Habitat: Common in English gardens; native of South America.
Features ? Stem angular, hairy up to one foot high. Lower leaves stalked, spatulate, upper sessile, all hairy. Flower-heads yellow, the tubular florets sterile. Fruit semicircular, angular, rough, no pappus. Taste bitter, smell unpleasantly strong.Part used ? Herb, flowers.Action: Diaphoretic, stimulant, antispasmodic.
The infusion of 1 ounce of the flowers or herb to 1 pint boiling water is prescribed both for internal use in 1-2 tablespoonful doses, and externally as a lotion for chronic ulcers and varicose veins. The infusion is also given to children (in doses according to age) suffering from measles and other feverish and eruptive complaints. Sprained muscles gain relief from the hot fomentation. Marigold is frequently combined with Witch Hazel when a lotion is required.... marigoldInsulin-dependent and non-insulindependent diabetes have a varied pathological pattern and are caused by the interaction of several genetic and environmental factors.
Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) (juvenile-onset diabetes, type 1 diabetes) describes subjects with a severe de?ciency or absence of insulin production. Insulin therapy is essential to prevent KETOSIS – a disturbance of the body’s acid/base balance and an accumulation of ketones in the tissues. The onset is most commonly during childhood, but can occur at any age. Symptoms are acute and weight loss is common.
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) (maturity-onset diabetes, type 2 diabetes) may be further sub-divided into obese and non-obese groups. This type usually occurs after the age of 40 years with an insidious onset. Subjects are often overweight and weight loss is uncommon. Ketosis rarely develops. Insulin production is reduced but not absent.
A new hormone has been identi?ed linking obesity to type 2 diabetes. Called resistin – because of its resistance to insulin – it was ?rst found in mice but has since been identi?ed in humans. Researchers in the United States believe that the hormone may, in part, explain how obesity predisposes people to diabetes. Their hypothesis is that a protein in the body’s fat cells triggers insulin resistance around the body. Other research suggests that type 2 diabetes may now be occurring in obese children; this could indicate that children should be eating a more-balanced diet and taking more exercise.
Diabetes associated with other conditions (a) Due to pancreatic disease – for example, chronic pancreatitis (see PANCREAS, DISORDERS OF); (b) secondary to drugs – for example, GLUCOCORTICOIDS (see PANCREAS, DISORDERS OF); (c) excess hormone production
– for example, growth hormone (ACROMEGALY); (d) insulin receptor abnormalities; (e) genetic syndromes (see GENETIC DISORDERS).
Gestational diabetes Diabetes occurring in pregnancy and resolving afterwards.
Aetiology Insulin-dependent diabetes occurs as a result of autoimmune destruction of beta cells within the PANCREAS. Genetic in?uences are important and individuals with certain HLA tissue types (HLA DR3 and HLA DR4) are more at risk; however, the risks associated with the HLA genes are small. If one parent has IDDM, the risk of a child developing IDDM by the age of 25 years is 1·5–2·5 per cent, and the risk of a sibling of an IDDM subject developing diabetes is about 3 per cent.
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes has no HLA association, but the genetic in?uences are much stronger. The risks of developing diabetes vary with di?erent races. Obesity, decreased exercise and ageing increase the risks of disease development. The risk of a sibling of a NIDDM subject developing NIDDM up to the age of 80 years is 30–40 per cent.
Diet Many NIDDM diabetics may be treated with diet alone. For those subjects who are overweight, weight loss is important, although often unsuccessful. A diet high in complex carbohydrate, high in ?bre, low in fat and aiming towards ideal body weight is prescribed. Subjects taking insulin need to eat at regular intervals in relation to their insulin regime and missing meals may result in hypoglycaemia, a lowering of the amount of glucose in the blood, which if untreated can be fatal (see below).
Oral hypoglycaemics are used in the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes in addition to diet, when diet alone fails to control blood-sugar levels. (a) SULPHONYLUREAS act mainly by increasing the production of insulin;
(b) BIGUANIDES, of which only metformin is available, may be used alone or in addition to sulphonylureas. Metformin’s main actions are to lower the production of glucose by the liver and improve its uptake in the peripheral tissues.
Complications The risks of complications increase with duration of disease.
Diabetic hypoglycaemia occurs when amounts of glucose in the blood become low. This may occur in subjects taking sulphonylureas or insulin. Symptoms usually develop when the glucose concentration falls below 2·5 mmol/l. They may, however, occur at higher concentrations in subjects with persistent hyperglycaemia – an excess of glucose – and at lower levels in subjects with persistent hypo-glycaemia. Symptoms include confusion, hunger and sweating, with coma developing if blood-sugar concentrations remain low. Re?ned sugar followed by complex carbohydrate will return the glucose concentration to normal. If the subject is unable to swallow, glucagon may be given intramuscularly or glucose intravenously, followed by oral carbohydrate, once the subject is able to swallow.
Although it has been shown that careful control of the patient’s metabolism prevents late complications in the small blood vessels, the risk of hypoglycaemia is increased and patients need to be well motivated to keep to their dietary and treatment regime. This regime is also very expensive. All risk factors for the patient’s cardiovascular system – not simply controlling hyperglycaemia – may need to be reduced if late complications to the cardiovascular system are to be avoided.
