Human Organs Transplants Act: From 1 Different Sources
UK legislation that lays down the framework and rules governing organ transplantation. The UK Transplant Support Service Authority (UKTSSA), a special health authority set up in 1991, is responsible for administering the NHS Organ Donor Registry and the Act (see APPENDIX 7: STATUTORY ORGANISATIONS).
A chronic infectious condition caused by an anaerobic micro-organism, Actinomyces israelii, that often occurs as a COMMENSAL on the gums, teeth and tonsils. Commonest in adult men, the sites most affected are the jaw, lungs and intestine, though the disease can occur anywhere. Suppurating granulomatous tumours develop which discharge an oily, thick pus containing yellowish (‘sulphur’) granules. A slowly progressive condition, actinomycosis usually responds to antibiotic drugs but improvement may be slow and surgery is sometimes needed to drain infected sites. Early diagnosis is important. Treatment is with antibiotics such as penicillin and tetracyclines. The disease occurs in cattle, where it is known as woody tongue.... actinomycosis
A glycoprotein hormone secreted by the PLACENTA in early pregnancy, and stimulating the CORPUS LUTEUM within the ovary (see OVARIES) to secrete OESTROGENS, PROGESTERONE, and relaxin. The hormone is essential for the maintenance of pregnancy up to about 6–8 weeks of gestation. A RADIOIMMUNOASSAY can be used to detect its presence, and pregnancy can be diagnosed as early as six days after conception by testing for it in the urine. Some tumours also secrete human chorionic gonadotrophin, particularly HYDATIDIFORM MOLE, which produces large amounts.... human chorionic gonadotrophin
See DACTINOMYCIN.... actinomycin d
In simple terms, this is the genetic recipe for making a human being. GENOME is a combination of the words gene and chromosome, and a genome is de?ned as all the genetic material – known as deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA – in a cell. Most genes encode sequences of AMINO ACIDS, the constituents of proteins, thus initiating and controlling the replication of an organism. The identi?cation and characterisation of the human genetic puzzle have been a key bioscience research target. The Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 (and completed in 2003) to produce a full sequence of the three million base pairs that make up the human genome.
Carried out as two separate exercises – one by a privately funded American team; another by an international joint venture between tax-funded American laboratories, a charitably funded British one and several other smaller research teams from around the world – the ?rst results were announced on 26 June 2000. In February 2001 the privately funded American group, known as Celera Genomics, announced that it had identi?ed 26,558 genes. At the same time the Human Genome Project consortium reported that it had identi?ed 31,000. Allowing for margins of error, this gives a ?gure much lower than the 100,000 or more human genes previously forecast by scientists. Interestingly, genes were found to make up only 3 per cent of the human genome. The remaining 97 per cent of the genome comprises non-coding DNA which, though not involved in producing the protein-initiating genetic activity, does have signi?cant roles in the structure, function and evolution of the genome.
One surprise from the Project so far is that the genetic di?erences between humans and other species seem much smaller than previously expected. For example, the Celera team found that people have only 300 genes that mice do not have; yet, the common ancestor of mice and men probably lived 100 million years or more in the past. Mice and humans, however, have around twice as many genes as the humble fruit ?y.
Cells die out when they become redundant during embryonic development: genes also die out during evolution, according to evidence from the Genome Project – a ?nding that supports the constant evolutionary changes apparent in living things; the Darwinian concept of survival of the ?ttest.
