tacincala
Tacitah, Taceta, Tacyta, Taycita, Taycyta, Tasita, Tacey, Taci, Tacie, Tacy, Tacee, Tacea, Taicey, Taici, Taicie, Taicee, Taicy, Taicea, Taycey, Taycy, Tayci, Taycie, Taycee, Taycea... tacita
Taditah, Tadeta, Tadyta, Taditta, Tadetta, Tadytta, Tadeeta, Tadeata... tadita
Tahseen, Tahsene, Tahsyne, Tasine, Tahseene, Tahsean, Tahseane... tahsin
Tahzeeb, Tahzebe, Tahzybe, Tazib, Tazyb, Tazeeb, Tahzeab, Tazeab... tahzib
Taimah, Tayma, Taimi, Taimie, Taimy, Taimey, Taimee, Taimma, Taymi, Taymie, Taymmi, Taymmie, Taymy, Taymmy, Taimia, Taema, Taemi, Taemie, Taemy, Taemey... taima
Tainie, Tainy, Tainey, Tainee, Tainni, Tayni, Taynie, Tayney, Tayny, Taynee, Tainia, Tainn, Tainea, Taynea, Taeni, Taenie, Taeny, Taeney, Taenea, Taenee... taini
Taipah, Taypa, Taypah, Taippa, Taepa, Taepah... taipa
Tait, Tayt, Tayte, Taita, Tayta, Tayten, Taet, Taete, Taeta, Tate... taite
Takarah, Takarra, Takarya, Takaria, Takra... takara
Talaithe, Talayth, Talaythe, Talaeth, Talaethe... talaith
Talasie, Talasee, Talasea, Talasy, Talasey, Talasya, Talasia... talasi
Taliah, Talea, Taleah, Taleya, Tallia, Talieya, Taleea, Taleia, Taleiya, Tylea, Tyleah, Taleana, Tylia, Tahlia, Tahleah, Tahleea, Tahleia, Talaya, Talayia, Taliya, Taliyah, Taliatha, Talley, Taley, Tally, Taly, Talli, Tali, Tallie, Talie, Tallee, Talee, Talya... talia
Habitat: Native to tropical America; grown in Tamil Nadu.
English: Ceylon Spinach, Surinam Purslane, Flame Flower, Sweet Heart, Water Leaf, Ceylon Spinach.Folk: Pasali, Cylon-keerai (Tamil Nadu)Action: Leaves—used in polyuria. Diabetics and invalids use the leaves as a substitute for Amaranthus gangeticus Linn.... talinum triangulare
Talliss, Tallisse, Tallys, Tallyse, Taliss, Talis, Talise, Talyss, Talyse, Taleese, Taleyse, Taleise, Taliese, Talease, Taleece, Taleace, Taliece, Taleice, Talice, Taleyce, Talissa, Talisa, Tallysa, Talysa, Talisia, Talissa, Talysia... tallis
Tallula, Talula, Talulah, Tallulla... tallulah
Talore, Talora, Talori, Talorie, Talorey, Talory, Talorye, Taloria, Talorya, Talorra, Talorea... talor
Tamarah, Tamarra, Tamarya, Tamaria, Tamaira, Tammara, Tamora, Temara, Tamari, Tamarie, Tamura, Tymara, Tomara, Tamary, Tamarey, Tamera, Tamerra, Timera, Tamarae, Tamaree, Tamar, Tamor, Tamour, Tamer, Tameria, Tammera, Tamerai, Tamoya, Tameran, Tamyra, Tamyria, Tamra, Tammra, Tamira, Tamirra, Tamiria, Tamarla, Tamarsha, Tamijo, Tammy, Tamy, Tami, Tamie, Tamee, Tamey, Tammey, Tammee, Tamlyn, Tamya, Tamia, Tameia, Tamiya, Tamilyn, Tamryn... tamara
Habitat: South India, in river beds.
Ayurvedic: Maachika (related species).Folk: Jhaau.Action: Galls—astringent. Leaves— decoction is given for treating enlarged spleen; also cough.... tamarix ericoides
Tamber, Tambreh, Tambrey, Tambry, Tambrie, Tambri, Tambree, Tambrea... tambre
Tameko, Tamicko, Tammiko, Tamyko, Tameeko, Tamiyo, Tamika, Tamicka, Tamica, Tameeka, Tameiko, Tamieko, Tamikia, Tamycko, Tamyka, Tamycka, Timiko, Timika, Tomiko, Tomika, Tymiko, Tymika, Tamike, Tamiqua, Tameako, Tameaka... tamiko
Habitat: Saline soils of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
English: Athel, Tamarisk.Ayurvedic: Maacheeka, Maachikaa.Unani: Maayin Khurd.Siddha/Tamil: Sivappattushavukku.Folk: Laal jhaau. Galls—Chhoti- Maayin.Action: Galls—astringent. Contain 50% tannin. Bark—contains 14% tannin.
Galls used as a substitute for oak- galls and sumac.Galls contain polyphenols—gallic acid, ellagic acid, dehydrodigallic acid, dihydrojuglone-5-glucoside, isoferulic acid and juglanin; flavonoids including quercetin, its glucoside, isoquercitrin, its methyl derivative, tamarixetin and tamarixin.... tamarix aphyllaHabitat: Throughout in river beds and near sea-coasts in Tamil Nadu.
Ayurvedic: Maachikaa (related species).Siddha/Tamil: Nirumari.Folk: Jhaau. Galls—Maayin.Action: Twigs and galls—astringent. Tannin content—leaves 8%, twig- bark 10%, galls 50%.
The leaves gave tamarixetin, kaemp- feride, quercetiin and D-mannitol. Aerial parts contain trans-2-hydroxy- methoxycinnamic acid and isorham- netin. Hexane extract gave hentriacon- tan-7-ol.The flavones (tamaridone and tama- done) have also been isolated from ethanolic extract, along with hexaco- syl-p-coumarate, gardenin, nevaden- sin and apigenin. Gardenin B exhibited antiviral and anti-invasive activity against solid tumours.... tamarix dioicaHabitat: North Indian saline or water-logged soils; on sandy banks in West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and South India.
English: Takut Galls.Ayurvedic: Jhaavuka, Bahugranthi- kaa, Shaavaka.Unani: Maayeen Kalaan (large galls), Maayeen Khurd (small galls).Siddha/Tamil: Sirusavakku.Folk: Jhaau.Action: Galls—astringent, given internally in dysentery and diarrhoea. Infusion used as a gargle for sore throat. Decoction applied to foul and sloughing ulcers. Pulverized galls, mixed with Vaseline, used for piles and anal fissures. Manna— mild laxative and expectorant. Tannin content—galls 40-50%, bark 15.3%; tannin and non-tannin ratio, quite high as compared to oak bark.
Alcoholic extract of the whole plant exhibited antiallergic activity.Dosage: Gall, leaf, root—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... tamarix indicaTandrah, Tandrea, Tandria, Tandrya, Tandriya... tandra
Habitat: Native to Europe; found as an escape in some parts of Kashmir.
English: Tansy.Folk: Peilmundi (Kashmir).Action: Plant—anthelmintic, bitter tonic, emmenagogue. Used for migraine, neuralgia and nausea; as a lotion for scabies. Toxicity depends upon thujone content of the part used. Tansy oil is used as a liniment for gout and rheumatism.
Aerial parts afforded terpenoids— tanacetin, vulgarones A and B, tamirin, tanacin and tanavulgarol; germacano- lides, stearic acid, and flavonoids— apigenin trimethyl ether, apigenin, luteolin, chrysoeriol, diometin, iso- rhamnetin, quercetin and axillarin. The leaves contain parthenolide, caffe- ic, chlorogenic, iso-chlorogenic acids and vibernitol.Indian chemotype contains beta- thujone (28.1%) as the major constituent of the essential oil. Other constituents are: beta-thujyl alcohol 8.7, /-camphor 10.0 and cineol 11.8%. The leaves contain parthenolide, caf- feic, chlorogenic, isochlorogenic acid and vibernitol.Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Schultz Bip. (native to Europe and British Isles), known as Feverfew, is available in India for prophylactic treatment of migraine. The characteristic constituents of the herb (dried, whole or fragmented parts) are sesquiterpene lactones of which parthenolide, a ger- macanolide, is the major component. (Indian species, T. vulgare leaf also contains parthenolide).ESCOP recommends the herb for the management of migraine for at least a few months.(See ESCOP and WHO monographs.)It has been shown that Feverfew extract inhibits prostaglandin production and arachidonic acid release (this activity, at least partly, explains the herb's antiplatelet and antifebrile action). The extracts also inhibit secretion of serotonin from platelet granules and proteins from polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN's). Since serotonin is implicated in the aetiology of migraine and PMN secretion is increased in rheumatoid arthritis. Feverfew is used in migraine and rheumatoid arthritis. (Potter's New Cyclopaedia.) Somehow, beneficial effects were not observed in a double-blind placebo-controlled trial on 40 women with rheumatoid arthritis. (WHO.)... tanacetum vulgareTangerinah, Tangereena, Tangeryna, Tangereana, Tangerine, Tangeryne... tangerina
Tanie, Tany, Taney, Tanee, Tanni, Tanye, Tannie, Tanny, Tanney, Tannee, Tanea, Tannea... tani
Tanushrie, Tanushry, Tanushrey, Tanushree, Tanushrea... tanushri
Tanvie, Tanvy, Tanvey, Tanvee, Tanvye, Tannvi, Tanvea... tanvi
Tapatie, Tapaty, Tapatey, Tapatee, Tapatye, Tapatea... tapati
Habitat: Throughout upper Assam and Tripura in evergreen forests.
Folk: Chaalmogra.Action: Kernel yields the true Chaal- moogra Oil (Oleum Chaulmoograe), used externally in leprosy.
Bark—astringent, rich in tannins, also used as a febrifuge.... taraktogenos kurziiTarane, Taranne, Taranneh, Tarannum, Taranum... taraneh
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas, Khasi Hills, Mishmi Hills, Gujarat and in hills of South India.
English: Common Dandelion.Ayurvedic: Dugdh-pheni, Luutaari, Payaswani.Unani: Kaanful, Kaasani Dashti, Kaasani Sahraayi, Hind-baa-al- Barri. (Not to be confused with Ci- chorium intybus, known as Kaasani.)Folk: Dudhli, Dudhal.Action: Root—diuretic, cholagogue, pancreatic and bile duct stimulant, stimulant to portal circulation, choleretic, urinary antiseptic, detoxicant, promotes elimination of plasma cholesterol. Used chiefly in kidney and liver disorders, for rheumatism and as a general tonic. A decoction is given for infective hepatitis.
Key application: In dyspepsia, loss of appetite, and for diuresis. (German Commission E, ESCOP.) ESCOP indicates its use for restoration of hepatic and biliary function.Most of the diuretics cause loss of potassium, but dandelion leaves contain high levels of potassium.The leaves and root contain sesqui- terpene lactones (bitter substances); triterpenes and sterols—beta-sitosterol, beta-sitosterol-glucosides, taraxasterol, psi-taratexol and taraxol; flavonoids, including among others, apigenin-7- O-glucosides and luteolin-7-O-gluco- sides; mucilages; inulin (2-40%, high values in autumn). The amaroids are cholagogic and secretolytic. (PDR.) An appetite-stimulating bitter has been identified as eudesmanolides (previously called taraxacin).The vitamin A content is higher than in carrots.The polysaccharides and aqueous extracts exhibited antitumour activity in animals. The anti-inflammatory activity has also been confirmed in animal studies.The high K+ content of roots and leaves is considered responsible for the diuretic activity.Dosage: Root—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... taraxacum officinaleHabitat: Peninsular region, ascending to an altitude of 1,000 m, and in Assam.
Folk: Kuraa (Maharashtra).Action: Fruit—smashed and applied to boils to promote suppuration. Leaves— used in skin diseases.
Thewholeplant, including theroots, contained D-mannitol. The leaves contain a flavone, corymbosin.... tarenna asiaticaTariane, Tarianne, Taryan, Taryanne... tarian
Tarube, Taroob, Tarrub, Taruh, Taroub, Taroube... tarub
Taskine, Taskeen, Taskeene, Taskyne, Takseen, Taksin, Taksyn... taskin
Taslime, Tasleem, Tasleeme, Taslyme, Taslym... taslim
Tasnime, Tasneem, Tasneeme, Tasnyme, Tasnym, Tasneam, Tasneame... tasnim
Habitat: Plains of Punjab, Gujarat and the Deccan in waste places.
English: East Indian Moneywort.Folk: Jethi-madh (Maharashtra).Action: Leaves—used as a poultice for sloughing wounds. Root—used as a substitute for liquorice.... taverniera cuneifolia
Taviah, Tavya, Tavea, Taveah, Tavita, Tavitah, Taviya... tavia
Tawanah, Tawanna, Taiwana, Tawanda... tawana
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Manipur.
English: European Yew. Himalayan Yew is equated with Taxus wal- lichiana Zucc., synonym T. baccata Linn. subspecies wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilgoe, T. baccata Hook. f.Ayurvedic: Thunera, Sthauneya, Sthauneyaka, Shukapushpa, Dhaatri-patra, Vikarna. (Not a substitute for Taalisapatra.)Unani: Zarnab.Siddha/Tamil: Taaleespatri Bhedam.Folk: Birmi, Thuno.Action: Herb—CNS depressant; reduces motor activity; analgesic, anticonvulsant. Leaf used in nervousness, epilepsy, hysteria, asthma, chronic bronchitis. Leaf and fruit—antispasmodic, sedative, emmenagogue.
Berry—used in chronic bronchitis. Taxol—antimitotic; also being tried for the treatment of severe drug-resistant human malaria. (Chem Abstr, 1994, 21, 124674 j.) (The taxol content in Himalayan Yew varied with season and location from 0.045-0.130%.)The needles contain diterpene esters of taxane-type (mixture is known as taxine 0.6-2.0%). Taxine consists of 11 compounds of which only tax- ine A and B have been characterized. Taxol, the diterpene amide, is found active against ovarian cancer in humans. (clinical results showed 24-30% response). The ester alkaloids in higher doses are cardiotoxic.Dried needles contain biflavonoids, including sotetsuflavone, sequoifla- vone, sciadopitysin, ginkgetin, kayafla- vone, amentoflavone, beta-sitosterol, heptacosanol and surcose.The needles gave several phenolics. Betuloside (rhododendron) exhibited hepatoprotective activity against hepa- totoxins in rats.The seeds are poisonous and contain taxine.The aqueous extract of leaves showed a depressant effect on the central nervous system in rats.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia attributed antirheumatic, anticatar- rhal, insecticidal and wound-healing properties to the dried needles of Himalayan Yew and indicated the use of the drug in powder form (1-3 g) in disorders due to vitiated blood, tumours, dermatosis and helminthiasis.Dosage: Leaf—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.) Leaf, bark—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... taxus baccataTayanitah, Tayanitia, Tayanyta, Tayanytah, Tayaneeta, Tayanieta, Tayaneita, Tayaneata... tayanita
Tayin, Tayon, Tayan, Tayene, Tayenne, Tayine... tayen
Tailor, Taylore, Taylar, Tayler, Talour, Taylre, Tailore, Tailar, Tailour, Taylour... taylor
Tazannah, Tazana, Tazanah, Tazanne, Tazane, Tazann... tazanna
Tegan, Tegau, Teegan, Teygan... teagan
Habitat: Cultivated in gardens.
English: Yellow Elder, Yellow Bells.Siddha/Tamil: Sonapaati, Thanga Arali, Naga Sambagam.Action: Leaves—hypoglycaemic (tecomine and tecostanine are hypoglycaemic alkaloids).
Root—diuretic, vermifuge. The flowers contain beta-carotene and zeaxanthin. The plant gave phenolic acids, beta-sitosterol and triterpe- noids—ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and alpha-amarine. An indole-metaboli- zing enzyme, indole-oxygenase, has been isolated from the leaves. Antidiabetic activity of the plant was tested on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.... tecoma stansIn adults it is usually associated with stress or anxiety, but may be due to some local condition in the mouth such as an unsatisfactory ?lling. It may also be caused by certain drugs, including fen?uramine and LEVODOPA. If not controlled, it produces excessive wear of the enamel covering of the teeth. Treatment consists of alleviation of any condition in the mouth and any anxiety and stress.... teeth-grinding
Habitat: North-West and Western India, and in the outer Himalayas.
English: Rohida tree.Ayurvedic: Rohitaka, Rohi, Daadimpushpaka, Daadimchhada, Plihaghna. (Amoora rohituka is also known as Rohitaka.)Action: Bark—relaxant, cardiotonic, choleretic. (Heartwood toxic due to lapachol.) Used for the treatment of leucorrhoea, diseases of the liver and spleen, leucoderma, syphilis and other skin diseases.
The bark contains tecomin (veratryl beta-D-glucoside), alkanes, alkanols and beta-sitosterols. The bark also yielded chromone glycosides—undu- latosides A and B, and iridoid glu- cosides—tecomelloside and tecoside.A quinonoid—lapachol, veratric acid and dehydrotectol are also reported from the bark.Water soluble portion of the alcoholic as well as chloroform extracts of the bark shows smooth muscle relaxant, mild cardiotonic and chloretic activities.Dosage: Flower, bark—50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... tecomella undulataHabitat: A tree occurring in Western Peninsula, Central India and Bihar.
English: Teak tree.Ayurvedic: Shaaka, Bhuumisaha, Dwaaradaaru, Varadaaru, Kharach- hada, Saagawaan, Saagauna.Siddha/Tamil: Thekku.Action: Flower—used in bronchitis, biliousness and urinary discharges. Flower and seed—diuretic.
Wood—expectorant, anti-inflammatory, antibilious, anthelmintic. Used for inflammatory swellings.Bark—astringent. Used in bronchitis. Root—used for anuria and retention of urine. Nut oil—used in the treatment of scabies and other skin diseases; also for promoting hair growth.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the heartwood in lipid disorders, also for treating threatened abortion.The wood is rich in anthraquinones, naphthalene compounds and triter- penic and hemi-terpenic compounds.The Leaves contain tectoleafqui- none. The bark contains 7.14% tannin. The seed oil contains linoleic acid (about 53%), along with lauric, myris- tic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linolenic and arachidic acids. The kernels yield 44.5% of a fatty oil.Dosage: Heartwood—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... tectona grandisTelephasa, Telefassa, Telefasa... telephassa
Tempeste, Tempist, Tempiste, Tempesta, Tempress, Tempestt, Tempestta, Tempany, Tempani, Tempanie, Tempaney, Tempanee, Tempanea... tempest
Teneseah, Tenesia, Tennesea, Teness, Tenesse... tenesea
Tenshie, Tenshy, Tenshey, Tenshee, Tenshea... tenshi
Habitat: Punjab, eastwards to Bengal, extending southwards into Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Maashaparni, Mahaasa- haa, Suuryaasani, Lomash-parni, Kaamboja, Krishna-vrintaa. (In Kerala different species of Vigna are used as Maashaparni.)Siddha/Tamil: Kattu-ulandu.Action: Fruit—astringent, stomachic, febrifugal; also used as a nervine tonic in tuberculosis, haemoptysis, rheumatism and paralysis. Considered invigorating in Indian medicine.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofln- dia recommends the plant in spermatorrhoea.In Ayurvedic texts, Maashaparni and Mudgaparni together form a group of rejuvenating drugs.Mudgaparni is equated with Phaseo- lus trilobus. Maashaparni and Maasha (Vigna mungo) are different drugs.Dosage: Whole plant—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol.III.)... teramnus labialisHabitat: Andamans.
English: White Chuglam, Silvergrey Wood.Action: Bark—cardiac stimulant. It contains tannins and is used as an adulterant to cutch.... terminalia bialata
Habitat: Foothills of Himalayas from Nepal eastwards to Assam.
Folk: Haritaki (Bengal); Monalu (Assam), Suravaari Harad (Gujarat).Action: Bark—diuretic, cardiotonic. Fruits—used as those of T. chebula.
The tannin in the fruit is reported to be between 30-40% of the dry weight.... terminalia citrinaHabitat: Western Andhra Pradesh and Central India.
English: Leathery Murdah.Folk: Tani (Andhra Pradesh)Action: Bark—cardiac stimulant.... terminalia coriacea
Habitat: All over India; also grown as green manure and as cover crop.
English: Purple Tephrosia, Wild Indigo.Ayurvedic: Sharapunkhaa, Vishikha-punkhaa, Sarphokaa.Unani: Sarponkhaa, Sarphukaa.Siddha/Tamil: Kattu-kolingi, Kolingi, Paavali, Mollukkay, Kollukkayvelai.Action: The drug is considered specific for the treatment of inflammation of spleen and liver (is known as Plihaa-shatru, Plihaari in Indian medicine).