Diabetes is one of the world’s most serious health problems. Recent projections suggest that the disorder will affect nearly 240 million individuals worldwide by 2010 – double its prevalence in 1994. The incidence of insulin-dependent diabetes is rising in young children; they will be liable to develop late complications.
Although there are complications associated with diabetes, many subjects live normal lives and survive to an old age. People with diabetes or their relatives can obtain advice from Diabetes UK (www.diabetes.org.uk).
Increased risks are present of (a) heart disease, (b) peripheral vascular disease, and (c) cerebrovascular disease.
Diabetic eye disease (a) retinopathy, (b) cataract. Regular examination of the fundus enables any abnormalities developing to be detected and treatment given when appropriate to preserve eyesight.
Nephropathy Subjects with diabetes may develop kidney damage which can result in renal failure.
Neuropathy (a) Symmetrical sensory polyneuropathy; damage to the sensory nerves that commonly presents with tingling, numbness of pain in the feet or hands. (b) Asymmetrical motor diabetic neuropathy, presenting as progressive weakness and wasting of the proximal muscles of legs. (c) Mononeuropathy; individual motor or sensory nerves may be affected. (d) Autonomic neuropathy, which affects the autonomic nervous system, has many presentations including IMPOTENCE, diarrhoea or constipation and postural HYPOTENSION.
Skin lesions There are several skin disorders associated with diabetes, including: (a) necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum, characterised by one or more yellow atrophic lesions on the legs;
(b) ulcers, which most commonly occur on the feet due to peripheral vascular disease, neuropathy and infection. Foot care is very important.
Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs when there is insu?cient insulin present to prevent KETONE production. This may occur before the diagnosis of IDDM or when insu?cient insulin is being given. The presence of large amounts of ketones in the urine indicates excess ketone production and treatment should be sought immediately. Coma and death may result if the condition is left untreated.
Symptoms Thirst, POLYURIA, GLYCOSURIA, weight loss despite eating, and recurrent infections (e.g. BALANITIS and infections of the VULVA) are the main symptoms.
However, subjects with non-insulindependent diabetes may have the disease for several years without symptoms, and diagnosis is often made incidentally or when presenting with a complication of the disease.
Treatment of diabetes aims to prevent symptoms, restore carbohydrate metabolism to as near normal as possible, and to minimise complications. Concentration of glucose, fructosamine and glycated haemoglobin in the blood are used to give an indication of blood-glucose control.
Insulin-dependent diabetes requires insulin for treatment. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes may be treated with diet, oral HYPOGLYCAEMIC AGENTS or insulin.
Insulin All insulin is injected – mainly by syringe but sometimes by insulin pump – because it is inactivated by gastrointestinal enzymes. There are three main types of insulin preparation: (a) short action (approximately six hours), with rapid onset; (b) intermediate action (approximately 12 hours); (c) long action, with slow onset and lasting for up to 36 hours. Human, porcine and bovine preparations are available. Much of the insulin now used is prepared by genetic engineering techniques from micro-organisms. There are many regimens of insulin treatment involving di?erent combinations of insulin; regimens vary depending on the requirements of the patients, most of whom administer the insulin themselves. Carbohydrate intake, energy expenditure and the presence of infection are important determinants of insulin requirements on a day-to-day basis.
A new treatment for diabetes, pioneered in Canada and entering its preliminary clinical trials in the UK, is the transplantation of islet cells of Langerhans from a healthy person into a patient with the disorder. If the transplantation is successful, the transplanted cells start producing insulin, thus reducing or eliminating the requirement for regular insulin injections. If successful the trials would be a signi?cant advance in the treatment of diabetes.
Scientists in Israel have developed a drug, Dia Pep 277, which stops the body’s immune system from destroying pancratic ? cells as happens in insulin-dependent diabetes. The drug, given by injection, o?ers the possibility of preventing type 1 diabetes in healthy people at genetic risk of developing the disorder, and of checking its progression in affected individuals whose ? cells are already perishing. Trials of the drug are in progress.... diabetes mellitus
Uses Compounds of magnesia are used to correct hyperacidity of the stomach and as a laxative (see LAXATIVES).... magnesium
(b) active movements, which are performed with the combined assistance of masseur/masseuse and patient. Massage is also often combined with baths and gymnastics in order to strengthen various muscles. It helps to improve circulation, prevent adhesions in injured tissues, relax muscular spasm, improve muscle tone and reduce any oedema. (See also CARDIAC MASSAGE.)