Apart from expanding our scienti?c knowledge, the new information – and promise of much more as the Genome Project continues – should enhance and expand the use of genetic engineering in the prevention and cure of disease. Studies are in progress on the gene for a receptor protein in the brain which will shed light on how the important neurotransmitter SEROTONIN in the brain works, and this, for example, should help the development of better drugs for the treatment of DEPRESSION. Another gene has been found that is relevant to the development of ASTHMA and yet another that is involved in the production of amyloid, a complex protein which is deposited in excessive amounts in both DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME and ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE.... human genome
A protein involved in muscle contraction, in which microscopic filaments of actin and another protein, myosin, slide in between each other.... actin
ACTH is the commonly used abbreviation for CORTICOTROPIN.... acth (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)
See ASH.... action on smoking and health
A family of research methodologies which pursue action (or change) and research (or understanding) at the same time.... action research
The process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age.... active ageing
A concept of functioning – activities of daily living are basic activities that are necessary to independent living, including eating, bathing and toileting. This concept has several assessment tools to determine an individual’s ability to perform the activity with or without assistance. See related “instrumental activities of daily living (IADL)”.... activities of daily living (adl)
A trained staff member who is responsible for leisure activities in a health care programme. Activity coordinators develop programmes for people based on individual abilities and interests.... activity coordinator
See also CORTICOTROPIN. A hormone which is released into the body during stress. Made and stored in the anterior PITUITARY GLAND, ACTH regulates the production of corticosteroid hormones from the ADRENAL GLANDS, and is vital for the growth and maintenance of the adrenal cortical cells. Its production is in part controlled by the amount of HYDROCORTISONE in the blood and also by the HYPOTHALAMUS. ACTH participates in the FEEDBACK MECHANISM of hormone production and actions involving particularly the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The hormone is used to test adrenal function and treat conditions such as ASTHMA. (See also CUSHING’S SYNDROME.)... adrenocorticotrophic hormone (acth)
Collective efforts by communities which are directed towards increasing community control over the determinants of health and thereby improving health.... community action for health
Activities which are essential for daily living, such as self care, mobility and communication.... core activities
The name of the causative agent of AIDS.... hiv (human immunodeficiency virus)
Human skills and capabilities generated by investments in education and health.... human capital
A composite index that measures the overall achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development— longevity, knowledge and a decent standard of living. It is measured by life expectancy, educational attainment and adjusted income per capita in purchasing power parity (PPP) US dollars. The HDI is a summary, not a comprehensive measure of human development.... human development index (hdi)
See ASSISTED CONCEPTION.... human fertilisation & embryology act 1990
See ASSISTED CONCEPTION.... human fertilisation & embryology authority (hfea)
See AIDS/HIV.... human immunodeficiency virus
See HLA SYSTEM.... human leucocyte antigen (hla)
The study of the interrelationships between humans, the tools they use, and the environment in which they live and work.... human-factor research
Activities with aspects of cognitive and social functioning, including shopping, cooking, doing housework, managing money and using the telephone. See also “activities of daily living (ADLs)”.... instrumental activities of daily living (iadl)
A recognized relationship between part or parts of different sectors of society which has been formed to take action on an issue to achieve health outcomes or intermediate health outcomes in a way which is more effective, efficient or sustainable than might be achieved by the health sector acting alone. For practical purposes, intersectoral action and multisectoral action are synonymous terms, the former perhaps emphasizing the element of coordination, the latter the contribution of a number of sectors.... intersectoral action / multisectoral action
See “intersectoral action”.... multisectoral action
A broad intersectoral master plan for attaining national health goals through implementation of a strategy. It indicates what has to be done, who has to do it, during what time-frame, and with what resources. It is a framework leading to more detailed programming, budgeting, implementation and evaluation. It specifies, in operational terms, the steps to be taken in accordance with the strategy, keeping in mind the various objectives and targets to be attained and the programmes for attaining them.... national plan of action