Dried herb—diuretic, deobstruent, laxative. Given for the treatment of cough, bronchitis, bilious febrile attacks, insufficiency of the liver, jaundice (not effective in infantile cirrhosis), kidney disorders and for the treatment of bleeding piles, boils, pimples. Also used as a gargle. Root—decoction used in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, cough, bronchitis, adenoids, asthma and rheumatism. Juice is applied to skin eruptions. A liniment prepared from the root is employed in elephantiasis. Oil from seeds—specific against eruptions of the skin, eczema, scabies, leprosy. Seed extract—hypoglycaemic.Powdered aerial parts prevented elevation of SGOP, SGPT and bilirubin levels.Hepatoprotective effect of aerial parts was evaluated against (+)-galac- tosamine-induced and carbon tetra- chloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.The leaves contain rutin and rote- noids (0.65-0.80% on dry basis). Rote- noid content is highest in the seed (1.60-1.80%).The leaves also contain a triterpe- noid, lupeol, and beta-sitosterol.Seeds contain a diketone-pongamol; a dimethylchromene flavanone iso- lonchocarpin; furanoflavones karan- jin and kanjone; a flavanone purpurin; and sitosterol. A flavonoid, lanceolarin B, is also present in seeds.The plant extract led to marked lowering of blood glucose level in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits. In diabetic rabbits the extract exerted 60-70% hypoglycaemic effect as compared to tolbutamide.Shveta Sharapunkhaa (stems: covered with white hair; flowers: pale pink or pale violet) is equated with T. villosa Pers.The roots gave a prenylated fla- vanone 7-methylglabranin; pods contain rotenoids—villosin, villon, vil- losol, villosinol, villinol and villosone.The fresh root is credited with hy- poglycaemic properties, but leaves did not show any such effect. The juice of the leaf is given in dropsy. Ayurve- dic classical texts describe it as a special drug for treating sterility in women.Boiled leaves of T. uniflora subspecies petrosa (Kant-punkhaa) are used for the treatment of syphilis. The medicinal properties of the plant are more or less similar to those of T. purpurea, but to a milder degree.T. spinosa Pers. (South India, ascending to 400 m in hills) is also known as Kant-punkhaa (Mulukolingi in Tamil Nadu).The root is applied to inflammations and swellings of joints; a decoction is given in rheumatism.Chalcones, spinochalones A and B and flemistrictin A have been isolated from the root. Spinochalone C and spinoflavonones A and B, and fulvin- ervin A have been isolated from the plant.Dosage: Plant, root, seed—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... tephrosia purpureaTerrah, Terah, Teralyn, Terran, Terena, Terenah, Terenna, Terrena, Terrenna, Terrene, Taran... terra
Terryl, Teryll, Terylle, Terryll... teryl
Habitat: Throughout the greater part of India, also grown as an avenue tree.
English: Arjun Terminalia.Ayurvedic: Arjuna, Dhananjaya, Kaakubha, Kakubha, Aartagala, Indravriksha, Paartha, Virataru, Viravriksha.Unani: ArjunSiddha: Marudam.Action: Bark—used as a cardiopro- tective and cardiotonic in angina and poor coronary circulation; as a diuretic in cirrhosis of liver and for symptomatic relief in hypertension; externally in skin diseases, herpes and leukoderma. Powdered bark is prescribed with milk in fractures and contusions with excessive ec- chymosis, also in urinary discharges and strangury. Fruit—deobstruent.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the powder of the stembark in emaciation, chest diseases, cardiac disorders, lipid imbalances and polyuria.The bark extract contains acids (ar- junolic acid, terminic acid), glyco- sides (arjunetin, arjunosides I-IV), and strong antioxidants—flavones, tannins, oligomeric proanthocyani- dins.The bark extract (500 mg every 8 h) given to (58 male) patients with stable angina with provocable ischemia on treadmill exercise, led to improvement in clinical and treadmill exercise parameters as compared to placebo therapy.These benefits were similar to those observed with isosorbide mononitrate (40 mg/day). (Indian Heart J. 2002, 54(4), 441.)Arjunolic acid exhibited significant cardiac protection in isoproterenol- induced myocardial necrosis in rats.T (Mol Cell Biochem, 2001, 224 (1-2), 135-42.) A study demonstrated that the alcoholic extract of Terminalia arjuna bark augmented endogenous antioxi- dant compounds of the rat heart and prevented from isoproterenol-induced myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury. (Life Sci. 2003, 73 (21), 27272739.) Cardiac lipid peroxidation in male Wistar rats was reduced by 38.8% ± 2.6% at a dose of 90 mg/kg, in a study based on aqueous freeze-dried extract ofthebark. (PhytotherRes. 2001,15(6), 510-23.)Oral administration of bark powder (400 mg/kg body weight) for 10 days produced significant increase in circulating histamine, a little increase in 5-HT, catecholamines and HDL cholesterol, and decrease in total lipid, triglycerides and total cholesterol in normal rats.Casuarinin, a hydrolyzable tannin, isolated from the bark, exhibited antiherpes virus activity by inhibiting viral attachment and penetration. 50% ethanolic extract of the bark exhibited significant increase in the tensile of the incision wounds.Dosage: Stembark—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... terminalia arjunaHabitat: Throughout deciduous forests of India.
English: Belleric Myrobalan, Bastard Myrobalan.Ayurvedic: Bibhitaka, Vibhitaka, Bibhitaki, Bibhita, Baibhita, Aksha, Akshaka, Kaamaghna, Kalidru Kali, Karshaphala.Unani: Balelaa, Baheraa.Siddha/Tamil: Thaanrikkaai, Thandri.Action: Fruit—purgative when half ripe, astringent when ripe; antipyretic; used in prescriptions for diarrhoea, dyspepsia, biliousness; cough, bronchitis and upper respiratory tract infections, tropical pulmonary eosinophilia and allergic eruptions.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the drug in powder form in emesis and worm infestation, in addition to other therapeutic applications.The fruits contain beta-sitosterol, gallic and ellagic acids, ethyl gallate, galloyl glucose, chebulagic acid and a cardiac glycoside, bellaricanin.The fruits produce hepato-protec- tive effect in CCl4-induced liver injury in mice. Alcoholic extract of the fruit exerted a negative chrono-and inotrop- ic and hypotensive effect of varying magnitude in a dose dependent fashion on isolated rat and frog atria and rabbit heart.The fruit contains all components of Chebulic myrobalan (T. chebula) except corilagin and chebulic acid.The fleshy fruit pulp contains 21.4% tannin, both condensed and hydrolys- able types.The flower showed spermicidal activity.Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... terminalia belliricaFamily: Combretaceae.
Habitat: Cultivated throughout hotter parts of India, also in the Andamans.
English: Indian Almond, Tropical Almond.Siddha/Tamil: Natuvadom.Folk: Jangali Baadaam, Desi Baadaam.Action: Bark—astringent, an- tidysenteric, mild diuretic. Leaf— antiseptic, anti-inflammatory. Oil from kernel—substitute for almond oil; contains oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Fresh kernels resemble almonds; contain fat 52.02, protein 25.42, sugars as glucose 5.98%. Leaf—sudorific; applied to rheumatic joints. Ointment made from juice—used in scabies and other cutaneous affections.
The husk and endocarp contain tannins and pentosans. The heartwood and stembark contain beta-sitosterol and its palmitate. The heartwood, in addition, contain terminolic acid and triterpenic methyl esters.... terminalia catappaHabitat: Abundant in Northern India. Also occurs in the forests of Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, especially in Konkan.
English: Chebulic Myrobalan, Black Myrobalan.Ayurvedic: Haritaki, Kaayasthaa, Pathyaa, Shreyasi, Shivaa. (Jivanti, Puutanaa, Vijayaa, Abhayaa, Rohini, Chetaki, Amritaa—according to some scholars, these represent seven varieties of Haritaki; now used as synonyms.)Unani: Harad, Halelaa siyaah, Halelaa zard, Halelaa Kaabuli (varieties).Siddha/Tamil: Kadukkai.Action: Gentle purgative, astringent (unripe fruits are more purgative, ripe ones are more astringent; sennoside A and anthraquinone glycoside is laxative, tannins are astringent), stomachic, antibilious, alterative. Used in prescriptions for treating flatulence, constipation, diarrhoea, dysentery, cyst, digestive disorders, vomiting, enlarged liver and spleen, cough and bronchial asthma, and for metabolic harmony. Bark—diuretic.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, along with other therapeutic applications, indicated the use of powder of mature fruits in intermittent fevers, chronic fevers, anaemia and polyuria.The fruits of T. chebula are used in combination with Emblica officinalis and T. bellirica (under the name Triphalaa) in the treatment of liver and kidney dysfunctions. The main purgative ingredient of Triphalaa is T. chebula (the purgative principle is in the pericarp of the fruit).Shikimic, gallic, triacontanoic and palmitic acids, beta-sitosterol, daucos- terol, triethyl ester of chebulic acid and ethyl ester of gallic acid; a new ellag- itannin, terchebulin, along with puni- calagin and teaflavin A have been isolated from the fruits. A new triterpene, chebupentol, and arjungenin, termi- noic acid and arjunolic acid were also isolated from the fruit.Antioxidant constituents of the plant, phloroglucinol and pyrogallol have been isolated along with ferulic, vanillic, p-coumaric and caffeic acids. Ether extract showed higher antioxidant activity than BHA and BHT, Acid esters present in phenolic fraction of extract, were found most effective.Dosage: Pericarp of mature fruit— 3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... terminalia chebulaHabitat: Eastern Himalayas, from North Bengal eastwards to Assam, Khasi Hills and Arunachal Pradesh.
English: Hollock.Ayurvedic: Kakubha (also a synonym of Arjuna tree).Action: Bark—cardiac stimulant, mild diuretic.
The bark gave beta-sitosterol, and about 18% tannins. Ellagic, gallic, che- bulinic and chebulagic acids—main constituents of ellagitannins, and leu- co-cyanidin, an important precursor to flavonoid tannins, have been isolated.... terminalia myriocarpaHabitat: From Garhwal to Bhutan, up to an altitude of 2,600 m.
Folk: Charchari (Nepal).Action: Alcoholic extract of aerial parats, when injected intramuscularly in rats, showed anticancer activity.
The plant was found toxic to adult albino mice.... tetrastigma serrulatumHabitat: Forests of Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats up to 1,200 m.
English: Flowering Murdah.Folk: Kinjal (Maharashtra); Neemeeri, Nimiri (Andhra Pradesh); Pekadukkai (Tamil Nadu); Pilamuruthu, Pillamurda (Kerala). Kindal (trade).Action: Bark—diuretic, cardiotonic. Juice of the bark, mixed with purified butter and rock-salt, is applied in parotitis.
The heartwood gave 3,3'-O-di- methylellagic acid and 3,4,3'-O-tri- methylflavellagic acid. A triterpene carboxylic acid, beta-sitosterol, a gly- coside 3,3'-di-O-methylellagic acid- 4-monoglucoside and O-pentamethyl flavellagic acid have been isolated.The bark contains 14% tannins, also beta-sitosterol.... terminalia paniculataHabitat: Common in the forests, especially in the humid regions of India, including the sub-Himalayan tracts of North-West provinces, Nepal and Sikkim; also southwards throughout the Peninsula.
English: Laurel (trade). (The Wealth of India.)Ayurvedic: Asana (Asana is equated with Bridelia montana Willd.) Bijaka (also equated with Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.) (Asana and Bijaka are considered as synonyms in Indian medicine.) Jaranadrum, a substitute of Ashwakarna, and Kaushik are also doubtful synonyms.Siddha/Tamil: Karramarda.Folk: Sarj, Saaj. Sain (Dehra Dun).Action: Bark—astringent, antidiar- rhoeal, styptic, antileucorrheal. Used for haemorrhagic diseases, skin diseases, erysipelas, leuco- derma. The bark contain 18.7% tannin.
Beta-sitosterol, arjunic and arjuno- lic acids, arjunetin, betulinic and el- lagic acids have been isolated from the bark.Hydrolysis of gum gave oligo-sac- charides, disaccharides and monosac- charides. Leaves and fruits gave beta- sitosterol.Laurel is native to Mediterranean region and is equated with Laurus nobilis Linn. (Lauraceae.) The leaves and essential oil are stomachic, cholagogue, stimulant and diaphoretic. The oil has been used against dandruff, also as an external application for rheumatism.... terminalia tomentosaThaliah, Thaleia, Thalya, Thalie, Thali, Thaly, Thaley, Thalee, Thalea, Thaleigh... thalia
Hydrocoele is a collection of ?uid distending one or both sides of the scrotum with ?uid. Treatment is by withdrawal of the ?uid using a sterile syringe and aspiration needle.
Hypogonadism Reduced activity of the testes or ovaries (male and female gonads). The result is impaired development of the secondary sexual characteristics (growth of the genitals, breast and adult hair distribution). The cause may be hereditary or the result of a disorder of the PITUITARY GLAND which produces GONADOTROPHINS that stimulate development of the testes and ovaries.
Varicocoele is distension of the veins of the spermatic cord, especially on the left side, the causes being similar to varicose veins elsewhere (see VEINS, DISEASES OF). The chief symptom is a painful dragging sensation in the testicle, especially after exertion. Wearing a support provides relief; rarely, an operation may be advisable. Low sperm-count may accompany a varicocele, in which case surgical removal may be advisable.
Orchitis or acute in?ammation may arise from CYSTITIS, stone in the bladder, and in?ammation in the urinary organs, especially GONORRHOEA. It may also follow MUMPS. Intense pain, swelling and redness occur; treatment consists of rest, support of the scrotum, analgesics as appropriate, and the administration of antibiotics if a de?nitive microorganism can be identi?ed. In some patients the condition may develop and form an ABSCESS.
Torsion or twisting of the spermatic cord is relatively common in adolescents. About half the cases occur in the early hours of the morning during sleep. Typically felt as pain of varying severity in the lower abdomen or scrotum, the testis becomes hard and swollen. Treatment consists of immediate undoing of the torsion by manipulation. If done within a few hours, no harm should ensue; however, this should be followed within six hours by surgical operation to ensure that the torsion has been relieved and to ?x the testes. Late surgical attention may result in ATROPHY of the testis.
Tuberculosis may occur in the testicle, especially when the bladder is already affected. Causing little pain, the infection is often far advanced before attracting attention. The condition generally responds well to treatment with a combination of antituberculous drugs (see also main entry for TUBERCULOSIS).
Tumours of the testes occur in around 600 males annually in the United Kingdom, and are the second most common form of malignant growth in young males. There are two types: SEMINOMA and TERATOMA. When adequately treated the survival rate for the former is 95 per cent, while that for the latter is 50 per cent.
Injuries A severe blow may lead to SHOCK and symptoms of collapse, usually relieved by rest in bed; however, a HAEMATOMA may develop.... testicle, diseases of
Habitat: Assam.
Siddha/Tamil: Anaittichal. (A related species T. laevis Vahl, is found in the forests of Kerala.)Action: Leaves—an infusion of shoots is given in pulmonary haemorrhages and is used as a gargle in aphthae.
The leaves yielded beta-sitosterol, lupeol, betulin and betulinic acid.T. laevis (Vennelvalli, Piripul) also possesses similar properties. A decoction of leaves, mixed with rice-gruel, is given for the treatment of aphthae.... tetracera indicaThanah, Thayna, Thaina, Thanna, Thane... thana
Thelmah, Telma, Thelmai, Thelmia, Thelmalina... thelma
Habitat: The Himalayas and plains of India.
English: Ulla Grass. Karad grass is equated with T. quadrivalvis (L.) Kuntze.Folk: Sarkharaa, Kapoor Ghass.Action: Febrifuge.... themeda arundinacea
Habitat: Cultivated in the hills of North Bengal, Shillong and other hill stations, and in the Deccan, in Mysore.
English: New Zealand Spinach.Folk: Chikesoppu (Karnataka).Action: Used as a substitute for Spinacia oleracea, as a rich source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins A, B and C. Given in pulmonary and intestinal affections.
The shoots of the plant contain saponin, but the seeds do not. The saponin has low toxicity which disappears on boiling the leaves. A sample of the plant contained 1.2% oxalic acid, combined as calcium oxalate which is higher than found in common spinach. Losses of phosphorus and iron on cooking are also reported to be high.The roots, leaves and immature fruits gave positive reaction for the presence of alkaloids. Cerebroside has been synthesized.... tetragonia expansaHabitat: Native to Europe. Imported for use in Unani medicine.
English: Germander, Wall Germander.Unani: Usqurdiyun, Kamaazariuus.Action: Gastric stimulant, diuretic, sudorific. Used in spleen disorders and rheumatism; topically in skin diseases.
The herb contains iridoid glyco- sides, including harpagide and acetyl harpagide; clerodane and neoclero- dane diterpenes; phenylpropanoids; volatile oil, containing about 60% ca- ryophyllene; tannins and polyphenols.One of the major furanoneoerodane diterpenes, teucrin A, is hepatotoxic.Ether extract of the flowering herb shows antibacterial activity.... teucrium chamaedrysHabitat: Native to Europe; found in Kashmir.
English: Water-Germander.Action: Stimulant, antiseptic, sudorific. Given for phthisis and cough. An infusion is used as laxative in piles, as a gargle in sore throat and stomatitis. An extract of the herb is given in lupus and actinomycosis. Flower tops and leaves—astringent, diaphoretic, vermifuge.
The herb contains iridoids, including harpagide and acetyl harpagide; fu- ranoid diterpenes; also choline, rutin, quercetin, iso-quercetin, stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin, chloro- genic and ursolic acids.... teucrium scordiumThemiss, Themisse, Themys, Themyss, Themysse... themis
Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from 1,500 to 2,400 m, in the Khasi hills and in Kashmir, Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
Ayurvedic: Pitarangaa, Piyaaraan- gaa. Pitamuulikaa (substitute).Unani: Mamiri. (Mamiraa is equated with Coptis teeta Wall.)Action: Plant—used against gout and rheumatism. Root—febrifuge, antiperiodic; a bitter tonic during convalescence.
The root contains alkaloids berberine and magnoflorine. (Berberine causes a stimulant action on the movements of the gastrointestinal tract, a depression of both the auricles and ventricles and distinct dilatation of the heart. Magnoflorine induces hypoten- tion.) Berberine content is reduced to one-fourth and magnoflorine to traces after 6 months. The root also contains palmitine and jatrorrhizine.Thalictrum sp. (about 17 species are found in India)—alkaloidal structure exhibits antitumoral activity.Over 60 isoquinoline and diter- penoid alkaloids have been isolated. (See The Wealth of India, Vol. X.)Following are the important Thalic- trum sp. occurring in India:T. alpinum Linn. (the alpine Himalayas and western Tibet at altitudes between 3,000 and 5,100 m); T. ele- gans Wall. ex Royle (the sub-alpine Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes from 3,000 to 3,900 m); T. foetidum Linn. (North-West Himalayas); T. javanicum Blume (the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim, Khasi hills, Kodaikanal and Nilgiri hills); T. minus Linn. (the temperate Himalayas); T. reniforme Wall. (the temperate Himalayas from Kulu to Sikkim between 2,400 and 3,000 m).... thalictrum foliolosumHabitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated in South India and Orissa.
English: Cocoa, Theobroma, Chocolate tree.Action: Leaves—Central nervous system stimulant, local anaesthetic (due to cocaine).
Seeds—stimulating and diuretic (due to caffeine).Cocoa contains methylxanthine, which acts as a diuretic. Preparations of Cocoa are used for liver, bladder and kidney ailments, diabetes, as a general tonic and as an astringent for diarrhoea. Cocoa and cocoa products can cause migraine headache, can also result in constipation.Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.... theobroma cacaoTheronah, Theronia, Theroniya, Theronea, Theronya... therona
Habitat: Grown as an ornamental.
Ayurvedic: Tundikera.Folk: Bana-Kapaasi. Raan-bhendi (Maharashtra).Action: Flowers—used for cutaneous diseases. Roots and fruits— used for treating gonorrhoea and syphilis.
Gossypol is reported to be present in the plant—roots 2.75, flower buds 1.95, seeds 1.74, leaves 0.98 and stems 0.16%. The flowers contain quercetin and protocatechuic acid.... thespesia lampasHabitat: Coastal regions of India and the Andamans; and also grown as an ornamental.
English: Portia tree, Tulip tree, Umbrella tree, False Rosewood.Ayurvedic: Paarisha, Kapitana, Paarshvpippala, Gardabhaanda.Siddha: Poovarsu.Action: Specific for skin diseases. Root, fruit and leaf—used in psoriasis, scabies and other cutaneous diseases. Lupenone, lupeol and alkanes show activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Bark— used for the treatment of haemorrhoids and chronic dysentery. Leaf— anti-inflammatory.
The flowers gave populnetin, herba- cetin, populneol, quercetin and its gly- cosides, kaempferol and its glycosides, rutin, gossypol, beta-sitosterol and its glycosides, nonacosane, lupenone, myricyl alcohol, lupeol and gossypetin.Presence of thespesin (0.4%) and herbacetin has been reported from fruits. Thespesin has been proved to be optically active gossypol. Gossypol occurring in cotton plant is optically inactive, whereas the gossypol from T. populnea has a high dextro-rotation. It exhibits antifertility, anti-tumour, anti-amoebic and anti-HIV activities.The ethanolic extract of fruits showed antiviral and anticancer activity in mice.Dosage: Root—50-125 mg powder. (CCRAS.)... thespesia populneaHabitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated as hedge plant in the plains throughout India.
English: Yellow Oleander.Ayurvedic: Pita-Karavira, Ash- vaghna, Divyapushpa. (White and red-flowered var. is equated with Nerium oleander, the yellow- flowered var with T. peruviana.)Siddha/Tamil: Pachiyalari.Action: See Nerium oleander. Bark and leaves—bitter cathartic, emetic; poisonous. Roots—a plaster is applied to tumours.
All parts of the plant produce poisonous latex. Karnels contained nearly seven times as much glycosides as leaves, stems, flowers or fruit pulp. The roots and bark also contain glycosides.Of all Thevetia glycosides, peruvo- side is the most important cardiac gly- coside. It produced a fall in right arterial pressure and a rise in cardiac output. A few cases of arrhythmia responded well to peruvoside. Thevetin and other glycosides are reported to exhibit digitalis-like effect. As a cardiac glyco- side, the potency of neriifolin is moderate. Cerberin is even weaker than neriifolin. Cerebroside is the weakest glycoside in its cardiac effect.In addition to seeds, neriifolin and peruvoside have been isolated from the bark in small amounts.... thevetia peruvianaDeep wounds on the inner side of the thigh are dangerous by reason of the risk of damage to the large vessels. Pain in the back of the thigh is often due to in?ammation of the sciatic nerve (see SCIATICA). The veins on the inner side of the thigh are specially liable to become dilated.... thigh
Habitat: The temperate and sub-alpine Himalayas.