Massage for medical conditions is best done by trained practitioners. A complete list of members of the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy can be obtained on application to the Secretary of the Society.... massage
Breast reconstructive surgery (MAMMOPLASTY) may be done at the same time as the mastectomy – the preferred option – or, if that is not feasible, at a later date. Where the whole breast has been excised, some form of arti?cial breast (prosthesis) will be provided. This may be an external prosthesis ?tted into a specially made brassiere, or an internal implant – perhaps a silicone bag, though there has been controversy over the safety of this device. Reconstructive techniques involving the transfer of skin and muscle from nearby areas are also being developed. Post-operatively, patients can obtain advice from Breast Cancer Care.... mastectomy
Epidemiology There has been a dramatic fall in the number of sufferers from 1986, when more than 80,000 cases were reported. This is due to the introduction in 1988 of the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine (MMR VACCINE – see also IMMUNISATION); 1990, when the proportion of children immunised reached 90 per cent, was the ?rst year in which no deaths from measles were reported. Even so, fears of side-effects of the vaccine against measles – including scienti?cally unproven and discredited claims of a link with AUTISM – mean that some children in the UK are not being immunised, and since 2002 local outbreaks of measles have been reported in a few areas of the UK. Side-effects are, however, rare and the government is campaigning to raise the rate of immunisation, with GPs being set targets for their practices.
There are few diseases as infectious as measles, and its rapid spread in epidemics is no doubt due to the fact that this viral infection is most potent in the earlier stages. Hence the dif?culty of timely isolation, and the readiness with which the disease is spread, which is mostly by infected droplets. In developing countries measles results in the death of more than a million children annually.
Symptoms The incubation period, during which the child is well, lasts 7–21 days. Initial symptoms are CATARRH, conjunctivitis (see EYE, DISORDERS OF), fever and a feeling of wretchedness. Then Koplik spots – a classic sign of measles – appear on the roof of the mouth and lining of the cheeks. The macular body rash, typical of measles, appears 3–5 days later. Common complications include otitis media (see under EAR, DISEASES OF) and PNEUMONIA. Measles ENCEPHALITIS can cause permanent brain damage. A rare event is a gradual dementing disease (see DEMENTIA) called subacute sclerosing panenecephalitis (SSPE).
Treatment Isolation of the patient and treatment of any secondary bacterial infection, such as pneumonia or otitis, with antibiotics. Children usually run a high temperature which can be relieved with cool sponging and antipyretic drugs. Calamine lotion may alleviate any itching.... measles
(2) A drug used to treat an individual with an illness or injury (see MEDICINES).
(3) The diagnosis and treatment of those diseases not normally requiring surgical intervention.
Defensive medicine Diagnostic or treatment procedures undertaken by practitioners in which they aim to reduce the likelihood of legal action by patients. This may result in requests for investigations that, arguably, are to provide legal cover for the doctor rather than more certain clinical diagnosis for the patient.... medicine
Bacterial meningitis is life-threatening: in the United Kingdom, 5–10 per cent of children who contract the disease may die. Most cases of acute bacterial meningitis in the UK are caused by two bacteria: Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcus), and Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus); other bacteria include Haemophilus in?uenzae (a common cause until virtually wiped out by immunisation), Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (see TUBERCULOSIS), Treponema pallidum (see SYPHILIS) and Staphylococci spp. Of the bacterial infections, meningococcal group B is the type that causes a large number of cases in the UK, while group A is less common.
Bacterial meningitis may occur by spread from nearby infected foci such as the nasopharynx, middle ear, mastoid and sinuses (see EAR, DISEASES OF). Direct infection may be the result of penetrating injuries of the skull from accidents or gunshot wounds. Meningitis may also be a complication of neurosurgery despite careful aseptic precautions. Immuno-compromised patients – those with AIDS or on CYTOTOXIC drugs – are vulnerable to infections.
Spread to contacts may occur in schools and similar communities. Many people harbour the meningococcus without developing meningitis. In recent years small clusters of cases, mainly in schoolchildren and young people at college, have occurred in Britain.
Symptoms include malaise accompanied by fever, severe headache, PHOTOPHOBIA, vomiting, irritability, rigors, drowsiness and neurological disturbances. Neck sti?ness and a positive KERNIG’S SIGN appearing within a few hours of infection are key diagnostic signs. Meningococcal and pneumococcal meningitis may co-exist with SEPTICAEMIA, a much more serious condition in terms of death rate or organ damage and which constitutes a grave emergency demanding rapid treatment.
Diagnosis and treatment are urgent and, if bacterial meningitis is suspected, antibiotic treatment should be started even before laboratory con?rmation of the infection. Analysis of the CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) by means of a LUMBAR PUNCTURE is an essential step in diagnosis, except in patients for whom the test would be dangerous as they have signs of raised intracranial pressure. The CSF is clear or turbid in viral meningitis, turbid or viscous in tuberculous infection and turbulent or purulent when meningococci or staphylococci are the infective agents. Cell counts and biochemical make-up of the CSF are other diagnostic pointers. Serological tests are done to identify possible syphilitic infection, which is now rare in Britain.
Patients with suspected meningitis should be admitted to hospital quickly. General pracitioners are encouraged to give a dose of intramuscular penicillin before sending the child to hospital. Treatment in hospital is usually with a cephalosporin, such as ceftazidime or ceftriaxone. Once the sensitivity of the organism is known as a result of laboratory studies on CSF and blood, this may be changed to penicillin or, in the case of H. in?uenzae, to amoxicillin. Local infections such as SINUSITIS or middle-ear infection require treatment, and appropriate surgery for skull fractures or meningeal tears should be carried out as necessary. Tuberculous meningitis is treated for at least nine months with anti-tuberculous drugs (see TUBERCULOSIS). If bacterial meningitis causes CONVULSIONS, these can be controlled with diazepam (see TRANQUILLISERS; BENZODIAZEPINES) and ANALGESICS will be required for the severe headache.