These have almost completely replaced BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT, used to treat malignancies such as LEUKAEMIA and LYMPHOMA for the past 20 years. The high doses of CHEMOTHERAPY or RADIOTHERAPY used to treat these diseases destroy the bone marrow which contains stem cells from which all the blood cells derive. In 1989 stem cells were found in the blood during recovery from chemotherapy. By giving growth factors (cytokines), the number of stem cells in the blood increased for about three to four days. In a peripheral-blood stem-cell transplant, these cells can be separated from the peripheral blood, without a general anaesthetic. The cells taken by either method are then frozen and returned intravenously after the chemotherapy or radiotherapy is completed. Once transplanted, the stem cells usually take less than three weeks to repopulate the blood, compared to a month or more for a bone marrow transplant. This means that there is less risk of infection or bleeding during the recovery from the transplant. The whole procedure has a mortality risk of less than 5 per cent – half the risk of a bone marrow transplant.... peripheral-blood stem-cell transplants
Any form of exercise or movement.... physical activity
Drugs that have the ability to dilate ARTERIES and VEINS and are used to relieve pain in ANGINA of the HEART. Nicorandil is the main example.... potassium-channel activators
A natural PROTEIN that occurs in the body. It has the property of breaking down a THROMBUS in a blood vessel (see THROMBOLYSIS). It is e?ective only in the presence of FIBRIN and activates plasminogen, which occurs normally on the surface of the ?brin. TPA is an important thrombolytic treatment immediately after a myocardial infarction (see HEART, DISEASES OF).... tissue plasminogen activator (tpa, tpa)
An agent which stimulates the adrenal glands thereby increasing secretion of cortisol and adrenal hormones. A herb with a mild cortico-steroid effect. Liquorice. Ginseng. Sarsaparilla. ... adrenal-activator
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. See: BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY. ... mad-cow disease, human
Impulsive actions that may reflect unconscious wishes. The term is most often used by psychotherapists to describe behaviour during analysis when the patient “acts out” rather than reports fantasies, wishes, or beliefs. Acting out can also occur as a reaction to frustrations encountered in everyday life, often taking the form of antisocial, aggressive behaviour.... acting out
Pertaining to changes caused by the ultraviolet rays in sunlight, as in actinic dermatitis (inflammation of the skin) and actinic keratosis (roughness and thickening of the skin).... actinic
Wounds caused by one person biting another. Human bites rarely cause serious tissue damage or blood loss, but infection is likely, particularly if the bite is deep. There is a risk of tetanus infection. Transmission of hepatitis B, herpes simplex, and AIDS by a bite is a theoretical hazard.... bites, human
The complete set of human genetic material. The human genome consists of 23 chromosomes, which, together, contain about 30,000 genes. All body cells contain 2 sets of the 23 chromosomes, one set inherited from the father and the other from the mother. An international research programme, the Human Genome Project, was launched in 1990 with the aim of identifying all the human genes. The first rough draft of the project was published in 2000.... genome, human
A hormone produced by the placenta in early pregnancy. Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen and progesterone, which are needed for a healthy pregnancy. HCG is excreted in the urine, and its presence in urine is the basis of pregnancy tests on urine samples. ... gonadotrophin, human chorionic
(HLA) A type of protein belonging to the group known as histocompatibility antigens, which play a role in the immune system.... human leukocyte antigen
See tissue plasminogen activator.... plasminogen activator
A substance produced by body tissues that prevents abnormal blood clotting. Also called , it is produced by the inner lining of blood vessels. can be prepared artificially for use as a thrombolytic drug, which is called alteplase. This is used in the treatment of myocardial infarction, severe angina pectoris, and arterial embolism, including pulmonary embolism. Possible side effects include bleeding or the formation of a haematoma at the injection site and an allergic reaction. (See also fibrinolysis.)... tissue-plasminogen activator
n. a genus of Gram-negative nonmotile aerobic bacteria that are characteristically spherical or rodlike in shape but occasionally grow into branching filaments. Actinobacilli cause disease in animals that can be transmitted to humans.... actinobacillus