English: Pennycress, Fanweed.Folk: Drekaa (Laddakh).Action: Astringent, diuretic, blood- purifier. Seeds—stimulant. Plant— a good source of vitamin C (70469 mg/100 g). Ripe seeds are poisonous (pouring boiling water over the seeds before use prevents poisoning).
Leaves as well as seeds contain a glu- coside, sinigrin.... thlaspi arvenseThomasine, Thomsina, Thomasin, Tomasina, Tomasine, Thomasa, Thomaseena, Thomaseana, Thomaseina, Thomasiena, Thomasyna, Tomaseena, Tomaseana, Tomaseina, Tomasiena, Tomasyna... thomasina
Habitat: Native to China; planted all over India in gardens.
English: Oriental Arbor-Vitae.Folk: Morepankhi.Action: Leaves—diuretic, insectici- dal antipyretic.
The leaves contain rhodoxanthin, amentoflavone, hinokiflavone, querce- tin, myricetin, carotene (20.8 mg/100 g dry basis), xanthophyll and ascorbic acid (68 mg/100 g). Essential oil, obtained from twigs (0.32) and berries (0.25%), contains alpha-thujene, (+)- sabinene, (+)-camphene, cedrol, ce- drenol and alpha-and beta-pinenes as major constituents.American Arbor-Vitae and White Cedar has been equated with T. occidentals and is used as Thuja.It was introduced into India from North America, and grows as a Christmas tree in the plains of India.Leaves—aninfusionisusedasa uterine stimulant, emmenagogue and diuretic. Boiled in lard, are applied externally for rheumatism. Bark—astringent, emmenagogue, diuretic. Oil— poisonous, disinfectant, insecticidal. Seed and fruit— antibacterial; inhibited the growth of Gram-positive microorganisms.The leaves yields a volatile oil, containing thujone as major component, with iso-thujone, borneol, bornyl acetate, l-fenchone, limonene, sabinene, camphor, l-alpha-thujene; flavonoids, mucilage, tannins.The heartwood yields a non-toxic antibiotic substance. It gave sesquiter- pene alcohols—occidentalol and oc- cidol; also alpha-beta-and gamma- eudesmol.Thuja is used in homoeopathy for tissue degeneration and tumours, warts and fungoid growths, both internally and externally.... thuja orientalisThe thymus gland is a vital part of the immunological system. Stem cells (see STEM CELL) from the BONE MARROW come to the thymus where they develop into immunologically competent cells. There are two distinct populations of lymphocytes. One is dependent on the presence of the thymus (Tlymphocytes); the other is independent of the thymus (B-lymphocytes). Both are concerned with immune responses (see IMMUNITY). The T-lymphocyte is a cell which in the absence of antigenic stimulation (see ANTIGEN) circulates through the blood, lymph nodes and back into the circulation again over a period of more than ten years. It performs a policing role, awaiting recognition of foreign material which it is able to identify as such. It reacts by multiplication and transformation and these are the ingredients of the immune response. B-lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are concerned with the production of the circulating humoral ANTIBODIES.
The most common clinical disorder associated with abnormality of the thymus is MYASTHENIA GRAVIS. Ten per cent of patients with myasthenia gravis will have a tumour of the thymus, whilst the remainder will have in?ammatory changes in the thymus called thymitis.... thymus gland
Habitat: Native to North America; also found in temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal; grown in gardens in western India.
English: Mother-of-thyme, Wild Thyme. Thymus vulgaris (Garden Thyme) is found in the Nilgiris at higher elevations.Ayurvedic: Ajagandhaa, Vana- Yavaani. (Not to be confused with Yavaani, Ajmodaa, Shataahvaa, Raajikaa and Tilaparni.)Unani: Haashaa, Jangali Pudinaa. Thysanolaena agrostis Nees.Action: Antiseptic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antispasmodic, mild sedative, expectorant. T. serpyllum and T. vulgaris L. are used for coughs and common cold.
Key application: German Commission E approved T. vulgaris for symptoms of bronchitis, whooping cough and catarrhs of the upper respiratory tracts. Also to treat stomatitis. (ESCOP.)The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes expectorant activity of T. serpyllum.T. serpyllum contains more linalool and p-cymol than Garden Thyme (T. vulgaris). Major constituent of the volatile oil of both the species (highly variable) is thymol; with carvacrol (lesser amount in T. serpyllum, higher in T. vulgaris), 1,8-cineole, borneol, geraniol, linalool. bornyl and lina- lyl acetate, thymol methyl ether and alpha-pinene.Flavonoids include apigenin, lute- olin, thymonin, naringenin; other constituents include labiatic acid, caffeic acid, tannins.The flavonoid fraction has shown to have a potent effect on smooth muscle on guinea-pig trachea and ileum.Thymol is expectorant and antiseptic. Thymol and carvacrol are spasmolytic. Thymol is also urinary tract antiseptic and anthelmintic.Dosage: Whole plant—3–5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... thymus serpyllumHabitat: Cultivated in gardens.
English: Bouquet-Grass, Broom- Grass, Tiger-Grass, Amliso.Ayurvedic: Juurnaa, Juurnaahv.Folk: Junaar, Pirlu.Action: Root—a decoction is used as a mouthwash during fever, also after parturition.... thysanolaena agrostis
Tienett, Tienet, Tienete, Tieneta, Tienetta... tienette
Tigerlilly, Tigerlili, Tigerlilli, Tigerlilie, Tigerlillie, Tygerlily, Tiger Lily... tigerlily
Habitat: Temperate regions of northern hemisphere. Spp. introduced into India: Tilia cordata Mill. (Himachal Pradesh at elevations of 2,100 m.) and T. europaea Linn., synonym T. vulgaris Hayne (Kulu, Manali and Simla).
English: Small-leaved Lime or Linden and Common Lime or European Linden (respectively).Action: Flowers—nervine tonic, spasmolytic, sedative, hypotensive. An infusion is used for the treatment of hysteria and indigestion.
The flowers contain a volatile oil up to about 0.1% containing farnesol; flavonoids including hesperidin, quer- cetin, astralagin, tiliroside; phenolic acids such as chlorogenic and caffeic, tannins and mucilage (in the bract).In Western herbal, the flowers are an ingredient in blood pressure tablets and mixtures and blood pressure medicinal teas.... tiliaHabitat: Throughout tropical India.
Siddha/Tamil: Kodaparuavalli.Folk: Tiliyaa-koraa (Bihar, Bengal).Action: Plant—CVS and CNS active, spasmolytic, hypothermic. Used externally for skin diseases.
The rootbark contains bis-benzyl- isoquinoline alkaloids—tiliacorine, ti- liarine, tiliacorinine, nor-tiliacorinines A and B, corine, tiliacine and mo- hinine. The alkaloid tiliacoridine has been reported from the leaves.... tiliacora acuminataTiponni, Tipponi, Tiponie, Tipony, Tiponey, Tiponee, Tiponea... tiponi
Habitat: Tropical India and the Andamans.
Ayurvedic: Guduuchi, Gudu- uchikaa, Guluuchi, Amrita, Am- ritaa, Amritalataa, Amritavalli, Chinnaruuhaa, Chinnodbhavaa, Madhuparni, Vatsaadani, Tantrikaa, Kundalini. Guduuchi sattva (starch).Unani: Gilo, Gulanchaa. Sat-e-Gilo (starch).Siddha: Seenil, Amrida-valli.Folk: Giloya.Action: Herb—antipyretic, an- tiperiodic, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, spasmolytic, hypo- glycaemic, hepatoprotective. Water extract increases urine output. Stem juice—prescribed in high fever; decoction in rheumatic and bilious fevers. Aqueous extract of the plant—fabrifuge. Starch—antacid, antidiarrhoeal and antidysenteric.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, along with other therapeutic applications, recommends the dried stems in jaundice, anaemia, polyuria and skin diseases.The stem contains alkaloidal constituents, including berberine; bitter principles, including columbin, chas- manthin, palmarin and tinosporon, tinosporic acid and tinosporol.The drug is reported to possess one- fifth of the analgesic effect of sodium salicylate. Its aqueous extract has a high phagocytic index.Alcoholic extract of the stem shows activity against E. coli. Active principles were found to inhibit in vitro the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.Oral administration of alcoholic extract of the root resulted in a significant reduction in blood and urine glucose and in lipids in serum and tissues of alloxan diabetic rats. (Phytother Res. 2003 17 (4), 410-3.)A significant reduction in levels of SGOT, SGPT, ALP and bilirubin were observed following T. cordifolia treatment during CCl4 intoxication in mature rats. (J. Toxicol Sci. 2002, 27 (3), 139-46.) The plant extract showed in vitro inactivating activity in Hepatitis- B surface antigen. (Indian Drugs, 1993, 30, 549.)A new hypoglycaemic agent was isolated from the plant; it was found to be 1,2-substituted pyrrolidine.The starch from roots and stem, used in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, contains a polysaccharide having 1-4 glucan with occasional branching points.Dosage: Stem—3-6 g powder; 2030 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)... tinospora cordifoliaHabitat: Assam.
Ayurvedic: Guduuchi (related species).Action: Plant—diuretic, as powerful a febrifuge as cinchona.
The plant contains a bitter principle picrotein and furanoditerpene glyco- side, tinocrisposide.Stem, roots and tubers contain a di- terpenoid—tinosporan, which appears to be closely related to columbin.The mucilage from leaves gave galac- tan, pentosan, methyl pentosan and sugars.... tinospora crispaHabitat: Throughout India, ascending to an altitude of 1,000 m.
Ayurvedic: Kandodbhava-guduchi, Vatsaadani, Padma-Guduuchi.Folk: Gurch.Action: Fresh leaves and stem are used in chronic rheumatism. Known as "muscle-relaxing vine" in China.
Used as a substitute for T. cordifolia. The plant is an inferior substitute as it contains less of carbohydrates, sterols, alkaloids and tannins.Alkaloid magnoflorine shows hy- potensive as well as curare-like effect in animals.... tinospora malabaricaEpithelial tissues, including the cells covering the skin, those lining the alimentary canal, those forming the secretions of internal organs. (See EPITHELIUM.)
Connective tissues, including ?brous tissue, fat, bone, cartilage. (See under these headings.)
Muscular tissues (see MUSCLE).
Nervous tissues (see NERVE).
Wandering corpuscles of the BLOOD and LYMPH. Many of the organs are formed of a single
one of these tissues, or of one with a very slight admixture of another, such as cartilage, or white ?brous tissue. Other parts of the body that are widely distributed are very simple in structure and consist of two or more simple tissues in varying proportion. Such are blood vessels (see ARTERIES; VEINS), lymphatic vessels (see LYMPHATICS), lymphatic glands (see GLAND), SEROUS MEMBRANES, synovial membranes (see JOINTS), mucous membranes (see MUCOUS MEMBRANE), secreting glands (see GLAND; SALIVARY GLANDS; THYROID GLAND) and SKIN.
The structure of the more complex organs of the body is dealt with under the heading of each organ.... tissues of the body
Tobie, Toby, Tobey, Tobee, Toba, Tobit, Toibe, Tobea... tobi
Habitat: Tropical Himalayas, from Kumaon eastwards to Assam, Khasi hills and throughout the Western Peninsula.
English: Wild Orange tree, Forest Pepper.Ayurvedic: Kanchana.Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Milagu, Milagaranai.Folk: Jangali Kaali-mirch, Kanja.Action: Whole plant—febrifuge, diuretic, Leaves—antispasmodic. Rootbark—antipyretic, diaphoretic, antiperiodic.
Used as a tonic during convalescence and constitutional debility. (The rootbark was used medicinally in the past in Europe under the name Lopez Root or Cortex Radicis as an antimalarial drug.)Unripe fruits and roots are included in liniments used for rheumatism.The rootbark contains alkaloids, including toddaline, toddalinine, skim- mianine. The root gave coumarins, including toddanol, toddanone, todda- sin, pimpinellin, iso-pimpinellin and toddalolactone.Alkaloid toddaline is irritant to the mucous membrane, bronchi, intestines and the bladder.Ethanolic extract of var. obtusifolia Gemble, found in the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, exhibited spasmolytic activity.Among the coumarins, chlorocou- marin is the most important active principle and can be used an alternative for papaverine obtained from poppy.... toddalia asiaticaTolinkah, Tolynka, Tolinca, Tolincka, Toleenka, Toleanka... tolinka
Tonie, Tony, Toney, Tonee, Tonya, Tonia, Tonisha, Tonea, Tonny, Tonni, Tonnie, Tonnee, Tonney, Tonnea... toni
Ankyloglossia or tongue-tie is a rare disorder in which the frenum or band connecting the lower surface of the tongue to the ?oor of the mouth is so short or tight that the tongue cannot be protruded. Surgery can remedy the defect. It is easy to overdiagnose and is not a common cause of di?culty in feeding at birth or speech defects in infancy.
Gross enlargement of the tongue can make speech indistinct or make swallowing and even breathing di?cult. This is known as macroglossia and may be such that the tongue is constantly protruded from the mouth. The cause may be CONGENITAL, as in severe cases of DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME, or it may occur as a result of ACROMEGALY or be due to abnormal deposits as in AMYLOIDOSIS.
A marked tremor of the tongue when protruded may be seen in various neurological diseases, but may be caused by alcoholism.
After a STROKE involving the motor nerve centre, the control of one side of the tongue musculature will be lost. This will result in the protruded tongue pointing to the side of the body which is paralysed. The sense of taste on one side of the tongue may also be lost in some diseases of the brain and facial nerve.
The presence of fur on the tongue may be obvious and distressing. This is due to thickening of the super?cial layers of the tongue which may appear like hairs which trap food debris and become discoloured. Furring is common during fever and as a result of mouth-breathing and smoking.
In some conditions the tongue may appear dry, red and raw (GLOSSITIS). An in?amed beefy tongue is characteristic of pellagra, a disease caused by de?ciency of NICOTINIC ACID in the diet. A magenta-coloured tongue may be seen when there is a lack of RIBOFLAVIN.
Ulcers of the tongue are similar to those elsewhere in the mouth. The most common are aphthous ulcers which are small, red and painful and last for about ten days. They are associated with stress, mild trauma (such as from jagged teeth), and occasionally with folic acid and vitamin B12 de?ciency. Ulcers of the tongue are sometimes found in patients with chronic bowel disease.... tongue, disorders of
Topazz, Topaza, Topazia, Topaziya, Topazya, Topazea... topaz
Topsy, Toper, Topsi, Topsie, Topsee, Topsea, Topsey... topper
Habitat: Western Ghats in the Nilgiris, Madurai, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli. (Torenias are ornamental herbs.)
Folk: Kakapu (Kerala).Action: Used in prescriptions for gonorrhoea.
Torenia polygonoides Benth. (North East India) is used in urinary tract infections, topically for aching joints, sores and ulcers. T. thouarsii Kuntze (coastal areas of Mysore) is used for ulcers.... torenia travancoricaHabitat: Dry pasture and moorland.
Features ? The height of this freely-forked plant varies between six and twelve inches. The ternate, jagged-toothed leaves are rather long and narrow, the leaflets oblong in form. Upper leaves derive directly from the stem and seem to circle round it, the lower ones being frequently stalked. Flowering in June and July, the bright yellow petals are distinctly separate, and, seen from above, form an almost perfect Maltese cross. The root is brown, hard and cylindrical, with roundish swellings and tiny, thread-like rootlets. The fracture shows light brownish-red, with a large pith.Part used ? Root and herb.Action: Tonic and astringent.
The root is regarded as one of the best and most powerful of all the herbal astringents. The decoction of 1 ounce to 1 pint (reduced) of water in wineglass doses is consequently used in diarrhea and as a gargle for relaxed throats. It may also be used with benefit as a lotion for application to ulcers.Tormentil was appreciated as a medicine far back in the days of Culpeper, who made his usual picturesquely extravagant claims for the herb.... tormentilToti, Tottie, Toty, Totey, Totee, Totea... totie
Tourmalyne, Tourmalina, Tourmalinia... tourmaline
Some toxins are not set free by bacteria, but remain in the substance of the latter. They are known as endotoxins and are not capable of producing antitoxins.... toxins
Tracy, Traci, Tracie, Tracee, Trace, Tracen, Tracea, Tracia, Traicey, Traicee, Traicy, Traisey, Traisee, Traisy, Tracie, Trasie, Traycie, Trayci, Traysie, Traysi, Tracilee, Tracilyn, Tracina, Tracell... tracey
Habitat: Temperate and subtropical Himalaya from Kumaon to Arunachal Pradesh and in Assam, Meghalaya up to 2,100 m.
Folk: Duudhi (Kumaon), Akhaahi- lataa (Assam).Action: Used as a substitute for Alstonia scholaris.
T. jasminoides Lem. (Star-Jasmine), native to China and Japan, is cultivated all over India. Alkaline extracts of the leaf and stem show activity against yeast. The leaves and twigs contain dambonitol, cyclitol, arctiin, tracheloside, beta-amyrin and its acetate, lu- peol acetate, and a mixture of beta- stosterol, stigmasterol and campes- terol. A flavone glycoside was isolated from the butanol extract of dried leaves and several indole alkaloids from the alcoholic extract of dried leaves and twigs.The leaves, stem and twigs are used for treating rheumatic arthritis, nervous disorders, urine retention and as a tonic for weak muscles or nerves.... trachelospermum fragransHabitat: Cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar.
English: Ammi, Lovage, Carum, Ajowan.Ayurvedic: Yavaani, Yamaani, Yavaanikaa, Yamaanikaa, Dipyaka.Unani: Nankhwaah, DesiAjawaayin.Siddha/Tamil: Omam.Action: Fruits—carminative, antispasmodic, anticholerin, an- tidiarrhoeal, bechic, stimulant.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the dried fruits in tympanitis, constipation, colic and helminthiasis. Oil—used as an expectorant in emphysema, bronchial and other respiratory ailments.Used externally in cases of rheumatism. Leafjuice—anthelmintic. Root— carminative, diuretic, febrifuge.The aqueous extract of the fruit is a popular remedy for diarrhoea in Indian medicine.The fruit, in addition to protein (17.1), fat (21.8), carbohydrates (24.6) and mineral matter (7.9%), contains sugars, tannins, flavone and sterol. The seeds contain a phenolic glucoside, 2-methyl-3-glucosyloxy-5-isopropyl phenol.The principal constituents of the Ajowan oil are the phenols, mainly thymol (35-60%) and some carvacrol. (Crystalized thymol is known in the trade as Ajowan-kaa-phuul, Flower- of-Ajowan.)Thymol is a powerful antiseptic and antifungal. It is an ingredient in deodorant mouth-washes, toothpastes and gargles. The aqueous portion, left after the separation of essential oil, is known as Omum-water and is prescribed in flatulence and gripe, especially in children.Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... trachyspermum ammiHabitat: Cultivated throughout India.
English: Ajmud.Ayurvedic: Ajamodaa, Ajamoda, Ayamoda, Ajmoja, Dipyaka.Unani: Karafs-e-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil: Ashamtagam.Action: Seeds—carminative, stomachic, stimulant, cardiac tonic.
Used for dyspepsia, vomiting, hiccough, bronchitis, asthma, and pain in bladder; also as an emmenagogue.The seeds yield the coumarins— bergaptene, 7-methoxy-6-methyl cou- marin and umbelliferone. Beta-sitos- terol is also reported.Major constituent of the essential oil from the seeds are d-limonene (35.1), alpha-terpinene (19.4), d-linalool (4.7), dl-terpineol (5.7) and dl-piperitone (13.6%). Thymol content is 1.7%.The fruit (Ajmud) induced hyperac- tivity of the central nervous system in mice. It also exhibited activity against Entamoeba histolytica. The ketonic substances exhibit powerful antispas- modic activity.The fruit left after the extraction of the essential oil showed pronounced cardiotonic activity.The oil produced marked diuretic effect in rabbits. It lowered blood pressure in dogs and rats.... trachyspermum roxburghianumHabitat: Outer Himalayan ranges eastwards to Assam; southwards to Travancore, throughout warmer regions of India.
English: Indian Stinging-Nettle.Ayurvedic: Vrishchhikaali, Vrishchhika-patrikaa. Used in Kerala as Duraalabhaa.Siddha/Tamil: Chenthatti, Sirrukan- chori.Action: Root—febrifuge, diaphoretic, alterative, blood purifier. Given in fever when the extremities are cold; also for pain in arms and legs. Used as a blood purifier in venereal diseases; applied externally to skin eruptions. Fruit—paste used in baldness.
Dosage: Whole plant—3-6 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... tragia involucrataHabitat: Native to Europe; grown in Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra.
English: Salify, Vegetable-Oyster, Purple Goat's Beard, Oyster Plant.Action: Root—specific in obstructions of the gall in jaundice; antibilious. Also used for treating arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure.