Coexisting septicaemia may require full intensive care with close attention to intravenous ?uid and electrolyte balance, control of blood clotting and blood pressure.
Treatment of close contacts such as family, school friends, medical and nursing sta? is recommended if the patient has H. in?uenzae or N. meningitidis: RIFAMPICIN provides e?ective prophylaxis. Contacts of patients with pneumococcal infection do not need preventive treatment. Vaccines for meningococcal meningitis may be given to family members in small epidemics and to any contacts who are especially at risk such as infants, the elderly and immuno-compromised individuals.
The outlook for a patient with bacterial meningitis depends upon age – the young and old are vulnerable; speed of onset – sudden onset worsens the prognosis; and how quickly treatment is started – hence the urgency of diagnosis and admission to hospital. Recent research has shown that children who suffer meningitis in their ?rst year of life are ten times more likely to develop moderate or severe disability by the age of ?ve than contemporaries who have not been infected. (See British Medical Journal, 8 September 2001, page 523.)
Prevention One type of bacterial meningitis, that caused by Haemophilus, has been largely controlled by IMMUNISATION; meningococcal C vaccine has largely prevented this type of the disease in the UK. So far, no vaccine against group B has been developed, but research continues. Information on meningitis can be obtained from the Meningitis Trust and the Meningitis Research Foundation.... meningitis
Menstruation depends upon a functioning ovary (see OVARIES) and this upon a healthy PITUITARY GLAND. The regular rhythm may depend upon a centre in the HYPOTHALAMUS, which is in close connection with the pituitary. After menstruation, the denuded uterine ENDOMETRIUM is regenerated under the in?uence of the follicular hormone, oestradiol. The epithelium of the endometrium proliferates, and about a fortnight after the beginning of menstruation great development of the endometrial glands takes place under the in?uence of progesterone, the hormone secreted by the CORPUS LUTEUM. These changes are made for the reception of the fertilised OVUM. In the absence of fertilisation the uterine endometrium breaks down in the subsequent menstrual discharge.
Disorders of menstruation In most healthy women, menstruation proceeds regularly for 30 years or more, with the exceptions connected with childbirth. In many women, however, menstruation may be absent, excessive or painful. The term amenorrhoea is applied to the condition of absent menstruation; the terms menorrhagia and metrorrhagia describe excessive menstrual loss – the former if the excess occurs at the regular periods, and the latter if it is irregular. Dysmenorrhoea is the name given to painful menstruation. AMENORRHOEA If menstruation has never occurred, the amenorrhoea is termed primary; if it ceases after having once become established it is known as secondary amenorrhoea. The only value of these terms is that some patients with either chromosomal abnormalities (see CHROMOSOMES) or malformations of the genital tract fall into the primary category. Otherwise, the age of onset of symptoms is more important.
The causes of amenorrhoea are numerous and treatment requires dealing with the primary cause. The commonest cause is pregnancy; psychological stress or eating disorders can cause amenorrhoea, as can poor nutrition or loss of weight by dieting, and any serious underlying disease such as TUBERCULOSIS or MALARIA. The excess secretion of PROLACTIN, whether this is the result of a micro-adenoma of the pituitary gland or whether it is drug induced, will cause amenorrhoea and possibly GALACTORRHOEA as well. Malfunction of the pituitary gland will result in a failure to produce the gonadotrophic hormones (see GONADOTROPHINS) with consequent amenorrhoea. Excessive production of cortisol, as in CUSHING’S SYNDROME, or of androgens (see ANDROGEN) – as in the adreno-genital syndrome or the polycystic ovary syndrome – will result in amenorrhoea. Amenorrhoea occasionally follows use of the oral contraceptive pill and may be associated with both hypothyroidism (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF) and OBESITY.
Patients should be reassured that amenorrhoea can often be successfully treated and does not necessarily affect their ability to have normal sexual relations and to conceive. When weight loss is the cause of amenorrhoea, restoration of body weight alone can result in spontaneous menstruation (see also EATING DISORDERS – Anorexia nervosa). Patients with raised concentration of serum gonadotrophin hormones have primary ovarian failure, and this is not amenable to treatment. Cyclical oestrogen/progestogen therapy will usually establish withdrawal bleeding. If the amenorrhoea is due to mild pituitary failure, menstruation may return after treatment with clomiphene, a nonsteroidal agent which competes for oestrogen receptors in the hypothalamus. The patients who are most likely to respond to clomiphene are those who have some evidence of endogenous oestrogen and gonadotrophin production. IRREGULAR MENSTRUATION This is a change from the normal monthly cycle of menstruation, the duration of bleeding or the amount of blood lost (see menorrhagia, below). Such changes may be the result of an upset in the balance of oestrogen and progesterone hormones which between them control the cycle. Cycles may be irregular after the MENARCHE and before the menopause. Unsuspected pregnancy may manifest itself as an ‘irregularity’, as can an early miscarriage (see ABORTION). Disorders of the uterus, ovaries or organs in the pelvic cavity can also cause irregular menstruation. Women with the condition should seek medical advice. MENORRHAGIA Abnormal bleeding from the uterus during menstruation. A woman loses on average about 60 ml of blood during her period; in menorrhagia this can rise to 100 ml. Some women have this problem occasionally, some quite frequently and others never. One cause is an imbalance of progesterone and oestrogen hormones which between them control menstruation: the result is an abnormal increase in the lining (endometrium) of the uterus, which increases the amount of ‘bleeding’ tissue. Other causes include ?broids, polyps, pelvic infection or an intrauterine contraceptive device (IUD – see under CONTRACEPTION). Sometimes no physical reason for menorrhagia can be identi?ed.