n. a genus of Gram-positive nonmotile fungus-like bacteria that cause disease in animals and humans. The species A. israelii is the causative organism of human *actinomycosis.... actinomyces
n. the treatment of disorders with *infrared or *ultraviolet radiation.... actinotherapy
the change in voltage that occurs across the membrane of a nerve or muscle cell when a *nerve impulse is triggered. It is due to the passage of charged particles across the membrane (see depolarization) and is an observable manifestation of the passage of an impulse.... action potential
adj. the ethical distinction between actively doing something to a patient and simply allowing it to happen or failing to act (the acts and omissions doctrine). For instance, doctors should act to save life if possible, but when death is inevitable it is permissible to let it happen, although the prohibition against killing would not allow active intervention. See also dying.... active/passive
(in biochemistry) an energy-dependent process in which certain substances (including ions, some drugs, and amino acids) are able to cross cell membranes against a concentration gradient. The process is inhibited by substances that interfere with cellular metabolism (e.g. high doses of digitalis).... active transport
n. a protein complex that enhances the biosynthesis and secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and helps to regulate the menstrual cycle. Inhibin is closely related and exerts an opposite effect: it down-regulates FSH synthesis and inhibits FSH secretion.... activin
(ADLs) the tasks of everyday life. Basic ADLs include self-care tasks, such as bathing, dressing, eating, grooming, toileting, and moving. Instrumental ADLs include housework, shopping, managing finances, taking medication, and cooking. Inability to perform ADLs is a practical measure of disability in many disorders; problems are much more prevalent in the elderly.... activities of daily living
n. a protein complex formed in muscle between actin and myosin during the process of contraction. See striated muscle.... actomyosin
the toxic effects of a drug produced by repeated administration of small doses at intervals that are not long enough for it to be either broken down or excreted by the body.... cumulative action
(HHS) the major US government agency providing health care. The department was created in 1953 and assumed its current name in 1980. HHS administers more than 300 health and health-related programmes and services, including *Medicare and *Medicaid. Other activities include research, immunization services, and providing financial assistance for low-income families. Almost a quarter of federal spending occurs through HHS.... department of health and human services
a nondepartmental public body set up in 2007 to promote human rights and equality in regard to age, disability, gender, race, religion and belief, pregnancy and maternity, marriage and civil partnership, sexual orientation, and human rights. It replaced the Commission for Racial Equality, the Disability Rights Commission, and the Equal Opportunities Commission.... equality and human rights commission
see human placental lactogen.... human chorionic somatomammotrophin
Acts of the UK parliament in 1990 and 2008, establishing and amending principles for the legal supervision, by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority, of the creation, use, and storage of human embryos outside the body and of their use in treatment and research. The 2008 amendments included a ban on sex selection for social reasons, recognition of same-sex couples as potential legal parents, and regulations related to developing areas of research using embryos. The 1990 Act had also reduced the legal time limit for most abortions from 28 weeks gestation (as in the 1967 Abortion Act) to 24 weeks. Interpretation and regulation of principles and practice in this rapidly developing area of research and practice continue and are often controversial.... human fertilisation and embryology acts
a massive international research project to isolate all the genes in human DNA and determine the sequence of genes on human chromosomes. The project began in 1988 and the full draft sequence was published in 2001; the high-quality sequence was completed in 2003. The human genome comprises some 3 × 109 nucleotide base pairs (see DNA) forming 22,000–25,000 genes, distributed among 23 pairs of chromosomes. Knowledge of the entire human genome has already resulted in the identification of the genes associated with many hereditary disorders and revealed the existence of a genetic basis or component for many other diseases not previously known to have one. Theoretically, this would enable the development of targeted drugs and the large-scale genetic screening of populations. See pharmacogenomics; targeted agent.... human genome project
see HIV.... human immunodeficiency virus
see HLA system.... human leucocyte antigen system
commercially available preparations of *follicle-stimulating hormone and *luteinizing hormone. They are used mainly to treat infertility in women with gonadotrophin deficiency due to hypopituitarism and to stimulate superovulation in women undergoing in vitro fertilization.... human menopausal gonadotrophins