T. porrifolius contain several flavo- noids, including orientin and iso- orientin.The seeds yield an oil which contains a saturated epoxy acid viz. cis-9, 10-epoxysteric acid and several conjugated dienoic acids.Cooked flashy roots of T. porrifolius contain sodium 8, potassium 183, calcium 60, magnesium 14, iron 1.2, copper 0.1, phosphorus 53, sulphur 25 and chlorine 46 mg/100 g. A large parts of carbohydrates occur as inulin.... tragopogon porrifoliusTranquillah, Tranquila, Tranquille, Tranquile... tranquilla
Anxiety is a consequence of too much STRESS and may occur without being serious enough to need treatment. Clinically it arises when the balance between certain chemicals in the brain is disturbed: this increases activity in the sympathetic system, thus provoking physical symptoms such as breathlessness, tachycardia, headaches and indigestion. Anxiolytics help to alleviate these symptoms but do not necessarily cure the underlying cause. Two main classes of drug relieve anxiety: BENZODIAZEPINES and beta blockers (see BETA-ADRENOCEPTORBLOCKING DRUGS). The latter, which include atenolol and propanolol, reduce the physical symptoms such as tachycardia and are useful in circumstances – for example, examinations – known to cause anxiety attacks. They block the action of NORADRENALINE, a key chemical of the sympathetic nervous system. Benzodiazepines depress activity in that part of the brain controlling emotion by stimulating the action of a chemical called gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA). Among the benzodiazepines are chlordiazepoxide and diazepam. (See also MENTAL ILLNESS.)... tranquillisers
Habitat: Throughout India.
English: Water Chestnut.Ayurvedic: Shrngaataka, Shrngaata, Shrngamuula, Trikota, Jalapha- la, Trikonaphala, Paaniyaphala, Jalkanda, Trikona, Trika.Unani: Singhaaraa.Siddha: SingaraAction: The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of dried kernels in bleeding disorders, threatened abortion, dysuria, polyuria and oedema.
Flour of dried kernels is used in preparations for breaking fast in India. The flour is rich in proteins and minerals. The flour, prepared from dried kernels, ofred and white varieties contain: phosphorus 45, 48; sulphur 122.81, 130.16; calcium 60, 20; magnesium 200, 160; sodium 100, 80; and potassium 1800, 1760 mg/100 g; iron 145.16, 129.02 and manganese 18.93, 11.36 ppm, respectively. The starch, isolated from flour, consists of 15% amylose and 85% amylopectin.Dosage: Dried seed—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.)... trapa bispinosaHabitat: Throughout India in humid regions, up to 2,430 m.
English: Charcoal tree, Indian Nettle tree.Siddha/Tamil: Ambaratthi, Chenko- lam.Folk: Gio.Action: Root—astringent and styptic; prescribed for diarrhoea, haematuria. Bark—analgesic.
Used as poultice for muscular pain. Root, bark and leaves—used in epilepsy.The bark contains 16% tannin. Stem- bark gave triterpenoid alcohols simi- arenol and tremetol; a triterpene sim- iurenone; octacosanoic acid and 1- octacosanyl acetate.Alcoholic extract of the roots produced a progressive depression of blood pressure (a total of 50% in 1 h) in cats.... trema orientalisTrepanning is used in cases of fracture, with splintering of the skull; the operation is performed to remove fragments of bone and any foreign bodies, like a bullet, which may have entered. In compression of the brain with unconsciousness following an injury, the skull is trephined and any blood clots removed, or torn vessels ligatured. The operation may also be done for an ABSCESS within the skull and for other conditions where operative access to the brain is required.... trepanning
Habitat: Throughout moist and hot parts of India.
English: False White Teak, Gutel.Ayurvedic: Shriparni, Tumri, Pindaara. Shriparni is a synonym of Gambhaari (Gmelina arborea).Siddha/Tamil: Attarasu, Nay Kumil.Action: Plant—antibilious, antiflat- ulent, bechic, anti-inflammatory. Root—carminative, antirheumatic.
Applied as poultice in gout and rheumatism. Plant extract showed an- tileukaemic activity.Plant contains a pyridine alkaloid, N-methyl-5-carboxamide-2-pyridone. Leaves contain an alkaloid, nudiflor- ine.Bark yields taraxerone and beta- sitosterol. Seeds contain an alkaloid ricinidine. The seeds also contain a maytansinoid compound, trewiasine (TWS). It exhibited significant cyto- toxic activity against various human cell lines in vitro.The charcoal made from the wood is rich in potassium (21.16%).Trewia polycarpa Benth. ex Hook. f. (Western Ghats, Konkan and Kerala) is also a related species of Tumri.... trewia nudifloraHabitat: The plains from Punjab to Bihar, extending southwards to Karnataka.
Ayurvedic: Varshaabhu (related species).Action: Plant—astringent in stomach diseases, deobstruent, abortifacient.
The root and stems contain hentri- acontane, hentriacontanol, beta-sitos- terol glucoside, stigmasterol glucoside and nonacos-1-en-4-one.... trianthema govindiaHabitat: South India, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
Ayurvedic: Varshaabhu (related species).Siddha/Tamil: Vellai Sharunnai.Folk: Bisakhaparaa.Action: Root—deobstruent; used for asthma, hepatitis and amenorrhoea. The root, leaf and stem gave positive test for alkaloid. The plant is a good source of zinc (1.077 ± 0.188) and copper (0.416 ± 0.057) mg/100 g.
Synonym: T. monogyna Linn.Family: Aizoaceae.Habitat: Cultivated fields and wastelands.
English: Horse Purslane.Ayurvedic: Varshaabhu, Vrshchira, Vishakharparikaa, Shilaatikaa, Shothaghni, Kshdra. Wrongly equated with Shveta-punarnavaa or Rakta-punarnavaa. Varshaabhu and Punarnavaa are two different herbs. T. portulacastrum is a rainy season annual. Rakta-punarnavaa is equated with Boerhavia diffusa, Shveta-punarnavaa with white- flowered species, B. erecta L. (B. punarnava).Unani: Biskhaparaa.Siddha: Sharunai.Folk: Pathari, Bisakhaparaa.Action: Root—antipyretic, analgesic, spasmolytic, deobstruent, cathartic, anti-inflammatory.
Leaves—diuretic; used in oedema and dropsy. A decoction of the herb is used as an antidote to alcoholic poison.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the dried root in diseases of the liver and spleen, anaemia and oedema.Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts exhibited hepatoprotective activity in CCl4-induced intoxication in rats. The acetone-insoluble fraction of the extract is responsible for the activity.The red and white flowers contain an alkaloid trianthemine, also punaranavine. The plant also gave ecdysterone (0.01 g/kg), a potential chemosterilant; nicotinic acid and ascorbic acid. The plant is rich in phosphorus and iron but poor in calcium.The high content of oxalate affects the assimilation of calcium. Carotene (2.3 mg/100 g) has also been reported.Trianthema sp. are used as adulterant of the roots of Boerhavia diffusa.Dosage: Root—2-5 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.)... trianthema portulacastrumHabitat: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana.
English: Winged Caltrops.Ayurvedic: Gokshura (related species).Unani: Gokharu-kalaan.Folk: Desi Gokharu, Aakharaa., Hasaka.Action: Fruits—diuretic, antiinflammatory, emmenagogue. Used for uterine and genitourinary disorders.
Seed—astringent, diuretic; given to women to ensure fecundity.The fruit gave sterols—stigmasterol, campesterol and beta-sitosterol; flavo- noids—luteolin, kaempferol-3-gluco- side and rutin; sapogenins—diosge- nin, gitogenin and chlorogenin. Root, stems, leaves and seeds contain sa- pogenins—diosgenin, gitogenin and chlorogenin; sterols—beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol.... tribulus alatusHabitat: Coastal regions of Kerala and Karnataka.
Ayurvedic: Brahmadandi (related species).Folk: Uuntakataaraa.Action: Diuretic, bechic.... tricholepis angustifolia
Habitat: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Brahmadandi.Action: Antiseptic (used in leucoderma), nervine tonic (used in seminal debility), urinary tract disinfectant. Root—bechic.
The plant contains betulin, spinas- terol, stigmasterol, stigma-7-enol and a triterpenoid—cycloart-23-en-3beta, 25-diol.... tricholepis glaberrimaHabitat: Throughout India, up to 5,400 m.
English: Land-Caltrops, Puncture Vine.Ayurvedic: Gokshura, Gokshu- raka, Kshudra (Laghu) Gokharu, Shvadamshtraa, Swaadu-kantaka, Trikanta, Trikantaka. (Larger var. is equated with Pedalium murex Linn. The fruits of both the varieties are conical and have four spines, not three as the synonyms denote. Hence, Acanthospermum hispidum DC. and Martynia annua Linn. have been suggested as the source of Trikantaka.)Unani: Khaar-e-Khasak Khurd.Siddha: Sirunenunji, Nerinjil, Nerunjil.Action: Fruits—diuretic, demulcent, anti-inflammatory, anabolic, spasmolytic, muscle relaxant, hypotensive, hypoglycaemic. Used in strangury, calculus affections, urolithiasis, crystalluria, urinary discharges, pruritus-ani, as a tonic in sexual inadequacy; also as a supporting medicine in cough and asthma. Leaf—diuretic, haemostatic. Root—stomachic, diuretic.
In addition to all these applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India attributes cardiotonic properties to the root and fruit.The plant contains saponins, which on hydrolysis yield sapogenins—dios- genin, gitogenin, chlorogenin, rusco- genin, 25D-spirosta-3, 5-diene, among others. Flavonoids—rutin, quercetin, kaempferol, kaempferol-3-glucoside and-rutinoside, and tribuloside have been isolated from the leaves and fruits. The seeds contain carboline alkaloids— harmane and harmine. Harmol is also reported from the herb.A saponin (unidentified) is reported effective for treating angina pec- toris in people with coronary heart disease (406 cases were treated). (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Diuretic (more than furosemide), proerectile aphrodisiac, hypotensive, hypolipidaemic, hypoglycaemic (40- 67% in diabetic mice) activities have been confirmed in several experimental studies. (Pub Med, Medline abstracts, 2003.)Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... tribulus terrestrisHabitat: The greater part of India in the plains.
Ayurvedic: Adah-pushpi, Adho- mukha, Gandhapushpika, Andhaka.Siddha/Tamil: Kalhudaitumbai.Folk: Andhaahuli.Action: Herb—Diuretic, emollient, febrifuge. Leaf—depurative. Root— anti-inflammatory, astringent, antidysenteric. Pounded and applied to swelling of joints. Flower—sudorific and pectoral.
The seeds gave linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Hex- acosane, ethylhexacosanoate, 21,24- hexacosadienoic acid ethylester have been isolated from the leaves.Dosage: Root—5-10 g paste. (CCRAS.)... trichodesma indicumHabitat: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Ayurvedic: Patoli (related species of Patola).Siddha/Tamil: Kombu Pudalai.Action: Herb—bitter tonic, febrifuge. Root—purgative. Fruit— used as dentifrice.... trichosanthes nervifolia
Habitat: Peninsular India, crossing into West Bengal.
Ayurvedic: Adah-pushpi (related species), Jhingi.Folk: Hetenuriyaa, Jalasirasa. Jinghini (Maharashtra).Action: Flower—sudorific, pectoral. Leaves—diuretic, emollient, demulcent. Root—applied to wounds as analgesic.
Seeds contain a toxic alkaloid supi- nine (1% dry seeds). Aqueous extracts of stems, leaves and fruits is very toxic to cockroaches.... trichodesma zeylanicumHabitat: Cultivated throughout India particularly in South India.
English: Snake-Gourd.Ayurvedic: Dadhipushpi, Chichin- da, Shvetaraaji, Ahiphala.Siddha/Tamil: Pudal.Folk: Chichindaa, Chichendaa.Action: Root and seed—antibilious, vermifuge, antidiarrhoeal. Fruits— improve appetite, cure biliousness.
Alpha-, beta-, gamma-carotenes, cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein, hen- triacontane, ceryl alcohol, quercetin, alpha-amyrin, taraxerone, oxalic acid, surcose, and beta-sitosterol have been isolated from the fruit. The seed gave kaempferol, its 3-O-glucoside and quercetin.The plant gave cucurbita-5,24- dienol, 24-ethylcholesta-7-enol, 24- ethylcholesta-7, 22-dienol.... trichosanthes anguinaHabitat: Throughout India, in moist places.
Ayurvedic: Indravaaruni (red var.), Vishaalaa, Mahaakaala, Mahendra-vaaruni.Folk: Mahkaar, Maakaal, Laal Indraayana, Kondal.Action: Same as that of Citrullus colocynthis. The fruits are poisonous. The seed extract show haemagglutinating activity. Fruit— cathartic, antiasthmatic (the fruit is smoked in asthma and lung diseases), anti-inflammatory (used for rheumatic affections, weakness of limbs, dental diseases, hemicrania).
The root gave tetrahydroxypenta- cyclic triterpenoid, trichotetrol. Cy- clotrichosantol and cycloeucalenol have been isolated from the leaves.... trichosanthes bracteataHabitat: Foot hills of the Himalayas from Garhwal to Sikkim and in north-eastern India, up to 500 m.
Ayurvedic: Vidaari (var.), Bhuumi- kushmaanda, Patola (related species.).Folk: Bhui-kumhraa.Action: Tuber—dried powder given in enlarged spleen and liver; applied externally on leprous ulcers.
Used in prescriptions for haemor- rhagic diseases and in spermatopoietic tonics. Aerial parts—diuretic.The seeds yield 23.3% (dry basis) a fatty oil containing 32.3% of punicic acid.... trichosanthes cordataHabitat: Found throughout India in scrub-jungles and waste places.
Ayurvedic: Amritaphala, Vana- Patota, Tikta-Patoli.Siddha: Kattu Pey Pudal.Action: Bitter fruits—blood purifier (used in the treatment of skin diseases); germicidal; appetizer, laxative (used in bilious disorders); hepatoprotective. Root and seed—anthelmintic, antifebrile. Whole plant—antipyretic. Root— cathartic. Leaves—used externally in alopecia.
Cucurbitacin B has been isolated from the fruits.The root tuber contains glycoproteins and beta-trichosanthin.The leaves gave luteolin-7-glucoside, kaempferol, 3,7-dirhamnoside and 3- glucoside-7-rhamnoside, cucurbita- cins B and E, oleanolic acid, beta- sitosterol and its D-glucoside. The seed oil showed the presence of puni- cic acid; oleic, linoleic, eleostearic, palmitic, stearic and arachidic acids. Meso-inositol was found to be present in the plant.... trichosanthes cucumerinaHabitat: Warmer regions of India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh. Bihar, West Bengal and Assam.
English: Patol, Pointed Gourd.Ayurvedic: Patola, Kulaka, Raa- jiphala, Karkashchhada, Karkasha, Bijagarbha.Unani: Parwal.Siddha: Kommu Patolia.Action: Aerial parts—hypogly- caemic. Fruits—juice of unripe fruits used in spermatorrhoea. Leaves—febrifuge; prescribed as a diet in enlargement of liver and spleen; piles and fistula. Root— cathartic, febrifuge.
The fruits contain free amino acids, nicotinic acid, riboflavin, vitamin C, thiamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine. Mature plant and root gave cucurbita-5, 24-dienol. Colocynthin, trichosan- thin, hentriacontane have been isolated from the root.Fatty acids from the seeds comprise elaeostearic, linoleic, oleic and saturated acids.The whole fruit and pulp produced significant hypocholesterolaemic, hy- potriglyceridaemic and hyper-phos- pholipidaemic effects in normal and midly diabetic human subjects.Extracts of seeds exhibit haemagglu- nating activity.Dosage: Leaf—10-2 ml juice. (CCRAS.)... trichosanthes dioicaHabitat: Waste places, road sides and hedges throughout India.
English: Mexican Daisy.Ayurvedic: Jayanti (doubtful synonym).Siddha/Tamil: Vettukkaaya-thalai.Folk: Akala Kohadi (Bihar).Action: Leaves—styptic, antidiar- rhoeal, antidysenteric. Also used for bronchial catarrh.
The leaf juice exhibits antiseptic, insecticidal and parasiticidal properties. It is used to check haemorrhage from wounds, cuts and bruises, also for restoring hair growth.An aqueous extract of the plant produced reflex tachycardia and showed a transient hypotensive effect on normal blood pressure of dogs; it had also showed a marked depressant action on the respiration.Alcoholic extract of the whole plant (excluding roots) at a dose of 300 mg showed good anti-secretory antidiar- rhoeal activity against E. coli enterotox- in-induced secretory response in rabbit and guinea-pig ileal loop models. Alcoholic extract of aerial parts also showed hepatoprotective action against acute hepatitis induced by CCl4 in albino rats.The leaves contain fumaric acid. The plant gave n-alkanes, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids along with dotria- contanol, beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone, lupeol, fucosterol and beta-sitosterol. Flowers contain glucoluteolin, iso- quercetin and quercetin. Presence of lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, palmitoleic, linole- ic and linolenic acid is reported in aerial parts except flower tops. cine, is used as Ispast. The seeds contain xanthosin.... tridax procumbensTrillby, Trilbey, Trilbi, Trilbie, Trilbie, Trillare, Trillaire, Trilbee, Trilbea... trilby
Habitat: Kashmir to Garhwal at 1,200-2,400 m, and the Nilgiris.
English: Red Clover.Unani: Ispast, Berseem, Clover (equated with T. alexandricum Linn.)Folk: Trepatra (Punjab).Action: Flower—deobstruent, antispasmodic, expectorant, sedative, anti-inflammatory, antidermatosis.
Used for psoriasis, eczema and other skin diseases; and as an expectorant in coughs and bronchitis. Also used as antineoplastic against tumours and hard swellings.The plant contains iso-flavonoids— calycosin - 7 - galactoside, calycosin, pseudobaptigenin, fornononetin, di- adzein and medicagol; also hydroxy- pterocarpans.The flowerheads contain phenolic glycosides, flavonoids, salicylates, coumarins, cyanogenic glycosides, starch and fatty acids. Flavonoids in the flowers and leaves are oestro- genic; provide relief in menopausal complaints.The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes anti-inflammatory property of the flower.Trifolium alexandricum, according to National Formulary of Unani MediMedicine, is used as Ispast. The seeds contain xanthosin.... trifolium pratenseHabitat: Kashmir to Sikkim, and in Bihar and West Bengal. Cultivated in North India.
Unani: Pirang.Folk: Kasuri Methi, Maarwaari Methi, Champaa Methi.Action: Leaves—rich in phosphorus. Fruits—bitter, astringent and styptic. Applied to swellings and bruises.
The seeds afforded ethyl-alpha-D- galactopyranoside, glycoflavones—vi- texin (apigenin-C-glucoside), apige- nin-6-8-di-C-monoglucoside and its monoacetate; also contain triacontane, 22,23-dihydrostigmasterol, choline and betaine; saponins on hydrolysis gave yuccagenin and diosgenin.... trigonella corniculataHabitat: Widely cultivated in many parts of India.
English: Fenugreek.Ayurvedic: Methikaa, Methi, Vastikaa, Selu, Methini, Dipani, Bahupatrikaa, Bodhaini, Gand- haphala.Unani: Hulbaa, Methi.Siddha/Tamil: Vendhayam.Action: Seeds—used in loss of appetite, flatulence, dyspepsia, colic; diarrhoea, dysentery; enlargement of liver and spleen; and as a lactagogue and puerperal tonic.
Key application: German Commission E reported secretolytic, hypermic and mild antiseptic activity of the seed. The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported its actions as demulcent and hy- poglycaemic. ESCOP and WHO monographs indicate the use of seeds in adjuvant therapy for diabetes mellitus, anorexia, also in hypercholesterolemia.The seeds gave alkaloids, including trigonelline, gentianine and carpaine; saponins, based mainly on the sa- pogenins, diosgenin and its isomer yamogenin, gitogenin and tigogenin; flavonoids, including vitexin and its glycosides and esters and luteolin; a volatile oil in small quantities. The mucilage (25-30%) is mostly a galac- tomannan.A C-steroidal sapogenin peptide ester, fenugreekine, exhibited hypogly- caemic activity.About 80% of the total content of free amino acids in the seeds is present as 4-hydroxyisoleucine, which appears to directly stimulate insulin. (Eur J Pharmacol, 390, 2000; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Saponin rich extracts reduce blood levels of the cholesterol. The fibrous fraction of seeds also causes a reduction in blood lipids.The aqueous extract is demulcent, promoted healing of gastric ulcers produced experimentally in rats and exhibited a smooth muscle relaxing effect in rabbits without affecting either the heart or blood pressure.Fenugreek has been reported to stimulate the liver microsomal cy- tochrome P450 dependent aryl hy- droxylase and cytochrome b5 in rats; increased bile secretion has also been observed.Fenugreek extract containing trigo- nelline and trigonellic acid maybe used as a hair growth stimulant.Dosage: Seed—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... trigonella foenum-graecumTrinitey, Triniti, Trinitie, Trinitee, Trynity, Trynitey, Tryniti, Trynitie, Trynitee, Trinyty, Trinytey, Trinyti, Trinytie, Trinytee, Trynyty, Trini... trinity
Habitat: Punjab plains and Western Himalaya, up to 1,800 m.
Folk: Sainji, Chini, Shirgona (Punjab), Chainhari (Delhi), Methi (related species).Action: Seeds—antidiarrhoeic.
Aerial parts and pods contain steroidal sapogenins—diosgenin 0.04, 0.25; and tigogenin 0.008, 0.18% respectively.Various plant parts and tissues in culture contain flavonoids, the major being luteolin, besides kaempferol, quercetin and apigenin.... trigonella incisaHabitat: Afghanistan, Persia.
English: Tonkin Bean, Melilot, King's Crown.Unani: Iklil-ul-Malik (also equated with Melilotus alba Desv., and Astragalus homosus Linn.).Folk: Sainji (white-flowered var.).Action: Beans—anti-inflammatory, anodyne, diuretic, emmenagogue. (Indian species, bearing smaller beans, has been equated with Trigonella corniculata and is known as Pirang.)... trigonella uncata
Trishah, Trishia, Tricia, Trish, Trissa, Trisa... trisha
Habitat: Wild in parts of Peninsular India; cultivated in gardens.