Treatment of the disorder will depend on how severe the loss of blood is (some women will become anaemic – see ANAEMIA – and require iron-replacement therapy); the woman’s age; the cause of heavy bleeding; and whether or not she wants children. An increase in menstrual bleeding may occur in the months before the menopause, in which case time may produce a cure. Medical or surgical treatments are available. Non-steroidal anti-in?ammatory drugs may help, as may tranexamic acid, which prevents the breakdown of blood clots in the circulation (FIBRINOLYSIS): this drug can be helpful if an IUD is causing bleeding. Hormones such as dydrogesterone (by mouth) may cure the condition, as may an IUD that releases small quantities of a PROGESTOGEN into the lining of the womb.
Traditionally, surgical intervention was either dilatation and curettage of the womb lining (D & C) or removal of the whole uterus (HYSTERECTOMY). Most surgery is now done using minimally invasive techniques. These do not require the abdomen to be cut open, as an ENDOSCOPE is passed via the vagina into the uterus. Using DIATHERMY or a laser, the surgeon then removes the whole lining of the womb. DYSMENORRHOEA This varies from discomfort to serious pain, and sometimes includes vomiting and general malaise. Anaemia is sometimes a cause of painful menstruation as well as of stoppage of this function.
In?ammation of the uterus, ovaries or FALLOPIAN TUBES is a common cause of dysmenorrhoea which comes on for the ?rst time late in life, especially when the trouble follows the birth of a child. In this case the pain exists more or less at all times, but is aggravated at the periods. Treatment with analgesics and remedying the underlying cause is called for.
Many cases of dysmenorrhoea appear with the beginning of menstrual life, and accompany every period. It has been estimated that 5–10 per cent of girls in their late teens or early 20s are severely incapacitated by dysmenorrhoea for several hours each month. Various causes have been suggested for the pain, one being an excessive production of PROSTAGLANDINS. There may be a psychological factor in some sufferers and, whether this is the result of inadequate sex instruction, fear, family, school or work problems, it is important to o?er advice and support, which in itself may resolve the dysmenorrhoea. Symptomatic relief is of value.... menstruation
It usually begins at puberty – although young children can be affected – and tends to stop in middle age: in women, for example, attacks often cease after MENOPAUSE. It frequently disappears during pregnancy. The disorder tends to run in families. In susceptible individuals, attacks may be provoked by a wide variety of causes including: anxiety, emotion, depression, shock, and excitement; physical and mental fatigue; prolonged focusing on computer, television or cinema screens; noise, especially loud and high-pitched sounds; certain foods – such as chocolate, cheese, citrus fruits, pastry; alcohol; prolonged lack of food; irregular meals; menstruation and the pre-menstrual period.
Anything that can provoke a headache in the ordinary individual can probably precipitate an attack in a migrainous subject. It seems as if there is an inherited predispostion that triggers a mechanism whereby in the migrainous subject, the headache and the associated sickness persist for hours, a whole day or even longer.
The precise cause is not known, but the generally accepted view is that in susceptible individuals, one or other of these causes produces spasm or constriction of the blood vessels of the brain. This in turn is followed by dilatation of these blood vessels which also become more permeable and so allow ?uid to pass out into the surrounding tissues. This combination of dilatation and outpouring of ?uid is held to be responsible for the headache.
Two types of migraine have been recognised: classical and common. The former is relatively rare and the headache is preceded by a slowly extending area of blindness in one or both eyes, usually accompanied by intermittent ‘lights’. The phenomenon lasts for up to 30 minutes and is followed by a bad, often unilateral headache with nausea, sometimes vomiting and sensitivity to light. Occasionally, passing neurological symptoms such as weakness in a limb may accompany the attack. The common variety has similar but less severe symptoms. It consists of an intense headache, usually situated over one or other eye. The headache is usually preceded by a feeling of sickness and disturbance of sight. In 15–20 per cent of cases this disturbance of sight takes the form of bright lights: the so-called AURA of migraine. The majority of attacks are accompanied by vomiting. The duration of the headache varies, but in the more severe cases the victim is usually con?ned to bed for 24 hours.
Treatment consists, in the ?rst place, of trying to avoid any precipitating factor. Patients must ?nd out which drug, or drugs, give them most relief, and they must always carry these about with them wherever they go. This is because it is a not uncommon experience to be aware of an attack coming on and to ?nd that there is a critical quarter of an hour or so during which the tablets are e?ective. If not taken within this period, they may be ine?ective and the unfortunate victim ?nds him or herself prostrate with headache and vomiting. In addition, sufferers should immediately lie down; at this stage a few hours’ rest may prevent the development of a full attack.