(human chorionic somatomammotrophin) a protein hormone of 190 amino acids produced by the placenta during most but not all pregnancies. Despite its name it does not appear to have a role in lactation and its exact function remains obscure. It does, however, seem to contribute to the development of diabetes in some pregnancies.... human placental lactogen
a legal framework adopted by the United Nations following World War II that sought to define and promote fundamental entitlements, conditions, and freedoms to be afforded to all human beings. In the UK the Human Rights Act 1998 enacts the provisions of the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights, which sets out, via fourteen articles, an individual’s rights, entitlements, and freedoms.... human rights
the UK government agency, established by the Human Tissue Act 2004, that regulates the removal, use, and storage of human organs and tissue from both the living and the deceased for certain purposes as defined by the statute. These purposes include clinical research, clinical audit, and medical education. Anyone handling such material for those purposes should have a licence issued by the authority. Membership of the authority comprises clinical, scientific, academic, and lay representatives.... human tissue authority
the property possessed by some substances of rotating the plane of polarization of polarized light. A compound that rotates the plane to the left is described as laevorotatory (or l-); one that rotates the plane to the right is described as dextrorotatory (or d-).... optical activity
(PAR) a radical approach to public health issues that actively involves communities in collaboration, reflection, data collection, and activities that empower them to improve their own health. See empowerment.... participatory action research
enzymes that convert the inactive substance *plasminogen to the active enzyme *plasmin, which digests blood clots (see fibrinolysis). There are two types of plasminogen activators, *tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase-like plasminogen activator (uPA). See blood coagulation.... plasminogen activators
any one of a class of drugs that enhance the movement of potassium ions through the *ion channels in cell membranes. In the case of smooth muscle cells, such as those in the walls of arteries, their sensitivity to the normal stimuli to contract is reduced. The result is relaxation of the muscle fibres and widening of the arteries. Potassium-channel activators are used for improving the blood supply to the heart muscle in angina pectoris. Possible side-effects include headache, flushing, vomiting, dizziness, and weakness. A currently available member of the class is nicorandil.... potassium-channel activator
the process whereby platelets adhere to collagen released from endothelial cells in damaged blood vessels and aggregate to form a plug. An important metabolic pathway in platelets converts membrane phospholipids to *thromboxane A2 (TXA2), which can activate platelets. ADP, released from platelet granules, and *thrombin are other activators. The adhesive and aggregation reactions of platelets are mediated through surface membrane glycoproteins (Glp), Glp Ib and Glp IIb/IIIa. Aspirin acts as an *antiplatelet drug by irreversibly inhibiting one of the enzymes of this pathway, cyclo-oxygenase. Clopidrogel inhibits the ADP receptor on platelet membranes, and *abciximab blocks platelet aggregation by inhibiting Glp IIb/IIIa (see illustration overleaf).... platelet activation
(electromechanical dissociation) the appearance of normal-looking complexes on the electrocardiogram that are, however, associated with a state of *cardiac arrest. It is usually caused by large pulmonary emboli (see pulmonary embolism), *cardiac tamponade, tension *pneumothorax, severe disturbance of body salt levels, severe haemorrhage, or hypothermia causing severe lack of oxygen to the heart muscle.... pulseless electrical activity
the system of nerve pathways in the brain concerned with the level of consciousness – from the states of sleep, drowsiness, and relaxation to full alertness and attention. The system integrates information from all of the senses and from the cerebrum and cerebellum and determines the overall activity of the brain and the autonomic nervous system and patterns of behaviour during waking and sleeping.... reticular activating system
(tPA, TPA) a natural protein, found in the body and able to be manufactured by genetic engineering, that can break up a thrombus (see thrombolysis). It requires the presence of *fibrin as a cofactor and is able to activate *plasminogen on the fibrin surface, which distinguishes it from the other plasminogen activators, *streptokinase and *urokinase. tPAs include reteplase and tenecteplase, given to treat acute myocardial infarction, and *alteplase.... tissue-type plasminogen activator
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