English: Lime Berry, Myrtle-Lime, Chinese Lime.Folk: Chinese Naarangi.Action: Leaves—used in skin diseases and in preparation of bath salts. Ripe fruits—used against cough.
The leaves contain the alkaloid O- methylhalfordinol and coumarins, including umbelliferone, isomeranzin and triphasiol.... triphasia trifoliaHabitat: Cultivated as a food crop mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh., Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar and Rajasthan.
English: Wheat.Ayurvedic: Godhuuma.Folk: Gehun.Action: Wheat germ oil is rich in tocopherol (vitamin E) content, total tocopherols 1897 mcg/g, alpha tocopherol 67%. The presence of ergosterol (provitamin D) has also been reported.
Wheat germ is also used for its minerals, proteins and lipid contents. Germ proteins are rich in lysine (5.285.55 g/100 g protein) and possess high biological value (94%) and protein efficiency ratio (2.9).Wheat germ contains haemaggluti- nating and antipyretic factors, but these are destroyed by toasting. It also contains haemoproteins, possessing per- oxidase activity.In adult rats, addition of wheat germ (7%) to a high fat (cholesterol) diet significantly decreased VLDL-cholesterol and VLDL-triglycerides and increased the HDL-cholesterol after-7 weeks of feeding.Bran oil contains tocopherols, but major part of them (68%) is in epsilon form; alpha-tocopherol forms only 11% of the total.Gluten lipids, associated with gluten, contain a high percentage of linoleic acid; lowering of serum cholesterol level has been observed in experiments (lipid-free gluten is devoid of cholesterol-lowering effect).Sensitivity to gluten has also been reported (even when whole wheat flour was used).... triticum aestivumHabitat: Throughout tropical and subtropical India, up to 1,200 m in the Himalayas.
English: Burbush, Burweed.Ayurvedic: Jhinjhireetaa, Gippit.Siddha/Tamil: Ottupullu.Folk: Chikti, Biriyaaraa.Action: Leaves and bark—astringent, anticholerin, demulcent. Used in diarrhoea and dysentery. Root— styptic, diuretic, galactogenic. Hot infusion facilitates childbirth and hastens parturition. Pounded roots are given for the treatment of ulcers. Leaves and flowers—used against leprosy.
T. rotundifolia Linn., known as Mu- dappondu in Tamil Nadu and Banki- tutturi in Andhra Pradesh and Kar- nataka, is used as a demulcent. Alcoholic extract of the root showed antiinflammatory activity and reduced cotton pellet granuloma formation in albino rats. Alcoholic extract of the whole plant exhibited antimicrobial activity.... triumfetta rhomboideaTrivenie, Triveney, Triveny, Trivenee, Tryveni, Tryvenie, Tryveney, Tryveny, Tryvenee, Tryvyny, Tryvyni, Trivyny, Trivyni, Trivenea... triveni
Habitat: Native to South America; grown as an ornamental and salad herb.
English: Garden Nasturtium, Indian Cress, Climbing-Nasturtium.Action: Leaves—an infusion increases resistance to bacterial infections, reduces catarrh formation and expels phlegm. Juice of the plant—given internally for treating scrofula. Flowers—used for healing wounds. Seeds— purgative.
Common Nasturtium contains glu- cocyanates (including glycotropeo- line), spilanthol, myrosin (an enzyme), oxalic acid and vitamin C. The leaves from the young plant showed greater antibiotic activity than the stems; roots were inactive.Extracts and preparations of T. majus are found efficacious in the infections of urinary and respiratory tract, but have no effect on infections of the biliary tract or in typhoid fever.... tropaeolum majusTryamonn, Tryamonne, Tryamona, Tryamonna... tryamon
Habitat: Western Himalayas at altitudes of 1,500-2,400 m.
English: Common Garden Tulip, Late Tulip. Tulip tree is equated with Liriodendron tulipifera.Unani: Tulipa stellata Hook bulbs are wrongly equated with Suranjaan of Unani medicine. Colchicum luteum Baker is the source of Suranjaan Talkh (bitter), and Merendera persica of Suranjaan Shireen (sweet).Folk: Tulip.Action: Bulbs—mitogenic (TG lectin-erythrocyte, and TG lectin- yeast).
A cardiotoxic alkaloid has been reported from the leaves. Antibiotic D-glucosides (tuliposides), inhibit the growth of Bacillus subtilis, have been isolated from pistils, stalks and leaves.... tulipa gesnerianaHabitat: Gujarat to Karnataka, both on the hills and the coasts, and in the Anamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu up to 1,200 m.
Folk: Pandre, Kapuur—bhendi (Maharashtra).Action: Root—applied to fistula; also administered in leprosy.
Villosterol, a pregnene steroid, has been isolated from the plant.T. virens Linn. (Kerala) is reported to be employed in the treatment of fits.... turraea villosaTustie, Tusty, Tustey, Tustee, Tuste, Tustea... tusti
Patients with Turner’s syndrome may require therapeutic help throughout their life. In early childhood this may revolve around surgical correction of cardiovascular disease and treatment to improve growth. Usually, PUBERTY will need to be induced with oestrogen therapy (see OESTROGENS). In adult life, problems of oestrogen therapy, prevention of osteoporosis (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF), assessment and treatment of HYPERTENSION and assisted fertility predominate. For the address of the UK Turner Syndrome Society, see Appendix 2.... turner’s syndrome
Habitat: West Bengal and Orissa and in the Peninsular India, particularly on the coast.
English: West Indian Holly, Sagerose.Folk: Bhinjir (Maharashtra).Action: Herb—prescribed in indigestion, biliousness (leaves are used against dysentery), chest ailments and rheumatism.
The fresh plant yields a mixture of cyanohydrin glucosides—deidaclin and tetraphyllin. Seeds, along with normal fatty acids, contain a few unusual fatty acids, including vernolic, malvalic and octanoic acids.An allied species Turnera diffusa var. aphrodisiaca, a native to the Gulfof Mexico, Southern California, (known as Damiana) is used in India by homoeopathic practitioners as a tonic and sex restorative, and for treating premature ejaculation.Turnera diffusa Willd. has been included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E. The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes its thymoleptic activity.... turnera ulmifoliaHabitat: Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at 1,500-3,500 m.
English: Coughwort, Coltsfoot, Asses' Foot.Unani: Fanjiyun.Action: Leaves and flowers— anticatarrhal, antitussive, expectorant, antispasmodic, demulcent, anti-inflammatory. Used for dry, unproductive, irritative cough, smoker's cough, whooping cough, bronchial asthma (effect shortlived), laryngitis.
Key application: In acute catarrh of the respiratory tract with cough and hoarseness; acute, mild inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. Contraindicated during pregnancy and nursing. (German Commission E.)The leaves and flowers contain flavo- noids including rutin, hyperoside and isoquercetin; pyrrolizidine alkaloids including senkirkine and tussilagine (about 0.015%); mucilage (about 8%) consisting of polysaccharides based on glucose, galactose, fructose, arabinose and xylose; inulin, tannins.Polysaccharides are antiinflammatory and immuno-stimulating, as well as demulcent. Flavonoids also have anti-inflammatory and antispasmod- ic action. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids have caused hepatotoxicity in rats fed daily on high doses, but not on daily low dose regimes. These are largely destroyed when the herb is boiled.The leaf contains an inhibitor of platelet activating factor (PAF). The PAF inhibitor can account for Coltsfoot's efficacy in asthma. The constituent, tussilagone has respiratory stimulant and cardiovascular (including pressor) activities. In animal studies, Coltsfoot is reported to have a pres- soreffect similartodopaminebut without tachyphylasis. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... tussilago farfaraHabitat: Sub-Himalayas tract from Uttar Pradesh to Meghalaya and in central and Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Go-chandanaa.Action: Toxic. Used as a substitute for Cephaelis ipecacuanha as emetic, purgative and febrifuge; externally on unhealthy ulcers and wounds.... tylophora fasciculata
Habitat: Tamil Nadu up to 2,100 m, and along the back waters in Kerala and West Bengal.
Folk: Nanjaruppan (Tamil Nadu, Kerala).Action: Plant—alexipharmic; used for the treatment of urticaria, smallpox, excessive perspiration, biolious swellings, as an antidote to arsenic poisoning. Leaves—used for scabies.... tylophora tenuis
Habitat: Assam, West Bengal, Orissa and Peninsular India.
English: Emetic Swallow Wort, Indian or Country Ipecacuanha.Ayurvedic: Antamuula, Muulini, Arkaparni.Siddha/Tamil: Nay Palai, Nangilaip- piratti.Action: Leaves—used for bronchial asthma and allergic rhinitis.
The whole plant yielded alkaloids including tylophorine, tylphorinine, desmethyltylophorine and desmethyl- tylophorinine, and a flavonoid kaem- pferol. The root yielded alkaloids, tylophorinidine and gamma-fagarine. The leaves gave tylophorinidine, d- septicine, d-iso-tylocrebrine; triterpe- noids alpha-and beta-amyrin; beta- sitosterol, stigmasterol and campes- terol; phenylalanine; and quercetin. Ceryl alcohol has also been reported from the plant.The plant exhibited anti-amoebic activity against axenic and polyax- enic strains of Entamoeba histolytica. Tylophorine and 4-methoxy-14- hydroxytylophorine are 2 and 4 times more effective, respectively, than the standard drugs Emetine dihydrochlo- ride and Metroindazole. Tylophorine is found effective in intestinal as well as hepatic amoebiasis in test animals, but its gross toxicity excludes its potential use in humans.Tylophorine also exhibits anti-inflammatory and anti-tumour properties.Desmethyltylophorine gave promising results in leukaemia.The drug irritates the digestive tract.... tylophora indica(See also NEUROSIS; PSYCHOTHERAPY.) FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGISTS work in the
criminal and justice ?elds, applying psychological theory to aspects of legal processes in courts, criminal investigation, and understanding and treating psychological problems associated with criminal behaviour. They will have completed an accredited training course in forensic psychology. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGISTS apply psychological methods to studying behaviour relevant to health, illness and care including health promotion and education. OCCUPATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS are concerned with how people perform at work and how organisations function. They work in management, personnel, selection and careers advice. They have a postgraduate degee in occupational psychology and will have had to undertake three years’ supervised practice.... types of psychologist
Habitat: Kashmir (Gilgit), at 2,700 m. English: Scented Flag. Ayurvedic: Airakaa. Folk: Pizh (Kashmir).
Action: Stamens—astringent and styptic. Used externally.... typha laxmanni
Habitat: Throughout India, up to an altitude of 1,730 m.
English: Lesser Indian Reed-Mace.Ayurvedic: Gundra, Gundraa, Gundraka, Guntha. (Gundraa has also been interpreted as Bhadramustaa, Cyperus rotundus Linn.)Siddha/Tamil: Sambu.Folk: Pater, Gondapateraa.Action: Rhizomes—astringent and diuretic. Spikes—ash is used for healing wounds. The pollen, mixed with honey, is applied to wounds and sores or taken internally for treating uterine bleeding and haematuria.
The plant contains isorhamnetin, pentacosane and sterols. A flavonol glucoside, yielding quercetin on hydrolysis, has been reported in the plant.Dosage: Rhizome—50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... typha australisHabitat: Kashmir and from Uttar Pradesh to Assam, in stagnant, fresh and brackish-water.
English: Elephant Grass, Bulrush, Indian Reed-Mace.Ayurvedic: Gundra, Gundraa, Gundraka, Potagala. (related species of T. australis.)Siddha/Tamil: Anai Korai, Chambu.Folk: Gondapateraa.Action: Rhizomes—astringent and diuretic; used for dysentery. Pollen—used for internal and external bleeding; uterine bleeding, blood in urine, nose bleeds.
The herb contains isorhamnetin, pentacosane and plant sterols.... typha elephantinaHabitat: Peninsular India, and from Yamuna eastwards; also grown in South India.
Siddha/Tamil: Karu Karunai Kizhangu, Karunai Kizhangu.Action: Tuber—applied as poultice on scirrhous tumours (fresh tuber is very acrid and a powerful stimulant). Eaten with bananas, the tubers relax the bowels and provide relief in haemorrhoids (tubers become innocuous on heating or drying).
The tubers contain carotene, folic acid, niacin, thiamine, sterols and beta- sitosterol.... typhonium trilobatumTzillah, Tzila, Tzilah, Tzilia, Tzillia... tzilla
Louse typhus, in which the infecting rickettsia is transmitted by the louse, is of worldwide distribution. More human deaths have been attributed to the louse via typhus, louse-borne RELAPSING FEVER and trench fever, than to any other insect with the exception of the MALARIA mosquito. Louse typhus includes epidemic typhus, Brill’s disease – which is a recrudescent form of epidemic typhus – and TRENCH FEVER.
Epidemic typhus fever, also known as exanthematic typhus, classical typhus, and louse-borne typhus, is an acute infection of abrupt onset which, in the absence of treatment, persists for 14 days. It is of worldwide distribution, but is largely con?ned today to parts of Africa. The causative organism is the Rickettsia prowazeki, so-called after Ricketts and Prowazek, two brilliant investigators of typhus, both of whom died of the disease. It is transmitted by the human louse, Pediculus humanus. The rickettsiae can survive in the dried faeces of lice for 60 days, and these infected faeces are probably the main source of human infection.
Symptoms The incubation period is usually 10–14 days. The onset is preceded by headache, pain in the back and limbs and rigors. On the third day the temperature rises, the headache worsens, and the patient is drowsy or delirious. Subsequently a characteristic rash appears on the abdomen and inner aspect of the arms, to spread over the chest, back and trunk. Death may occur from SEPTICAEMIA, heart or kidney failure, or PNEUMONIA about the 14th day. In those who recover, the temperature falls by CRISIS at about this time. The death rate is variable, ranging from nearly 100 per cent in epidemics among debilitated refugees to about 10 per cent.
Murine typhus fever, also known as ?ea typhus, is worldwide in its distribution and is found wherever individuals are crowded together in insanitary, rat-infested areas (hence the old names of jail-fever and ship typhus). The causative organism, Rickettsia mooseri, which is closely related to R. prowazeki, is transmitted to humans by the rat-?ea, Xenopsyalla cheopis. The rat is the main reservoir of infection; once humans are infected, the human louse may act as a transmitter of the rickettsia from person to person. This explains how the disease may become epidemic under insanitary, crowded conditions. As a rule, however, the disease is only acquired when humans come into close contact with infected rats.
Symptoms These are similar to those of louse-borne typhus, but the disease is usually milder, and the mortality rate is very low (about 1·5 per cent).
Tick typhus, in which the infecting rickettsia is transmitted by ticks, occurs in various parts of the world. The three best-known conditions in this group are ROCKY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER, ?èvre boutonneuse and tick-bite fever.
Mite typhus, in which the infecting rickettsia is transmitted by mites, includes scrub typhus, or tsutsugamushi disease, and rickettsialpox.
Rickettsialpox is a mild disease caused by Rickettsia akari, which is transmitted to humans from infected mice by the common mouse mite, Allodermanyssus sanguineus. It occurs in the United States, West and South Africa and the former Soviet Union.
Treatment The general principles of treatment are the same in all forms of typhus. PROPHYLAXIS consists of either avoidance or destruction of the vector. In the case of louse typhus and ?ea typhus, the outlook has been revolutionised by the introduction of e?cient insecticides such as DICHLORODIPHENYL TRICHLOROETHANE (DDT) and GAMMEXANE.
The value of the former was well shown by its use after World War II: this resulted in almost complete freedom from the epidemics of typhus which ravaged Eastern Europe after World War I, being responsible for 30 million cases with a mortality of 10 per cent. Now only 10,000–20,000 cases occur a year, with around a few hundred deaths. E?cient rat control is another measure which reduces the risk of typhus very considerably. In areas such as Malaysia, where the mites are infected from a wide variety of rodents scattered over large areas, the wearing of protective clothing is the most practical method of prophylaxis. CURATIVE TREATMENT was revolutionised by the introduction of CHLORAMPHENICOL and the TETRACYCLINES. These antibiotics altered the prognosis in typhus fever very considerably.... typhus fever
Habitat: Tropical Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim; Bihar and Central India.
Action: Herb—used for dysmen- orrhoea, and for the treatment of wounds and ulcers. Flower-heads— ascaricidal.
The leaf juice showed in vitro activity against earthworms, tapeworms and roundworms.... vernonia teresHabitat: Sub-Himalayan tract from Garhwal eastwards to Bhutan and Khasi hills.
Ayurvedic: Tilak (related species).Action: Bark—used for cramps in cholera patients.... wendlandia tinctoria
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas, Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.
English: Cow's Lungwort, Common Mullein. (Large-flowered Mullein is equated with V. densiflorum Bertol.)Ayurvedic: Ban Tambaaku, Gidar Tambaaku, Phullaa.Action: Herb—soothing and relaxant for irritable respiratory conditions (asthma, emphysema, tracheitis), pectoral demulcent, antispasmodic, mild sedative.
Key application: In catarrh of the respiratory tract. (German Commission E.)The capsule contains saponins, thap- suines A and B and hydroxythap- suines A and B. The plant also contains varatric acid, 5-ethoxymethyl furfural, saikogenin, alpha-spinasterol and iri- doids, aucubin and catalpol. The leaves contain rotenone.The flower extract showed activity against influenza and herpes simplex virus.The plant has been employed for the treatment of asthma. There is little evidence to indicate that the plant can offer more than mild astringent and topical soothing effects.... verbascum thapsusTreatment: Hot foot baths: Chamomile flowers. Paint with Liquid extract or tincture Lobelia. Gradual stretching by manipulation. Massage with Neat’s foot oil. ... achilles tendon contracture
Action: emollient, anti-eczema, vulnerary (fresh leaf on wounds), anti-neoplasm (poultice of fresh leaves).
Uses: Ulcers that refuse to heal.
Ointment. 1oz fresh leaves simmered in 16oz lard until leaves are devoid of colour; strain. ... adder’s tongue
Habitat: Throughout India in tropical and subtropical regions.
Ayurvedic: Sinduvaara, Nirgundi (white var.).Siddha/Tamil: Karu Nochi, Siru Nochi.Folk: Paani-Sambhaalu.Action: Leaves—febrifuge, antibacterial, anthelmintic, cytotoxic. Extract of the leaves showed inhibitory action against Mycobac- terium tuberculosis. Leaves used as poultice in rheumatism, inflammations and sprains. Root and flowers—febrifuge. Root—expectorant. Fruit—used in amenorrhoea.
Aerial parts gave friedelin, beta- sitosterol and itsbeta-D-glucoside, and a long chain hydrocarbon. The leaves gave the flavonoids—artemetin, lute- olin, orientin, casticin; and iridoid gly- cosides, aucubin and agnuside. The fruits contain an alkaloid, vitricin.Vitrosin A and vitexicarpin, isolated from the plant, blocked spontaneous contraction of isolated guinea-pig trachea induced by histamine. (Planta Med, 2002, Nov., 68/11).The leaves are reported to improve memory and favour hair growth. Leaf extract showed significant antitumour activity in the murine tumour system.... vitex trifoliaThis formula has been withdrawn after rendering excellent service for many years for heart weakness. No longer available to the general public as an OTC medicine. Of historic interest to the modern phytotherapist. ... cardivallin tablets
Leaves used by natives of West Africa for malaria. ... cashew tree fruit
Habitat: Karnataka, Western Ghats, Palni and Anaimalai Hills, also western India.
Siddha/Tamil: Cheddavokko, Kanjiram.Folk: Waalsuuraa.Action: Bark—stimulant, expectorant, emmenagogue, emetic. Also used to kill vermin in the hair.
The bark contains saponin and tannin.... walsura trifoliataDose: One dissolved on the tongue daily. (Burroughs Wellcome during World War I) ... forced march tablet
Capsules: each contains Hydrocotyle 60mg; Meadowsweet 60mg; Kola 480mg. ... fo-ti-tieng
A doctor with knowledge of herbal medicine may prescribe them should he consider them a necessary part of treatment. ... freedom of individual to choose therapy
Constituents: flavonoids, tannins, mucilage.
Action: spleen and liver astringent, pectoral, laxative, diuretic. Uses. Disorders of liver and spleen BHP (1983). Gravel.
Combines well with Fringe Tree BHP (1983).
Preparations: Average dose 2-4g. Thrice daily.
Tea. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup of boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose half-1 cup. Liquid extract. Half-1 teaspoon in water.
Tincture BHP (1983) 1:5 in 45 per cent alcohol; dose 2-6ml. ... hart’s tongue
Causes: tight shoes, inadequate footcare, cutting nails, etc. Cut nails straight across and not in a curve. Topical. After thorough cleaning with soap and hot water, dab affected area with tincture Myrrh or tincture Goldenseal. Thin-down whole of the nail with a nail file after which affected border of nail can be easily cut. Fasten slice of Lemon on nail at night to soften. Bathe nail with strong sea-salt solution. Nelson’s Hypercal Cream. ... in-growing toenail
Habitat: A tree, found in Rajasthan,
Synonym: W arborea (Dennst.) Mabberley.Habitat: Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar, Assam and Western Peninsula.
Ayurvedic: Kutaja (red-flowered). Indrayava (seeds).Siddha/Tamil: Pala.Action: Two varieties—male and female—are mentioned in Ayurvedic texts. Mostly, Holarrhena is supposed to be the male and Wrightia the female. In Unani medicine, Inderjao Talkh (bitter) is equated with Holarrhena antidysenterica (Conesse Bark) and Inderjao Shireen (sweet) with Wrightia tinctoria (known as Dyer's Oleander, Blue Dyeing Roseberry).