When an attack is fully developed, rest in bed in a quiet, darkened room is essential; any loud noise or bright light intensi?es the headache or sickness. The less food that is taken during an attack the better, provided that the individual drinks as much ?uid as he or she wants. Group therapy, in which groups of around ten migrainous subjects learn how to relax, is often of help in more severe cases, whilst in others the injection of a local anaesthetic into tender spots in the scalp reduces the number of attacks. Drug treatment can be e?ective and those a?icted by migraine may ?nd a particular drug or combination of drugs more suitable than others. ANALGESICS such as PARACETAMOL, aspirin and CODEINE phosphate sometimes help. A combination of buclizine hydrochloride and analgesics, taken when the visual aura occurs, prevents or diminishes the severity of an attack in some people. A commonly used remedy for the condition is ergotamine tartrate, which causes the dilated blood vessels to contract, but this must only be taken under medical supervision. In many cases METOCLOPRAMIDE (an antiemetic), followed ten minutes later by three tablets of either aspirin or paracetamol, is e?ective if taken early in an attack. In milder attacks, aspirin, with or without codeine and paracetamol, may be of value. SUMATRIPTAN (5-hydroxytryptamine [5HT1] AGONIST – also known as a SEROTONIN agonist) is of value for acute attacks. It is used orally or by subcutaneous injection, but should not be used for patients with ischaemic heart disease. Naratriptan is another 5HT1 agonist that is an e?ective treatment for acute attacks; others are almotriptan, rizariptan and zolmitriptan. Some patients ?nd beta blockers such as propranolol a valuable prophylactic.
People with migraine and their relatives can obtain help and guidance from the Migraine Action Association.... migraine
Preparation of milk Milk may be prepared for food in various ways. Boiling destroys the bacteria, especially any Mycobacteria tuberculosis which the milk may contain. It also partly destroys vitamin C and thiamine, as does pasteurisation. Curdling of milk is e?ected by adding rennet, which carries out the initial stage of digestion and thus renders milk more suitable for people who could not otherwise tolerate it. Souring of milk is practised in many countries before milk is considered suitable for food; it is carried out by adding certain organisms such as the LACTIC ACID bacillus, the Bulgarian bacillus, and setting the milk in a warm place for several hours. Sterilisation, which prevents fermentation and decomposition, is usually carried out by raising the milk to boiling temperature (100 °C) for 15 minutes and then hermetically sealing it. Condensed, unsweetened milk – usually known as evaporated milk – is concentrated in vacuo at low temperature; the milk is then placed in tins, which are sealed, and is sterilised by heat at a temperature of 105 °C. This destroys 60 per cent of the vitamin C and 30–50 per cent of the thiamine. Sweetened condensed milk is not exposed to such a high temperature. The sugar, which prevents the growth of micro-organisms, is added before the condensing, and ?nally reaches a concentration of about 40 per cent.
Dried milk is prepared by evaporating all the ?uid so that the milk is reduced to the form of powder. Humanised milk is cow’s milk treated to render it closely similar to human milk.... milk
Habitat: Hedgerows and about walls.
Features ? Stem up to four feet, angular, longitudinal channels. Leaves alternate, five to seven lobes, silvery-white down beneath, nearly smooth above. Flowers (July and August) ovoid, purplish, in clusters. Odour aromatic, leaves slightly bitter.Part used ? Leaves.Action: Emmenagogue, diuretic, diaphoretic.
In menstrual obstruction, usually with Pennyroyal and Southernwood. Infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint boiling water, wineglass doses.... mugworthas no connection with foot and mouth disease in cattle, deer, pigs and sheep.... hand, foot and mouth disease
Habitat: Low-lying meadows, sides of ditches.
Features ? Stem strong, woody, reddish hue, three or four feet high. Leaves in large and small pairs, alternate, serrate ; end leaf has three leaflets with longer one in middle ; dark green on top surface, white and downy underneath. Flowers small, creamy white, clustered in large, dense cymes.Part used ? Herb.Action: Astringent, diuretic, aromatic, tonic.
The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion is taken in wineglassful doses for stranguryand dropsy. It is especially useful in infantile diarrhea.Meadowsweet is included in recipes for many herb beers, its pleasantly aromatic, tonic and diuretic qualities making it particularly suitable for this purpose.... meadowsweetTwo types of sperm cells are produced: one contains 22 autosomes and a Y sex chromosome (see SEX CHROMOSOMES); the other, 22 autosomes and an X sex chromosome. All the ova, however, produced by normal meiosis have 22 autosomes and an X sex chromosome.
Two divisions of the NUCLEUS occur (see also CELLS) and only one division of the chromosomes, so that the number of chromosomes in the ova and sperms is half that of the somatic cells. Each chromosome pair divides so that the gametes receive only one member of each pair. The number of chromosomes is restored to full complement at fertilisation so that the zygote has a complete set, each chromosome from the nucleus of the sperm pairing up with its corresponding partner from the ovum.
The ?rst stage of meiosis involves the pairing of homologous chromosomes which join together and synapse lengthwise. The chromosomes then become doubled by splitting along their length and the chromatids so formed are held together by centromeres. As the homologous chromosomes – one of which has come from the mother, and the other from the father – are lying together, genetic interchange can take place between the chromatids and in this way new combinations of GENES arise. All four chromatids are closely interwoven and recombination may take place between any maternal or any paternal chromatids. This process is known as crossing over or recombination. After this period of interchange, homologous chromosomes move apart, one to each pole of the nucleus. The cell then divides and the nucleus of each new cell now contains 23 and not 46 chromosomes. The second meiotic division then occurs, the centromeres divide and the chromatids move apart to opposite poles of the nucleus so there are still 23 chromosomes in each of the daughter nuclei so formed. The cell divides again so that there are four gametes, each containing a half number (haploid) set of chromosomes. However, owing to the recombination or crossing over, the genetic material is not identical with either parent or with other spermatozoa.... meiosis
These membranes bear the blood vessels which nourish the surface of the brain and the interior of the skull. Meningeal haemorrhage from these vessels forms one of the chief dangers arising from fracture of the skull.... meninges
Cup of Chamomile, Balm, or Meadowsweet tea. Liquorice helpful, but most popular is Ginger taken in the form of Ginger wine, or powdered root (quarter to half a teaspoon). Chrystalised Ginger from sweetshop is one of the safest and cheapest: 2-3 pieces sucked or chewed half hour before journey and at intervals thereafter.
Avoid tobacco which reduces oxygen count. Potter’s Ginger root capsules.
Peppermint. Before travelling, glass water with 2 drops.
Aromatherapy. Inhalant. 2-3 drops Peppermint oil on tissue.
Diet. No alcohol or fatty foods. Accept Papaya fruit, Lemons or Lemon juice, Honey, Acidophilus. Supplements. Alternatives to the above. Seven days before journey: B-complex, magnesium 200mg, calcium 400mg. ... motion sickness
Uses In the past, mercuric salts were used as ANTISEPTICS, anti-parasitic agents and fungicides. Mercury has been widely used in dental amalgams for ?lling teeth. Because of their toxicity, mercury compounds must not be taken internally.
Mercury has traditionally been used in thermometers for recording body temperature, and in sphygmomanometers for measuring a person’s BLOOD PRESSURE. These instruments have been largely replaced in the UK by electronic devices that do not require mercury.... mercury
Side-effects include suppression of myelocytes in bone marrow, in?ammation of mucous membranes, and, rarely, PNEUMONITIS. It should be avoided whenever signi?cant renal impairment is present, while signi?cant pleural e?usion or ascites is also a contraindication. Blood counts should be carefully monitored whenever intrathecal methotrexate is given. Oral or parenteral folinic acid helps to prevent, or to speed recovery from, myelosuppression or mucositis.
Methotrexate is used in dermatology, where it may be indicated for cases of severe uncontrolled PSORIASIS unresponsive to conventional therapy; it may also be indicated for severe active RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS. Because of its potentially severe haematological, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and other toxicities it should be used only by specialists and appropriate renal and liver function tests carried out before and during treatment. It should be avoided in pregnancy, and conception should be avoided for at least six months after stopping, as should breast feeding. Concurrent administration of aspirin or other NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) reduces methotrexate excretion, increasing its toxicity, and should therefore be avoided whenever possible.... methotrexate
Caution is indicated in prescribing metoclopramide for elderly and young patients, and whenever hepatic or renal impairment is present, and it should be avoided in pregnancy or cases of PORPHYRIAS. Adverse effects include extrapyramidal effects (see under EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYSTEM) and HYPERPROLACTINAEMIA with occasional TARDIVE DYSKINESIA on prolonged administration. There have also been occasional reports of drowsiness, restlessness, diarrhoea, depression and neuroleptic malignant syndrome, with rare cardiac conduction abnormalities following intravenous administration.... metoclopramide
Among the smallest and simplest microorganisms are the viruses. First described as ?lterable agents, and ranging in size from 20–30 nm to 300 nm, they may be directly visualised only by electron microscopy. They consist of a core of deoxyribonucleic or ribonucleic acid (DNA or RNA) within a protective protein coat, or capsid, whose subunits confer a geometric symmetry. Thus viruses are usually cubical (icosahedral) or helical; the larger viruses (pox-, herpes-, myxo-viruses) may also have an outer envelope. Their minimal structure dictates that viruses are all obligate parasites, relying on living cells to provide essential components for their replication. Apart from animal and plant cells, viruses may infect and replicate in bacteria (bacteriophages) or fungi (mycophages), which are damaged in the process.