Dried bark is used as a substitute for Holarrhena antidysenterica bark. Alkaloid conessine is the active principle of both the barks.Besides conessine, other alkaloids present in the bark are conessine di- hydrate, holarrhine, kurchicine and a very minute quantity of conkurchine. The bark contains beta-sitosterol, lupe- ol, alpha-amyrin and reducing sugars besides alkaloids.The isoflavone, wrightiadione, isolated from the stem bark, displayed cytotoxic activity. Two aliphatic compounds, n-tritriacont-16-one and hexa- consan-3, 6-diol-12-oic acid, have also been isolated from the bark.See Wrightia tinctoria and Holar- rhena antidysenterica.... wrightia tomentosaBetony, Damiana, Oats, St John’s Wort, Skullcap, Vervain.
Combination. Tea: Equal parts, Skullcap, Betony, Vervain. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup freely. ... nerve tonics
Teas. Cowslip flowers, St John’s Wort flowers, Passion flower, Valerian, Hops, Lime flowers, Balm, Motherwort, Woodruff, Skullcap, Oats.
Formula, tea: equal parts, Balm, Motherwort, Passion flower. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Tablets. Valerian. Pulsatilla. Natracalm. (English Grains) 500mg Passion flower tablets: 1 tablet thrice daily.
See: SEDATIVES. ... nerve tension
To break dependency: White Willow bark, Guaiacum, Oats, Passion flower.
Overdosing may cause liver damage for which Fringe Tree bark is indicated. Nutrients: Vitamins B-complex, C. Zinc. ... paracetamol toxicity
Habitat: Gujarat, Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Kerala at low elevations.
English: Jagged Jujube.Siddha/Tamil: Karakattam.Action: Leaf—depurative; employed to purify blood and as an alterative in chronic venereal affections.
Habitat: Lac host in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
Ayurvedic: Ghontaa, Ghonta-Phala. (Rangeeni lac is recovered from the tree.)Siddha: Kottei. Kombarakku (lac).Action: Astringent.
Fruit contains catechol-type tannins (8-12%), bark contains 7.2% tannins.Alcoholic extract of the bark possesses anti-nociceptive, anti-convul- sant and anti-inflammatory properties. The plant contains alkaloids, am- phibine H and nummularine K. Both the alkaloids showed significant antimicrobial activity.Host plant of Laccifer sp. (L. indicola Kapur, synonym L. indica Misra and L. jhansiensis Misra) is Z. mauri- tiana Lam. in Bihar and Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh). Lac is styptic, used in hae- matemesis; promotes tissue regeneration and wound healing. Applied to carries and diseased dentition.... ziziphus trinerviaElecampane (Inula) has a direct effect on TB bacilli, controlling night sweats and localising the disease. Agents yielding salicylates (mild analgesics) Meadowsweet, White Willow, etc are of value. Echinacea increases phagocytic power of the leucocytes and may normalise percentage count of neutraphiles. To meet individual needs, it will be necessary to vary treatment many times during the course of the disease.
Alternatives. Echinacea, Elecampane, Balm of Gilead buds (Hyde), Gotu Kola, Comfrey root, Iceland Moss. Rupturewort promotes elasticity of lung tissue.
Decoction. Equal parts: Iceland Moss, Comfrey root, Elecampane root, Liquorice. Mix. 1oz to 1 pint water gently simmered 20 minutes in a covered vessel. Dose: Half a cup thrice daily.
Alternative formulae:– Powders. White Willow 2; Comfrey 1; Echinacea 1; Ginger quarter. Mix. Dose: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon) thrice daily.
Tinctures. White Willow 2; Echinacea 1; Blue Cohosh half; White Poplar half; Tincture Capsicum quarter. Mix. 1 teaspoon thrice daily before meals.
Tincture Krameria (Rhatany root), Dose: 30-60 drops in water thrice daily.
Fenugreek seed tea.
Comfrey. Potential benefit of Comfrey root outweighs risk.
Topical. Compresses: Mullein leaves, Lobelia, Comfrey root or Fenugreek. Evening Primrose oil. No massage to affected joints.
Diet. Low carbohydrate. Oily fish.
Supplements. Vitamins A, B6, B12, D, Niacin, Calcium, Iron, Phosphorus.
General. Tuberculosis is a notifiable disease for which specific medical treatment is available. Failure to comply may expose a practitioner to a charge of negligence. ... arthritis – tuberculous
Treatment. An eliminative group of herbs include: expectorants, diuretics, lymphatics and alteratives to promote chemical breakdown and expulsion of the body’s waste cell products.
Cleansing teas: Gotu Kola, Bogbean, Ginseng, Nettles, Alfalfa. Or, decoctions: Dandelion root (or Dandelion coffee), Burdock root, Yellow Dock root.
Tablets/capsules. Echinacea, Blue Flag root, Goldenseal, Ginseng, Poke root, Seaweed and Sarsaparilla, Garlic, “Natural Herb Tablet”.
Powders, Liquid Extracts, Tinctures. Combine: Echinacea 2; Goldenseal 1; Myrrh quarter. Doses. Powders: Quarter of a teaspoon. Liquid extracts: 30-60 drops. Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons. In water or honey thrice daily.
Enema: Chamomile.
Saunas and sweat-promoting exercises; epsom salts bath.
Diet. Regular raw food days. Garlic, Onions, Watercress. Low fat, low salt, high fibre. Drink distilled water. Three-day fast once monthly.
Supplements. Vitamin B-complex, Vitamin C 1g thrice daily, niacin, sulphur, zinc.
Auto-toxaemia does not refer to the toxaemia of pregnancy, known as eclampsia, for which a different group of herbs is relevant.
Removal of dental amalgam fillings is believed to assist recovery.
Note: Toxaemia may be caused by the action of toxic molecular fragments known as “free-radicals” which corrode cell membranes and kill cells. See: FREE-RADICALS. ... auto-toxaemia
Rosemary. 1 teaspoon leaves to cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Tea. Formula. Equal parts leaves, Agnus Castus, Rosemary, Balm. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; 1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Evening Primrose oil. 10 drops (or 2 × 250ml capsules) 3 times daily.
Poke root. Internally and externally.
Yorkshire gypsy device: fix a cabbage or a rhubarb leaf beneath brassiere.
Liquid Extract Blue Cohosh BHP (1983): 0.5-1ml, Thrice daily. Alternative: Liquid Extract Rosemary BHP (1983): 2-4ml. Thrice daily.
Vitamins. All-round multivitamin and mineral supplement. Vitamin C (1g daily). Vitamin E (400iu daily). ... breast (female) tenderness, pain
Anyone over 40 who has recurrent sore throat for more than six weeks should visit his family doctor. Symptoms. Pain, headache, paralysis of eye muscles.
Of possible value. Alternatives:– Teas. Violet leaves, Red Clover flowers, Plantain. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. Drink freely.
Decoction. Combination. Goldenseal 1; Poke root 1; Yellow Dock 3; Marshmallow root 3. Place half an ounce (15g) in 1 pint (500ml) water simmered gently 20 minutes. Half a cup or more, as freely as tolerated.
Formula. Echinacea 2; Goldenseal 1; Poke root half; Thuja quarter; Liquorice half. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Three or more times daily as tolerated.
Case of Lady Margaret Marsham, Maidstone. Cured of cancer of the throat by Violet leaf tea. Boiling water was poured on fresh Violet leaves (wild, not cultivated) and allowed to stand 12 hours. Compresses were moistened and applied externally to the throat and covered with oil silk. Relief was immediate. Difficult swallowing, sense of suffocation and the visible swelling disappeared within one week, the growth on the tonsil within a fortnight.
Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital oncologist. Diet. See: DIET – CANCER. ... cancer – nose and throat
Symptoms. A hard usually painless mass in the scrotum can give rise to gynaecomastia – abnormal enlargement of the male breasts.
Of possible value. Alternatives: – Abundant herb teas – Cornsilk, Red Clover, Violet leaves.
Decoction. Echinacea 2; Kava Kava 1; Sarsaparilla 1. Mix. Half an ounce (15g) to 1 pint (500ml) water simmered gently 20 minutes. Cup thrice daily.
Formula. Sarsaparilla 2; Kava Kava l; Pulsatilla half; Thuja quarter. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Thrice daily. Vinchristine.
Diet. See: DIET – CANCER. Researchers from Cambridge University found that an extra pint of milk a day during adolescence was associated with 2 and a half times increased risk of testicular cancer. (Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Oct. 1993)
Treatment by or in liaison with a general medical practitioner. ... cancer – testicles
Causes. Smoking, alcohol, jagged teeth, chemical irritants, septic toxins, sprayed fruit and vegetables, poisoning by lead, arsenic and other chemicals, additives, hot foods, spicy curries and peppers, chewing tobacco.
Over 80 per cent found to be present in old syphilitic cases. Charles Ryall, surgeon, Cancer Hospital, regarded the two as comparable with that between syphilis and tabes. Dr F. Foester, Surgeon, concluded that epithelioma of the tongue as far more frequently preceded by syphilis than any other form of cancer.
(Hastings Gilford FRCS, “Tumours and Cancers”)
The condition may arise from a gumma or patch of leucoplakia (white patches) – at one time known as smoker’s tongue.
Of possible value. Alternatives:– Many plants have been shown to produce neoplastic activity, as observed in discovery of anti-cancer alkaloids of the Vinca plant (Vinchristine) and Mistletoe. Dr Wm Boericke confirms clinical efficacy of Clivers, promoting healthy granulations in ulcers and tumour of the tongue. Dr W.H. Cook advises a mouthwash of Goldenseal. For scirrhous hardening, juice of fresh Houseleek has a traditional reputation.
Tinctures. Equal parts Condurango and Goldenseal. 30-60 drops before meals in water; drops increased according to tolerance.
Local paint. Thuja lotion.
Case record. Dr Brandini, Florence, had a patient, 71, with inoperable cancer of the tongue. In the midst of his pain he asked for a lemon which immediately assuaged the pain. The next day gave him even greater relief. The doctor tried it on a number of similar patients with the same results, soaking lint in lemon juice.
Diet. See: DIET – CANCER.
Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital oncologist. ... cancer – tongue
Symptoms. Numbness or tingling in first three fingers which feel ‘clumsy’. Worse at night. Muscle wasting of palm of the hand.
Diagnostic sign: the ‘flick’ sign – shaking or ‘flicking’ of the wrist when pain is worse and which is believed to mechanically untether the nerve and promote return of venous blood. (J. Neural Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 1984, 47, 873)
Differential diagnosis: compression of seventh cervical spinal nerve root (osteopathic lesion) has tingling of the hands when standing or from exaggerated neck movements.
Treatment. Reduction of spasm with peripheral relaxants (antispasmodics). Also: local injection of corticosteroid or surgical division of the transverse carpal ligament.
Alternatives:– Tea. Equal parts. Chamomile, Hops, Valerian. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup 2-3 times daily.
Tablets/capsules. Cramp bark. St John’s Wort. Wild Yam. Lobelia. Prickly Ash. Passion flower. Black Cohosh. Hawthorn.
Powders. Formula. Cramp bark 1; Guaiacum half; Black Cohosh half; Pinch Cayenne. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) 2-3 times daily.
Bromelain, quarter to half a teaspoon between meals.
Turmeric. Quarter to half a teaspoon between meals.
Tinctures. Formula: Cramp bark 1; Lobelia half; Black Cohosh half. Few drops Tincture Capsicum. Mix. 1 teaspoon in water when necessary. To reduce blood pressure, add half part Mistletoe.
Practitioner. For pain. Tincture Gelsemium BPC 1963 5-15 drops when necessary.
Topical. Rhus tox ointment. Camphorated oil.
Lotion: Tincture Lobelia 20; Tincture Capsicum 1.
Supplements. Condition responsive to Vitamin B6 and B-complex. Some authorities conclude that CTS is a primary deficiency of Vitamin B6, dose: 50-200mg daily.
General. Yoga, to control pain. Attention to kidneys. Diuretics may be required. Cold packs or packet of peas from the refrigerator to site of pain for 15 minutes daily. ... carpal tunnel syndrome (cts)
An emetic treatment may be administered with good effect when the body is powerless to throw off toxic matter in a healing crisis (acute disease). Uneliminated by-products of carbohydrate and protein metabolism may obstruct the abdominal circulation and congest the tissues. A few days fast followed by emesis has resolved many an acute gastro-intestinal problem.
Requirements: towel, large bowl, strainer, and a bowl of cold water in which a container may be cooled should infusions be too hot.
Before emesis the bowels should be evacuated. A full bowel inhibits the emetic effect and absorbs fluid.
Prepare three one-pint infusions, in separate vessels; cover to prevent escape of essential oils. Infuse 15 minutes.
1. Catnep. 1oz to 1 pint boiling water.
2. Bayberry (or Composition). 1 heaped teaspoon, powder, to 1 pint boiling water.
3. Lobelia. Half an ounce to 1 pint boiling water. Proceed: (a) Drink a cup of Catnep tea (b) follow with a cup of Bayberry (or Composition) tea (c) drink a second cup of Catnep (d) drink a second cup of Bayberry (or Composition). Four cups will be taken at this point, all of which will stimulate mucous surfaces. (e) Follow with a cup of Lobelia tea (a relaxant). (f) Repeat the procedure. Vomiting usually occurs before 8 cups. Repeat the sequence as long as can be borne. About half the intake will be returned. Vomit will be found to be exceedingly viscous and ropy and a healthy sense of well-being can follow its exit from the body. After vomiting three times, or as much as tolerated, discontinue treatment and rest. ... emetic treatment
The most common type of noncancerous bone tumour is an osteochondroma.
Other types are osteoma and chondroma (see chondromatosis).
Treatment is only necessary if the tumour becomes very large or causes symptoms by pressing on other structures.
In such cases, the tumour can be removed by surgery.
Osteoclastoma (also called a giant cell tumour), which usually occurs in the arm or leg of a young adult, is tender and painful and has to be removed.... bone tumour
Topical. Soak cotton wool pads with Distilled Extract Witch Hazel and apply to eyelids for 5-10 minutes. Potato. Apply slices of raw potato, or potato poultice.
Teabag. Moisten Chamomile or Fennel teabag with cold water and apply.
Cucumber, fresh. Apply slices to closed eyes.
Supplements. Vitamin A 7500iu. Vitamin B2 10mg. Vitamin E 100iu. Vitamin C 1g. Zinc 15mg.
Bates Method eye exercises. Palming.
EYES – VISUAL DISORDERS. May be due to strain, ageing, hereditary. Poor sight may be related to poor food.
Symptoms. Sensitivity to light, near or far sight deficient, squint.
Treatment. Attention to general condition, circulation and nervous system. Ginseng, Garlic, Kelp, Bilberries, Cider vinegar.
Diet. See: DIET — GENERAL.
Supplementation. Vitamins A, B-complex, B2 (10mg daily), C (500mg daily), D, E (100iu daily). Zinc. General: Refer to a qualified optician. Palming. ... eyes – tired
Basically, the therapy consists of a vegetarian diet with meals of vegetables, fruits and whole grains, fresh or freshly prepared. Drinking water is replaced by hourly, fresh, raw juices of vegetables and fruits. Refined, altered, denatured or enhanced foodstuffs are forbidden. The diet is sodium, chloride, fat and protein restricted. Supplemental potassium, iodine, thyroid and crude liver extract comprise the medical armamentarium. A repeatable choleretic, enemas of a solution of boiled coffee, is administered to lower serum toxin levels. Coffee is a potent enhancer of the carcinogen detoxifying enzyme system, glutathione S-translerase (Wattenburg). The Gerson cancer therapy reduces accumulated tissue sodium and chloride, promoting diuresis. Gerson Therapy Center: Hospital de Baja California, at La Gloria, Mexico
Diet. Lunch and dinner contain ample cooked food, mainly to act as a ‘blotter’ to the daily intake of 5.25 pints fresh raw fruit juices that are the backbone of the therapy. Ingredients of the juices include 41bs raw organic carrots a day, with no harm to the liver. (JAM, May 1991, p5. Beata Bishop on her recovery from metastasised malignant melanoma)
The Gerson therapy is based on the ‘holistic’ philosophy which states that cancer represents a clinical manifestation of an underlying toxic condition. Such condition should receive primary treatment that is lifestyle orientated. The theme is: detoxification through internal cleansing. The diet and supplements are re-inforced by ‘positive thinking’ and supported by meditation and emotional balance. ... gerson cancer therapy
Lead disrupts neurotransmitters in the brain and disposes to nervous excitability, aggression and hyperactivity. Aluminium is associated with senile dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, accumulating in the brain. Cadmium induces changes in behaviour with reduced mental ability. Mercury is present in the amalgam used in dental surgery as part-filling for teeth. Arsenical poisoning may occur in food contamination or paints.
An internal chelating or cleansing of tissues of the lungs, urinary system, blood and lymph may be assisted by a combination of relative expectorants, diuretics, hepatics and adaptogens among which are: Barberry, Blue Flag root, Chaparral, Burdock, Echinacea, Red Clover, Yellow Dock. To bind with metals and assist their passage through the intestinal canal to the outside of the body: Irish Moss, Iceland Moss or Slippery Elm. Garlic.
The Medicines Control Agency of the Ministry of Health (UK) has given consideration to the content of heavy metal impurities and rules that a limit of 75 micrograms of total heavy metals shall be the acceptable maximum daily intake.
Licence-holders are required to carry out tests on all incoming material. Some seaweeds may be heavily polluted with mercury, arsenic and radioactive particles as a result of micro-biological contamination. The MCA requires Bladderwrack and other seaweeds to contain minimum levels. ... heavy metal toxicity
Folk history: cancer remedy (anti-mitotic action), diarrhoea, boils, leprosy, chlorosis, dysentery, eneuresis, fever, pharyngitis, snakebite, syphilis, wounds. (J.A. Duke) Large doses produce nausea and anti-coagulant tendency. Strongly commended by Professor Emeritus, Walter Accorsi, University of Sao Paulo (USP) for its therapeutic value.
Oral candidiasis: good results reported.
Decoction. 15-20g bark to 500ml (1 pint) water, gently simmered 20 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Tincture. 1 part to 5 parts 60 per cent alcohol; macerate 8 days; filter. Dose: 30-60 drops thrice daily. For acute cases, dose may be doubled.
Lapacho works best taken orally.
Teabags, capsules: Rio Trading Company, Brighton, England. ... lapacho tree
The patient is connected to a recording instrument that measures one of the unconscious body activities, such as blood pressure, heart-rate, or the quantity of sweat on the skin. The patient receives information (feedback) on the changing levels of these activities from changes in the instrument’s signals. Using relaxation techniques, the patient learns to change the signals by conscious control of the body function. Once acquired, this control can be exercised without the instrument.... biofeedback training
A sample of cells is taken from the surface of the cervix using a spatula and examined under a microscope.
If cells appear normal, nothing further needs to be done.
If cells show dysplasia, further investigations may be required.... cervical smear test
chest X-ray One of the most frequently performed medical tests, usually carried out to examine the heart or lungs to confirm diagnoses of heart disorders and lung diseases. (See also X-rays.)... chest thrust
Child abuse may take the form of physical injury, sexual abuse, emotional mistreatment, and/or neglect; it occurs at all levels of society.
Being deprived or ill-treated in childhood may predispose people to repeat the pattern of abuse with their own children.
Children who are abused or at risk of abuse may be placed in care while the health and social services decide on the best course of action.... they generally heal without treatment child abuse
Bladder cancer is more common in smokers and workers in the dye and rubber industries. Haematuria (blood in the urine) is the main symptom of bladder cancer. A tumour may obstruct the entry of a ureter into the bladder, causing back pressure and pain in the kidney region, or may obstruct the urethral exit, causing difficulty in passing, or retention of, urine.
Bladder tumours are diagnosed using cystoscopy and biopsy of the abnormal area. If small, they can be treated by heat or surgically during cystoscopy. They tend to recur at the same or other sites within the bladder, so that regular follow-up cystoscopy is needed. Bladder tumours that have spread through the bladder wall may be treated by radiotherapy or by surgical removal of part or all of the bladder.... bladder tumours
in septicaemia. Microbiology also looks for antibodies in the blood, which may confirm immunity to an infection. blood transfusion The infusion of large volumes of blood or blood products directly into the bloodstream to remedy severe blood loss or to correct chronic anaemia. In an exchange transfusion, nearly all of the recipient’s blood is replaced by donor blood. Before a transfusion, a sample of the recipient’s blood is taken to identify the blood groups, and it is matched with suitable donor blood. The donor blood is transfused into an arm vein through a plastic cannula. Usually, each unit (about 500 ml) of blood is given over 1–4 hours; in an emergency, 500 ml may be given in a couple of minutes. The blood pressure, temperature, and pulse are monitored during the procedure.
If mismatched blood is accidentally introduced into the circulation, antibodies in the recipient’s blood may cause donor cells to burst, leading to shock or kidney failure. Less severe reactions can produce fever, chills, or a rash. Reactions can also occur as a result of an allergy to transfused blood components. All
blood used for transfusion is carefully screened for a number of infectious agents, including HIV (the AIDS virus) and hepatitis B and hepatitis C.
In elderly or severely anaemic patients, transfusion can overload the circulation, leading to heart failure.
In patients with chronic anaemia who need regular transfusion over many years, excess iron may accumulate (haemosiderosis) and damage organs such as the heart, liver, and pancreas.
Treatment with desferrioxamine to remove excess iron may be needed.... blood tests
tracing is also used in cases of infections such as tuberculosis, meningitis, and imported tropical diseases.... contact tracing
Cyclical tenderness may be relieved by reduced caffeine intake, relaxation
exercises for stress, a well-fitting bra, or weight loss to reduce breast size.
If these measures do not work, hormonal treatment may be recommended.... breast tenderness
Most urinary tract stones are composed of calcium oxalate or other salts crystallized from the urine. These may be associated with a diet rich in oxalic acid (found in leafy vegetables and coffee); high levels of calcium in the blood as a result of hyperparathyroidism; or chronic dehydration. Other types of stone are associated with gout and some cancers. An infective stone is usually a result of chronic urinary tract infection.
In developing countries, bladder stones usually occur as a result of dietary deficiencies. In developed countries, they are usually caused by an obstruction to urine flow from the bladder and/or a longstanding urinary tract infection.
The most common symptom of a stone in the kidney or ureter is renal colic (a severe pain in the loin) that may cause nausea and vomiting. There may be haematuria (blood in the urine). A bladder stone is usually indicated by difficulty in passing urine. The site of the stone can usually be confirmed by intravenous or retrograde urography.
Renal colic is treated with bed rest and an opioid analgesic (painkiller).
With an adequate fluid intake, small stones are usually passed in the urine without problems.
The first line of treatment for larger stones is lithotripsy, which uses ultrasonic or shock waves to disintegrate the stones.
Alternatively, cytoscopy can be used to crush and remove stones in the bladder and lower ureter.
In some cases, surgery may be needed.... calculus, urinary tract
Intrinsic stains, within the tooth’s substance, are permanent. Causes include death of the pulp or the removal of the pulp during root-canal treatment and the use of the antibiotic tetracycline in children. Mottling of the tooth enamel occurs if excessive amounts of fluoride are taken during development of the enamel (see fluorosis). Hepatitis during infancy may cause discoloration of the primary teeth. The teeth of children with congenital malformation of the bile ducts may be similarly affected.
Many stains can be covered or diminished with cosmetic dental procedures.... discoloured teeth
(See also immunoassay.)... elisa test
Deciduous teeth (milk teeth) usually begin to appear at about 6 months of age. All 20 deciduous teeth have usually erupted by 3 years (see teething).
Permanent teeth (also known as secondary teeth) usually begin to appear at about 6 years of age. The first permanent molars erupt towards the back of the mouth and appear in addition to the deciduous teeth. The eruption of permanent teeth nearer the front of the mouth is preceded by reabsorption of the roots of the deciduous teeth, which become loose and detach. Eventually, permanent teeth replace all the deciduous ones. Wisdom teeth (the backmost, or 3rd, molars) usually erupt between ages 17 and 21, but, in some people, they never appear.... eruption of teeth
Retinoblastoma is a cancerous tumour of the retina that occurs in one or both eyes and most often affects children. It may be treated by radiotherapy, laser treatment, or cryosurgery, but the eye may have to be removed to prevent spread of the tumour.
Malignant melanoma is a cancer of the choroid. It usually affects older people. There are no symptoms in the early stages, but it eventually causes retinal detachment and distortion of vision. Small tumours can be treated by laser, but the eye may need to be removed to avoid spread of the tumour.
Secondary eye tumours occur when cancer elsewhere in the body spreads to the eye. Symptoms depend on the tumour’s location and growth rate. It may be controlled by radiotherapy.
Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of tumour affecting the eyelid. It usually has a crusty central crater and a rolled edge. In the early stages, treatment may be possible by surgery, radiotherapy, or cryosurgery.... eye tumours
Gestalt therapy aims to increase selfawareness by looking at all aspects of an individual in his or her environment.... gestalt theory
A physical examination is usually performed, including measurement of body fat, height, and weight. Blood and urine tests may be done, including an analysis of blood cholesterol. The performance of the heart is measured by taking the pulse before, during, and after aerobic exercise. Another test involves measuring a person’s overall performance in a standard exercise. (See also aerobics; exercise.)... fitness testing
In strip grafting, a strip of skin and hair is taken from a donor site, usually at the back of the scalp or behind the ears. The removed hairs and their follicles are then inserted into numerous incisions made in a bald area, known as the recipient site. The procedure usually takes 60–90 minutes. The patient is given a mild sedative and anaesthetic on the donor and recipient sites. The donor site heals in about 5 days. Transplanted hairs fall out shortly afterwards, but new hairs grow from the follicles 3 weeks to 3 months later.
Other transplant techniques include punch grafting, in which a punch is used to remove small areas of bald scalp, which are replaced with areas of hairy scalp; flap grafting, in which flaps of hairy skin are lifted, rotated, and stitched to replace bald areas; and male pattern baldness reduction, which involves cutting out areas of bald skin and stretching surrounding areas of hair-bearing scalp to replace them.... hair transplant
Diagnosis is confirmed by blood tests.
Treatment is by thyroid hormone replacement therapy, which is life-long.... hashimoto’s thyroiditis
An audiometer (an electrical instrument) is used to test an individual’s ability to hear sounds at different frequencies and volumes. The lowest level at which a person can hear and repeat words (the speech reception threshold) is tested, as is the ability to hear words clearly (speech discrimination). The type of hearing loss (see deafness) is determined by holding a tuning fork to different parts of the ear.... hearing tests
Most of the diseased heart is removed, but the back walls of the atria (upper chambers) are left in place.
The ventricles (upper chambers) are then attached to the remaining areas of the recipient’s heart.
Once the immediate post-operative period is over, the outlook is good.
Patients face the long-term problems associated with other forms of transplant surgery.
(See also heart–lung transplant.)... heart transplant
Moist heat may be administered by soaking the affected area in a warm bath, or applying a hot compress or poultice. Dry heat may be administered by a heating pad, hot-water bottle, or by a heat lamp that produces infra-red rays. More precise methods of administering heat to tissues deeper in the body include ultrasound treatment and short-wave diathermy.... heat treatment
Hepatectomy is the 1st stage in a liver transplant operation.... hepatectomy, total
Each district has a general hospital providing services that include medicine, surgery, gynaecology, obstetrics, and paediatrics.
Some more specialist services are concentrated in fewer centres.
Many of the ’s private hospitals are nursing homes for the elderly; others cater for nonemergency surgery, obstetric care, or inpatient care for the mentally ill.... hospitals, types of
This is achieved by placing a person in a special chamber and exposing him or her to oxygen at a much higher atmospheric pressure than normal.
Hyperbaric oxygen treatment is used to treat poisoning from carbon monoxide and in cases of gas gangrene.... hyperbaric oxygen treatment
In most intelligence tests, scoring is based on mental age (MA) in relation to chronological age (CA). The intelligence quotient (IQ) is MA divided by CA, multiplied by 100. The tests are devised to ensure that 3 in 4 people have an IQ between 80 and 120. They are standardized so that the score indicates the same relative ability at different age levels.
Intelligence tests may be used to assess school or job aptitude. However, they have been criticized for their alleged bias regarding gender and race.... intelligence tests
The technique may be used to treat a malignant effusion (a collection of fluid that contains cancerous cells). A needle, sometimes with a catheter attached, is passed through the wall of the abdomen or the chest into the abdominal cavity or pleural cavity (the space around the lungs). As much of the fluid as possible is withdrawn from the cavity before anticancer drugs are injected directly into it. (See also interstitial radiotherapy.)... intracavitary therapy
Urinalysis is a simple test in which a urine sample is examined under a microscope for blood cells, pus cells, and casts (cells and mucous material that accumulate in the tubules of the kidneys and pass into the urine).
Urine may be tested for substances, such as proteins, that leak into the urine when the kidneys are damaged.
Kidney function can be assessed by measuring the concentration in the blood of substances, such as urea and creatinine, that the kidneys normally excrete.
Kidney function may also be assessed by kidney imaging techniques.... kidney function tests
The tests can also show whether liver cells are healthy or being damaged.... liver function tests
Noncancerous tumours occur less frequently than cancers.
The most common form of noncancerous tumour is a bronchial adenoma, which arises in the lining of a bronchus.
Adenomas often cause bronchial obstruction; affected people may also cough up blood.
Treatment involves surgical removal of the tumour.
Other rare noncancerous tumours include fibromas (which consist of fibrous tissue) and lipomas (which consist of fatty tissue).
No treatment is necessary unless the tumours are causing problems.... lung tumours
The most common cause of toxic epidermal necrolysis is an adverse reaction to a drug, particularly a barbiturate, sulphonamide, or penicillin. The condition usually clears up when the drug is discontinued. Intravenous fluid replacement is sometimes necessary.... necrolysis, toxic epidermal
The donor organs and vessels are connected to the recipient’s vessels.
After the transplant, the recipient is monitored in an intensive care unit for a few days and remains in hospital for up to 4 weeks.... liver transplant
A damaged nerve may take some time to heal. In severe cases, surgical decompression to relieve pressure on the nerve may be necessary.... nerve, trapped
There are different forms of spina bifida. In spina bifida occulta, the only defect is a failure of the fusion of the bony arches behind the spinal cord, which may not cause any problems. When the bone defect is more extensive, there may be a meningocele, a protrusion of the meninges, or a myelomeningocele, a malformation of the spinal cord. Myelomeningocele is likely to cause severe handicap, with paralysis of the legs, loss of sensation in the lower body, hydrocephalus, and paralysis of the anus and bladder, causing incontinence. Associated problems include cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and mental handicap.
Surgery is usually performed a few days after birth. In mild cases, the defect can usually be corrected, but in myelomeningocele, some handicap will remain.
Genetic factors play a part in neural tube defects, which show multifactorial inheritance. Couples who have had an affected child or who have a family history of neural tube defects should seek genetic counselling. The risk of a neural tube defect occurring can be substantially reduced if the mother takes folic acid supplements for a month before conception and during the early part of the pregnancy.
Ultrasound scanning and amniocentesis allow accurate antenatal testing for neural tube defects.... neural tube defect
Nicotine products are available in the form of sublingual tablets, chewing gum, skin patches, nasal spray, or inhaler.
Side effects may include nausea, headache, palpitations, cold or flu-like symptoms, hiccups, and vivid dreaming.
Nicotine replacement therapy should be used as part of a complete package of measures, including the determination to succeed.... nicotine replacement therapy
The risk of infection of open wounds during surgery is reduced by a ventilation system that continually provides clean, filtered air, and walls and floors that are easily washable.
Surgeons, assistants, and nurses use sterile brushes and bactericidal soaps to scrub their hands and forearms before putting on sterile gowns, masks, and gloves.
The theatre is equipped with shadowless operating lights; lightboxes for viewing X-ray images; anaesthetic machines (see anaesthesia, general); and a diathermy machine, which controls bleeding.
A heart–lung machine may also be used.... operating theatre
(See also hyperbaric oxygen treatment.)... oxygen therapy
Blood samples are taken from the child, from the suspected father, and sometimes from the mother.
The samples are tested for blood groups, histocompatibility antigens, and similarities in DNA.
Genetic fingerprinting provides the most decisive result.... paternity testing
The condition is common in toddlers.... pigeon toes
The causes of pituitary tumours are unknown. They may lead to inadequate hormone production, causing problems such as cessation of menstrual periods or reduced sperm production. They may also cause the gland to produce excess hormone. Overproduction of growth hormone causes gigantism or acromegaly; too much thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) can lead to hyperthyroidism. Investigations include blood tests, X-rays, MRI of the pituitary, and usually also vision tests. Treatment may be by surgical removal of the tumour, radiotherapy, hormone replacement, or a combination of these techniques. The drug bromocriptine may be used; it can reduce production of certain hormones and shrink some tumours.... pituitary tumours
This random allocation means individuals are equally likely to be selected for the particular treatment being investigated or for the control group of the trial.... randomized controlled trials
The amount of fluid necessary depends on age, weight, and the degree of dehydration.
Mild dehydration can usually be treated with oral solutions, which are available as effervescent tablet or powder to be made up at home.
In severe dehydration, or if the patient cannot take fluids by mouth because of nausea or vomiting, an intravenous infusion of saline and/or glucose solution may be given in hospital.... rehydration therapy
They can assist people with anxiety symptoms, help to reduce hypertension, and relieve stress, and may help pregnant women to cope with labour pains (see childbirth, natural).
Active relaxation consists of tensing and relaxing each of the muscles in turn.
Passive relaxation involves clearing the mind and concentrating on a phrase or sound.
Breathing exercises help to prevent hyperventilation, which often brings on or worsens anxiety.
Traditional concentration methods, such as yoga and meditation, employ similar techniques.... relaxation techniques
A tear is more common in people with severe myopia.
A retinal tear may also be caused by a severe eye injury.
Retinal detachment usually follows a retinal tear.
If a retinal tear is found before there is any detachment, the hole is sealed by laser treatment or cryopexy (application of extreme cold).... retinal tear
Practising safer sex can help prevent STIs.... sexually transmitted infections
Patch tests are used in the diagnosis of contact allergic dermatitis.
They can also be used to test immunity to certain infectious diseases (such as in the tuberculin test).... skin tests
Keratoses and squamous papillomas are common types of noncancerous tumour; other types include sebaceous cysts, cutaneous horns, keratoacanthomas, and haemangiomas.... skin tumours
This is an important part of rehabilitation for people with mental handicap or those with chronic psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia.
Role-playing is a commonly used technique in which various social situations are simulated in order to improve the individual’s confidence and performance.... social skills training
If the tooth’s blood vessels are torn, root-canal treatment is required.... subluxated tooth
These teeth are usually extracted.... supernumerary teeth
Each bud contains about 25 sensory receptor cells, with tiny taste hairs that respond to food and drink.
Taste buds on different parts of the tongue sense the 4 basic tastes: bitter, sour, salty, and sweet.
buds from stomatitis, mouth cancer, or radiotherapy to the mouth; or damage to nerves that carry taste sensations.... taste bud
The most common cause is inflammation of the nasal passages.
Other causes of loss of taste include any condition that causes a dry mouth (see mouth, dry); natural degeneration of the taste buds; damage to the taste eign particles.
Tear production increases in response to eye irritation and emotion.... taste, loss of
Telangiectasia is not a cause for concern, but the veins can be removed in some cases by electrodesiccation (electrical destruction of the upper layers of the skin). (See also spider naevus.)... telangiectasia
A tendon may rupture when the muscle to which it is attached contracts suddenly and powerfully, such as during vigorous exercise.
Rupture may also be due to an injury or joint disorder such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Symptoms include a snapping sensation, impaired movement, pain, and swelling.
Diagnosis is usually obvious from the symptoms.
Surgery to repair the tendon may be needed.
In some cases, the tendon may heal if immobilized in a plaster cast.... tendon rupture
(See also stress.)... tension
Diagnosis is by physical examination.
Surgery is performed to untwist the testis and anchor it in the scrotum with small stitches to prevent recurrence.
If irreversible damage has occurred, orchidectomy is performed.
In either case, the other testis is anchored to the scrotum to prevent torsion on that side.
With prompt treatment, recovery of the testis is complete.... testis, torsion of
If taken with milk, tetracyclines are not absorbed effectively into the intestines.
Possible side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, worsening of kidney disorders, rash, and itching.
Tetracyclines may discolour developing teeth and are therefore not usually prescribed for children under age 12 or pregnant women.... tetracycline drugs
A diagnosis is made during a physical examination after birth or later in infancy.
Treatment is by orchidopexy, which usually reduces the risk of later infertility or testicular cancer (see testis, cancer of).
A poorly developed undescended testis may be removed if the other is normal.... testis, undescended
The accuracy of a test is based on its sensitivity (ability to correctly identify diseased subjects), specificity (ability to correctly identify healthy subjects), and predictive value.
The predictive value is determined by a mathematical formula that involves the number of accurate test results and the total number of tests performed.
The best tests have both high specificity and high sensitivity, and therefore high predictive value.... tests, medical
Treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome usually consists of exercises to improve posture, sometimes together with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and muscle-relaxant drugs. Severe cases may be treated by surgical removal of the 1st rib.... thoracic outlet syndrome
(See also thought disorders.)... thought
Thrombolytic drugs act within blood vessels to dissolve clots.
Possible adverse effects include abnormal bleeding and an allergic reaction.... thrombolytic drugs
A diagnosis is made by doppler ultrasound scanning.
Treatment depends on the site and extent of the clots.
Small clots may not need treatment if they are confined to the calf and the patient is mobile.
Otherwise, anticoagulant drugs or thrombolytic drugs are given.
If there is a high risk of a pulmonary embolism, thrombectomy may be performed.... thrombosis, deep vein
A genetic disorder may impair the thyroid’s ability to secrete hormones and goitre may result. Thyroid infection is uncommon and leads to thyroiditis. Viral infection can cause extreme pain and temporary hyperthyroidism. Hormonal changes during puberty or pregnancy may cause a degree of goitre temporarily. Hyperthyroidism due to excessive production of by the pituitary gland is rare but can occur as a result of a pituitary tumour.
Because iodine is necessary for the production of thyroid hormone, its deficiency may lead to goitre. Severe iodine deficiency in children may cause myxoedema. (See also thyroid cancer.)
thyroid hormones The 3 hormones produced by the thyroid gland are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate metabolism, and calcitonin, which helps to regulate calcium levels in the body.... thyroid gland, disorders of
The drug is given continuously and combines the effects of oestrogens and progestogens.
Possible adverse effects include irregular vaginal bleeding, changes in body weight, ankle oedema, dizziness, skin reactions, headache, migraine, growth of facial hair, depression, and myalgia.... tibolone
It is also used, together with other drugs, to eradicate HELICOBACTER PYLORI infection.
Side effects may include nausea, vomiting, gastrointestinal disturbances, headache, and dizziness.... tinidazole
In the , the only disease known to be transmitted to humans by ticks is Lyme disease. Others transmitted in various parts of the world include relapsing fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Q fever, tularaemia, and certain types of viral encephalitis. The prolonged bite of certain female ticks can cause tick paralysis, in which a toxin in the tick saliva affects the nerves that control movement. In extreme cases, this can be fatal.... ticks and disease
It is usually combined with fetal heart monitoring (see cardiotocography).... tocography
The cause is usually incorrect cutting of the nail or wearing tight-fitting shoes.
Temporary pain relief can be obtained by bathing the foot once or twice daily in a strong, warm, salt solution, then covering the nail with a dry gauze dressing.
Antibiotics may be prescribed.
In some cases, the edge of the nail is removed and the nail bed obliterated to prevent recurrence.... toenail, ingrowing
A child is unlikely to be completely toilet-trained before age 3 and may normally take much longer to remain dry at night (see enuresis).... toilet-training
Diagnosis of tongue cancer is made by a biopsy. Small tumours, especially those occurring at the tip of the tongue, are usually removed surgically. Larger tumours or those that have spread often require radiotherapy.... tongue cancer
from birth until the age of 7, after which time they shrink substantially.
Tonsillitis is a common childhood infection.... tonsil
The condition is often discovered soon after birth; diagnosis may be confirmed by X-rays.
Treatment consists of an operation to close the fistula and connect the trachea and oesophagus correctly.... tracheoesophageal fistula
It is attached to the top and back of the shoulderblade and to the outermost part of the collarbone.
The trapezius helps support the neck and spine and is involved in moving the arm.... trapezius muscle
Rejection is a major problem. However, a combination of a corticosteroid drug and ciclosporin are given in order to suppress this response.
Every patient who undergoes an organ transplant operation must take immunosuppressant drugs indefinitely. (See also heart transplant; heart–lung transplant; liver transplant; kidney transplant.)... transplant surgery
Travel agents and tour operators often include information about which immunizations may be needed, but travellers should consult a doctor about individual requirements. Some vaccines must be given in 2–3 doses several weeks apart. Therefore, a doctor should be consulted at least 2–3 months before departure. Children under 1 year, and people with a compromised immune system or serious underlying disorder may not be able to have some vaccinations, such as those for yellow fever and tuberculosis (BCG).... travel immunization
Episodes of diarrhoea range in severity and are due to gastroenteritis.
Attention to hygiene, drinking bottled water, and avoiding ice in drinks can prevent a large proportion of episodes.... traveller’s diarrhoea
A T-shaped rubber tube is inserted into the bile duct during the surgery.
A week or so later, contrast medium is inserted into the tube and X-rays are taken.... t-tube cholangiography
It may be performed by microsurgery.... tuboplasty
Alpha-fetoprotein is an example of a tumour-specific antigen.... tumour-specific antigen
Also called Siamese twins.... twins, conjoined
ulcer An open sore appearing on the skin or on a mucous membrane that results from the destruction of surface tissue. Ulcers may be shallow, or deep and crater-shaped, and they are usually inflamed and painful.
Skin ulcers most commonly occur on the leg (see leg ulcer), usually as the result of inadequate blood supply to, or drainage from, the limb. In some cases skin cancers, particularly basal cell carcinomas or squamous cell carcinomas, may be ulcerated. Rarely, a cancer may develop in the skin at the edge of a longstanding ulcer.
The most common types of ulcers of the mucous membranes are mouth ulcers, peptic ulcers, and those that occur in ulcerative colitis.
Ulcers may also affect the skin or mucous membranes of the genitalia
(see genital ulcer). Most genital ulcers are caused by sexually transmitted infections. Examples of this type of ulcer are hard chancres (see chancre, hard), which develop during the first stage of syphilis, and soft chancres (see chancroid). In addition, ulcers may develop on the cornea (see corneal ulcers).... typing
In both sexes, causes of urinary tract infections include stones (see calculus, urinary tract), bladder tumours, congenital abnormalities of the urinary tract, or defective bladder emptying as a result of spina bifida or a spinal injury. The risks of developing a urinary tract infection can be reduced by strict personal hygiene, drinking lots of fluids, and regularly emptying the bladder.
Urethritis can lead to the formation of a urethral stricture. Cystitis usually only causes complications if the infection spreads to the kidneys. Pyelonephritis, if it is left untreated, can lead to permanent kidney damage, septicaemia, and septic shock.
The infection is diagnosed by the examination of a urine culture. Further investigations using urography or ultrasound scanning may be necessary. Most infections of the urinary tract are treated with antibiotic drugs.... urinary tract infection
NHS Blood and Transplant website... nhs blood and transplant
s... ryle’s tube
teeth pl. n. see tooth.... tectum
—thenar adj.... thenar
TIPSS (transjugular intrahepatic porto-systemic shunt) see portal hypertension.... tioguanine
—tonometry n.... tonometer
Example: dystrophy (defective development).... trophy
Example: inotropic (muscle).... tropic
u... tyrosinosis
FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS: Toluifera balsamum, Balsamum tolutanum, B. americanum, Myrospermum toluiferum, Thomas balsam, resin Tolu, opobalsam.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, graceful tropical tree, similar in appearance to the Peru balsam tree. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained by making V-shaped incisions into the bark and sap wood, often after the trunk has been beaten and scorched. It is a ‘true’ balsam.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America, mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba; also cultivated in the West Indies.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many types of South American balsam-yielding trees, such as the Peru balsam – see entry.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The balsam works primarily on the respiratory mucous membranes, and is good for chronic catarrh and non-inflammatory chest complaints, laryngitis and croup. It is still used as a flavour and mild expectorant in cough syrups and lozenges. As an ingredient in compound benzoin tincture and similar formulations, it is helpful in the treatment of cracked nipples, lips, cuts, bedsores, etc.
ACTIONS: Antitussive, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: The crude balsam is collected from the trees. It appears first in liquid form, then hardens and solidifies into an orange-brown brittle mass. An ‘essential oil’ is obtained from the crude by 1. steam distillation, or 2. dry distillation. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced for use primarily as fixatives.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow-brown liquid with a sweet-floral scent and peppery undertone. 2. An amber-coloured liquid with a rich balsamic-floral scent, which slowly solidfies on cooling into a crystalline mass. Tolu balsam blends well with mimosa, ylang ylang, sandalwood, labdanum, neroli, patchouli, cedarwood and oriental, spicy and floral bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The balsam contains approx. 80 per cent resin, 20 per cent oil, with cinnamic and benzoic acids, small amounts of terpenes, and traces of eugenol and vanillin.
SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates it to be non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization, see Peru Balsam.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
SKIN CARE: Dry, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, rashes, scabies, sores, wounds.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, croup, laryngitis. ‘It may be used as an inhalant by putting about a teaspoon into a steam bath.’6
OTHER USES: As a fixative and fragrance component in colognes, cosmetics and perfumes (especially the dry distilled type). Some use in pharmaceutical preparations, e.g. cough syrups. Low levels used in many major food products, especially baked goods.... balsam, tolu
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYMS: J. mexicana, mountain cedar, Mexican cedar, rock cedar, Mexican juniper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, alpine evergreen tree up to 7 metres high with stiff green needles and an irregular shaped trunk and branches, which tend to be crooked or twisted, The wood also tends to crack easily, so it is not used for timber.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south western USA, Mexico and Central America; the oil is produced mainly in Texas.
OTHER SPECIES: The name J. mexicana has erroneously been applied to many species; botanically related to the so-called Virginian cedarwood (J. virginiana) and the East African cedarwood (J. procera).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In New Mexico the native Indians use cedarwood oil for skin rashes. It is also used for arthritis and rheumatism.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, sedative (nervous), stimulant (circulatory).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the heartwood and wood shavings, etc. (Unlike the Virginian cedar, the tree is felled especially for its essential oil.)
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude – a dark orange to brownish viscous liquid with a smoky-woody, sweet tar-like odour. Rectified – a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sweet, balsamic, ‘pencil wood’ scent, similar to Virginian cedarwood but harsher. It blends well with patchouli, spruce, vetiver, pine and leather-type scents.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cedrene, cedrol (higher than the Virginian oil), thujopsene and sabinene, among others. Otherwise similar to Virginian cedarwood.
SAFETY DATA: See Virginian cedarwood.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See Virginian cedarwood.
OTHER USES: See Virginian cedarwood.... cedarwood, texas
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: L. vera, L. officinalis, garden lavender, common lavender
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen woody shrub, up to 1 metre tall, with pale green, narrow, linear leaves and flowers on blunt spikes of a beautiful violet-blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated all over the world. The oil is produced mainly in France, also Spain, Italy, England, Australia, Tasmania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria, Greece, etc.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of lavender; L. angustifolia is divided into two subspecies – L. delphinensis and L. fragrans. French lavender (L. stoechas) is a smaller shrub with dark violet flowers; see also entries on spike lavender, lavandin and the Botanical Classification section. The so-called cotton lavender (Santolina chamaecyparissus) and the sea lavender (Statice caroliniana) belong to different botanical families.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Lavender has a well-established tradition as a folk remedy, and its scent is still familiar to almost everyone. It was used to ‘comfort the stomach’ but above all as a cosmetic water, an insect repellent, to scent linen, and as a reviving yet soothing oil ‘The essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made from it, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms and colic ... A few drops of lavender in a hot footbath has a marked influence in relieving fatigue. Outwardly applied, it relieves toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. In hysteria, palsy and similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve power, lavender will act as a powerful stimulant.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops. 2. An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, floral herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone; it has a more fragrant floral scent compared to spike lavender. It blends well with most oils, especially citrus and florals; also cedarwood, clove, clary sage, pine, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli, etc. 2. The absolute is a dark green viscous liquid with a very sweet herbaceous, somewhat floral odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 100 constituents including linalyl acetate (up to 40 per cent), linalol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene, caryophyllene, among others. Constituents vary according to source: high altitudes generally produce more esters.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Generally regarded as the most versatile essence therapeutically:
Skin care: Abscesses, acne, allergies, athlete’s foot, boils, bruises, burns, dandruff, dermatitis, earache, eczema, inflammations, insect bites and stings, insect repellent, lice, psoriasis, ringworm, scabies, sores, spots, all skin types, sunburn, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Lumbago, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, halitosis, laryngitis, throat infections, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Abdominal cramps, colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune system: ’Flu.
Nervous system: Depression, headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions, PMT, sciatica, shock, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and as a fragrance. Extensively employed in all types of soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, etc, especially toilet waters and colognes. Employed as a flavouring agent in most categories of food as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... lavender, true
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: T. glandulifera, tagette, taget, marigold, Mexican marigold, wrongly called ‘calendula’ (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly scented annual herb about 30 cms high with bright orange, daisylike flowers and soft green oval leaves.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America and Mexico. Now grows wild in Africa, Europe, Asia and North America. The oil is mainly produced in South Africa, France, Argentina and Egypt, the absolute in Nigeria and France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other types of tagetes which share similar characteristics and are used to produce essential oils, notably the French marigold (T. patula) and the African or Aztec marigold (T. erecta) – see also Botanical Classification section.
NB: Not to be confused with the ‘true’ marigold (Calendula officinalis) which has very different properties and constituents, and is used extensively in herbal medicine (and occasionally to make an absolute). See entry on marigold.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In India the locally grown flowering tops of the French marigold are distilled into a receiver which contains a solvent, often sandalwood oil, to produce ‘attar genda’ – a popular Indian perfume material. In China the flowers of the African marigold are used for whooping cough, colds, colic, mumps, sore eyes and mastitis – usually as a decoction.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: 1. An essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering herb. 2. An absolute (and concrete) by solvent extraction from the fresh flowering herb.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A dark orange or yellow mobile liquid which slowly solidifies on exposure to air and light, with a bitter-green, herby odour. 2. An orange, olive or brown semi-liquid mass with an intense, sweet, greenfruity odour. It blends well with clary sage, lavender, jasmine, bergamot and other citrus oils in very small percentages.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly tagetones, with ocimene, myrcene, linalol, limonene, pinenes, carvone, citral, camphene, valeric acid and salicylaldehyde, among others.
SAFETY DATA: ‘It is quite possible that “tagetone” (the main constituent) is harmful to the human organism.’. Some reported cases of dermatitis with the tagetes species. Use with care, in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Bunions, calluses, corns, fungal infections.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical products. The absolute and oil are employed to a limited extent in herbaceous and floral perfumes. Used for flavouring tobacco and in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... tagetes
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Estragon (oil), little dragon, Russian tarragon.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb with smooth narrow leaves; an erect stem up to 1.2 metres tall, and small yellowy-green, inconspicuous flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, southern Russia and western Asia. Now cultivated worldwide, especially in Europe and the USA. The oil is mainly produced in France, Holland, Hungary and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: The so-called French tarragon or ‘sativa’, which is cultivated as a garden herb, is a smaller plant with a sharper flavour than the Russian type and is a sterile derivative of the wild species.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The leaf is commonly used as domestic herb, especially with chicken or fish, and to make tarragon vinegar. The name is thought to derive from an ancient use as an antidote to the bites of venomous creatures and ‘madde dogges’. It was favoured by the maharajahs of India who took it as a tisane, and in Persia it was used to induce appetite.
‘The leaves, which are chiefly used, are heating and drying, and good for those that have the flux, or any prenatural discharge.’. The leaf was also formerly used for digestive and menstrual irregularities, while the root was employed as a remedy for toothache.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aperitif, carminative, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypnotic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid (turning yellow with age), with a sweet-anisic, spicy-green scent. It blends well with labdanum, galbanum, lavender, oakmoss, vanilla, pine and basil.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Estragole (up to 70 per cent), capillene, ocimene, nerol, phellandrene, thujone and cineol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Moderately toxic due to ‘estragole’ (methyl chavicol); use in moderation only. Possibly carcinogenic. Otherwise non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Digestive system: Anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, hiccoughs, intestinal spasm, nervous indigestion, sluggish digestion.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, PMT.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially condiments and relishes, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... tarragon
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Narrow-leaved paperbark tea tree, ti-tree, ti-trol, melasol.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small tree or shrub (smallest of the tea tree family), with needle-like leaves similar to cypress, with heads of sessile yellow or purplish flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia. Other varieties have been cultivated elsewhere, but M. alternifolia is not produced outside Australia, mainly in New South Wales.
OTHER SPECIES: Tea tree is a general name for members of the Melaleuca family which exists in many physiological forms including cajeput (M. cajeputi) and niaouli (M. viridiflora), and many others such as M. bracteata and M. linariifolia – see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name derives from its local usage as a type of herbal tea, prepared from the leaves. Our present knowledge of the properties and uses of tea tree is based on a very long history of use by the aboriginal people of Australia. It has been extensively researched recently by scientific methods with the following results: ‘1. This oil is unusual in that it is active against all three varieties of infectious organisms: bacteria, fungi and viruses. 2. It is a very powerful immuno-stimulant, so when the body is threatened by any of these organisms ti-tree increases its ability to respond.’ .
ACTIONS: Anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, fungicidal, immuno-stimulant, parasiticide, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam or water distillation from the leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-green or water-white mobile liquid with a warm, fresh, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, lavender, clary sage, rosemary, oakmoss, pine, cananga, geranium, marjoram, and spice oils, especially clove and nutmeg.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinene-4-ol (up to 30 per cent), cineol, pinene, terpinenes, cymene, sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene alcohols, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, athlete’s foot, blisters, burns, cold sores, dandruff, herpes, insect bites, oily skin, rashes (nappy rash), spots, verrucae, warts, wounds (infected).
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, tuberculosis, whooping cough.
Genito-urinary system: Thrush, vaginitis, cystitis, pruritis.
Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious illnesses such as chickenpox.
OTHER USES: Employed in soaps, toothpastes, deodorants, disinfectants, gargles, germicides and, increasingly, in aftershaves and spicy colognes.... tea tree
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYMS: Swamp cedar, white cedar, northern white cedar, eastern white cedar, tree of life, American arborvitae, cedarleaf (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful pyramid-shaped coniferous tree up to 20 metres high with scale-like leaves and broadly-winged seeds, sometimes planted as hedging. The tree must be at least fifteen years old before it is ready to be used for essential oil production.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to north eastern North America; cultivated in France. The oil is produced mainly in Canada and the USA, similar oils are also produced in the East – see here.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many forms and cultivated varieties of this tree: the western red cedar or Washington cedar (T. plicata); the Chinese or Japanese cedar (T. orientalis or Biota orientalis); the North African variety (T. articulata) which yields a resin known as ‘sanderac’.
The hiba tree (Thujopsis dolobrata) is used to produce hiba wood oil and hiba leaf oil in Japan. Hiba wood oil, according to available data, is non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing (unlike the other thuja oils), and has excellent resistance to fungi and bacteria due to the ketonic substances found in the oil. It is used extensively in Japan as an industrial perfume.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used as an incense by ancient civilizations for ritual purposes. A decoction of leaves has been used for coughs, fever, intestinal parasites, cystitis and venereal diseases. The ointment has been used for rheumatism, gout, warts, verrucae, psoriasis and other ailments.
The twigs are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, used specifically for bronchitis with cardiac weakness, and warts.
ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, insect repellent, rubefacient, stimulant (nerve, uterus and heart muscles), tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh leaves, twigs and bark.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellowy-green liquid with a sharp, fresh, camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (approx. 60 per cent), fenchone, camphor, sabinene and pinene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin – poisonous due to high thujone content. Abortifacient.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in aromatherapy either internally or externally.’.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical products such as disinfectants and sprays; also as a counter-irritant in analgesic ointments and liniments. A fragrance component in some toiletries and perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories (provided that the finished food is recognized thujone-free).... thuja
FAMILY: Leguminosae
SYNONYMS: Coumarouna odorata, tonquin bean, Dutch tonka bean.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A very large tropical tree with big elliptical leaves and violet flowers, bearing fruit which contain a single black seed or ‘tonka bean’, about the size of a butter bean. The beans, known as ‘rumara’ by the natives, are collected and dried, then soaked in alcohol or rum for twelve to fifteen hours to make them swell. When they are removed from the bath they become dried and shrunken, covered in a whitish powder of crystallized coumann.
The ‘curing’ of the beans is partly a conventional ‘sales promotion’ technique rather than an indication of quality, since the frosted appearance has come to be expected of the product.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America, especially Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil; cultivated in Nigeria and elsewhere in West Africa. Most beans come from South America after ‘curing’, to be processed in Europe and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of Dipteryx which produce beans suitable for extraction.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Holland the fatty substance from the beans is sold as ‘tarquin butter’, which used to be used as an insecticide against moth in linen cupboards. ‘The fluid extract has been used with advantage in whooping cough, but it paralyses the heart if used in large doses.’.
ACTIONS: Insecticidal, narcotic, tonic (cardiac).
EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the ‘cured’ beans.
CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a semi-solid yellow or amber mass with a very rich, warm and sweet herbaceous-nutty odour. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, clary sage, styrax, bergamot, oakmoss, immortelle and citronella.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly coumarin (20–40 per cent) in the absolute.
SAFETY DATA: Oral and dermal toxin, due to high coumarin content.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Used to a limited extent as a pharmaceutical masking agent. The absolute is employed as a fixative and fragrance component in oriental, new-mown hay and chypres-type perfumes. It is no longer used as a flavouring (due to the coumarin ban in many countries), though it is still used to flavour tobacco.... tonka
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: T. aestivus, T. ilerdensis, T. webbianus, T. valentianus, French thyme, garden thyme, red thyme (oil), white thyme (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial evergreen subshrub up to 45 cms high with a woody root and much-branched upright stem. It has small, grey-green, oval, aromatic leaves and pale purple or white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Spain and the Mediterranean region; now found throughout Asia Minor, Algeria, Turkey, Tunisia, Israel, the USA, Russia, China and central Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Spain but also in France, Israel, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Germany and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous varieties of thyme – the common thyme is believed to have derived from the wild thyme or mother-of-thyme (T. serpyllum), which is also used to produce an essential oil called serpolet, similar in effect to the common thyme oil.
Another species used for the production of the so-called red thyme oil is particularly the Spanish sauce thyme (T. zygis), a highly penetrating oil good for cellulitis, sports injuries, etc. (although, like the common thyme, it is a skin irritant). Other species used for essential oil production include lemon thyme (T. citriodorus), a fresh scented oil good for asthma and other respiratory conditions, safe for children. Spanish marjoram (T. Mastichina) is actually botanically classified as a variety of thyme, with which it shares many common properties, despite its common name. Spanish marjoram contains mainly 1,8-cineole (up to 75 per cent) and linalool (up to 20 per cent), so therapeutically has much in common with eucalyptus, being well suited to treating viral and bacterial respiratory infections. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest medicinal plants employed throughout the Mediterranean region, well known to both Hippocrates and Dioscorides. It was used by the ancient Egyptians in the embalming process, and by the ancient Greeks to fumigate against infectious illness; the name derives from the Greek thymos meaning ‘to perfume’. It is also a long-established culinary herb, especially used for the preservation of meat.
It has a wide range of uses, though in Western herbal medicine its main areas of application are respiratory problems, digestive complaints and the prevention and treatment of infection. In the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is indicated for dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, bronchitis, pertussis, asthma, children’s diarrhoea, laryngitis, tonsillitis and enuresis in children.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiputrescent, antirheumatic, antiseptic (intestinal, pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antitussive, antitoxic, aperitif, astringent, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypertensive, nervine, revulsive, rubefacient, parasiticide, stimulant (immune system, circulation), sudorific, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and flowering tops. 1. ‘Red thyme oil’ is the crude distillate. 2. ‘White thyme oil’ is produced by further redistillation or rectification. (An absolute is also produced in France by solvent extraction for perfumery use.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A red, brown or orange liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, powerful odour. 2. A clear, pale yellow liquid with a sweet, green-fresh, milder scent. It blends well with bergamot, lemon, rosemary, melissa, lavender, lavandin, marjoram, Peru balsam, pine, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thymol and carvacrol (up to 60 per cent), cymene, terpinene, camphene, borneol, linalol; depending on the source it can also contain geraniol, citral and thuyanol, etc.
There are many chemotypes of thyme oil: notably the ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ types (warming and active); the ‘thuyanol’ type (penetrating and antiviral); and the milder ‘linalol’ or ‘citral’ types (sweet-scented, non-irritant).
SAFETY DATA: Red thyme oil, serpolet (from wild thyme), ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ type oils all contain quite large amounts of toxic phenols (carvacrol and thymol). They can irritate mucous membranes, cause dermal irritation and may cause sensitization in some individuals. Use in moderation, in low dilution only. They are best avoided during pregnancy.
White thyme is not a ‘complete’ oil and is often adulterated. Lemon thyme and ‘linalol’types are in general less toxic, non-irritant, with less possibility of sensitization – safe for use on the skin and with children.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, bruises, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, insect bites, lice, gum infections, oily skin, scabies.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, gout, muscular aches and pains, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, sports injuries.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis, sinusitis, sore throat, tonsillitis.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urethritis.
Immune system: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.
Nervous system: Headaches, insomnia, nervous debility and stress-related complaints – ‘helps to revive and strengthen both body and mind’..
OTHER USES: The oil is used in mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes and cough lozenges. ‘Thymol’ is isolated for pharmaceutical use in surgical dressings, disinfectants etc. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, aftershaves, perfumes, colognes, etc. Extensively employed by the food and drink industry, especially in meat products.... thyme, common
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: Terebinth, therebentine, gum thus, gum turpentine, turpentine balsam, spirit of turpentine (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: ‘Gum turpentine’ is a term loosely applied to the natural oleoresin formed as a physiological product in the trunks of various Pinus, Picea and Abies species. Turpentine refers both to the crude oleoresin (a mixture of oil and resin) and to the distilled and rectified essential oils.
DISTRIBUTION: All over the world. The largest producer is the USA, also Mexico, France, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Scandinavia, New Zealand, Tasmania, India, China, the USSR, etc.
OTHER SPECIES: Apart from the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), which is the leading source of American gum turpentine, other sources in the USA include the slash pine (P. elliottii) and the Mexican white pine (P. ayacahuite). In India the chir pine (P. roxburghii); in Tasmania the lodgepole pine (P. contorta var. latifolia); in China the masson or Southern red pine (P. massoniana); in Europe and Scandinavia the Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) and the sea pine (P. pinaster), as well as many others. See Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Known to Galen and Hippocrates for its many applications, especially with regard to pulmonary and genito-urinary infections, digestive complaints and externally as a treatment for rheumatic or neuralgic pain and skin conditions. In China the oleoresin has been used (both internally and externally) for centuries for excess phlegm, bronchitis, rheumatism, stiff joints, toothache, boils, sores, ringworm and dermatitis.
The turpentine essence or spirit of turpentine is said to be four times more active than the crude turpentine.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, diuretic, cicatrisant, counter-irritant, expectorant, haemostatic, parasiticide, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleoresin, then rectified. ‘It has to be purified because it is viscous, coloured and acidic.’.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless, water white mobile liquid with a fresh, warm balsamic, familiar odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly alphapinene (approx. 50 per cent), betapinene (25–35 per cent) and carene (20–60 per cent) in the American oils. In European oils the alpha pinene can constitute up to 95 per cent – constituents vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Environmental hazard – marine pollutant. Relatively non-toxic and non-irritant; possible sensitization in some individuals. Avoid therapeutic use or employ in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Use with care for:
Skin care: Boils, cuts, fleas, insect repellent, lice, ringworm, scabies, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sciatica.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, whooping cough.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, urethritis.
Immune system: Colds.
Nervous system: Neuralgia.
OTHER USES: Used in many ointments and lotions for aches and pains; and in cough and cold remedies. Neither oil nor oleoresin is used in perfumery work, although resin derivatives are used as fixative agents and in pine and industrial perfumes. Mainly known as a paint and stain remover, solvent and insecticide. Also used as a starting material for the production of terpineol, etc.... turpentine
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