Bacteria are larger (0·01–5,000 µm) and more complex. They have a subcellular organisation which generally includes DNA and RNA, a cell membrane, organelles such as ribosomes, and a complex and chemically variable cell envelope – but, unlike EUKARYOTES, no nucleus. Rickettsiae, chlamydia, and mycoplasmas, once thought of as viruses because of their small size and absence of a cell wall (mycoplasma) or major wall component (chlamydia), are now acknowledged as bacteria; rickettsiae and chlamydia are intracellular parasites of medical importance. Bacteria may also possess additional surface structures, such as capsules and organs of locomotion (?agella) and attachment (?mbriae and stalks). Individual bacterial cells may be spheres (cocci); straight (bacilli), curved (vibrio), or ?exuous (spirilla) rods; or oval cells (coccobacilli). On examination by light microscopy, bacteria may be visible in characteristic con?gurations (as pairs of cocci [diplococci], or chains [streptococci], or clusters); actinomycete bacteria grow as ?laments with externally produced spores. Bacteria grow essentially by increasing in cell size and dividing by ?ssion, a process which in ideal laboratory conditions some bacteria may achieve about once every 20 minutes. Under natural conditions, growth is usually much slower.
Eukaryotic micro-organisms comprise fungi, algae, and protozoa. These organisms are larger, and they have in common a well-developed internal compartmentation into subcellular organelles; they also have a nucleus. Algae additionally have chloroplasts, which contain photosynthetic pigments; fungi lack chloroplasts; and protozoa lack both a cell wall and chloroplasts but may have a contractile vacuole to regulate water uptake and, in some, structures for capturing and ingesting food. Fungi grow either as discrete cells (yeasts), multiplying by budding, ?ssion, or conjugation, or as thin ?laments (hyphae) which bear spores, although some may show both morphological forms during their life-cycle. Algae and protozoa generally grow as individual cells or colonies of individuals and multiply by ?ssion.
Micro-organisms of medical importance include representatives of the ?ve major microbial groups that obtain their essential nutrients at the expense of their hosts. Many bacteria and most fungi, however, are saprophytes (see SAPROPHYTE), being major contributors to the natural cycling of carbon in the environment and to biodeterioration; others are of ecological and economic importance because of the diseases they cause in agricultural or horticultural crops or because of their bene?cial relationships with higher organisms. Additionally, they may be of industrial or biotechnological importance. Fungal diseases of humans tend to be most important in tropical environments and in immuno-compromised subjects.
Pathogenic (that is, disease-causing) microorganisms have special characteristics, or virulence factors, that enable them to colonise their hosts and overcome or evade physical, biochemical, and immunological host defences. For example, the presence of capsules, as in the bacteria that cause anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), one form of pneumonia (Streptococcus pneumoniae), scarlet fever (S. pyogenes), bacterial meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus in?uenzae) is directly related to the ability to cause disease because of their antiphagocytic properties. Fimbriae are related to virulence, enabling tissue attachment – for example, in gonorrhoea (N. gonorrhoeae) and cholera (Vibrio cholerae). Many bacteria excrete extracellular virulence factors; these include enzymes and other agents that impair the host’s physiological and immunological functions. Some bacteria produce powerful toxins (excreted exotoxins or endogenous endotoxins), which may cause local tissue destruction and allow colonisation by the pathogen or whose speci?c action may explain the disease mechanism. In Staphylococcus aureus, exfoliative toxin produces the staphylococcal scalded-skin syndrome, TSS toxin-1 toxic-shock syndrome, and enterotoxin food poisoning. The pertussis exotoxin of Bordetella pertussis, the cause of whooping cough, blocks immunological defences and mediates attachment to tracheal cells, and the exotoxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae causes local damage resulting in a pronounced exudate in the trachea.
Viruses cause disease by cellular destruction arising from their intracellular parasitic existence. Attachment to particular cells is often mediated by speci?c viral surface proteins; mechanisms for evading immunological defences include latency, change in viral antigenic structure, or incapacitation of the immune system – for example, destruction of CD 4 lymphocytes by the human immunode?ciency virus.... microbiology
– for example, PILOCARPINE or OPIUM – have the same e?ect.... miosis
Habitat: Parasitic on the Oak, Hawthorn, Apple and many other trees.
Features ? This familiar evergreen is a true parasite, receiving no nourishment from the soil, nor even from the decaying bark. The leaves are obtuse lance-shaped, broader towards the end, sessile, and grow from a smooth-jointed stem about a foot high. The flower-heads are yellowish and the berries white. The plant is tasteless and without odour.Part used ? Leaves.Action: Highly valued as a nervine and antispasmodic.
Mistletoe leaves are given in hysteria, epilepsy, chorea and other diseases of the nervous system. As an anti-spasmodic and tonic it is used in cardiac dropsy.Culpeper is at his most "Culpeperish" in discussing this plant, as witness:"The birdlime doth mollify hard knots, tumours and imposthumes, ripeneth and discuteth them; and draweth thick as well as thin humours from remote parts of the body, digesting and separating them. And being mixed with equal parts of resin and wax, doth mollify the hardness of the spleen, and healeth old ulcers and sores. Being mixed with Sandarack and Orpiment, it helpeth to draw off foul nails; and if quicklime and wine lees be added thereunto it worketh the stronger. Both the leaves and berries of Mistletoe do heat and dry, and are of subtle parts."While some truth may be hidden behind all this quaint terminology, it is feared that the modern herbal consultant would encounter serious difficulties if he attempted to follow the Culpeperian procedure too literally—although certain people still believe, or affect to believe, that he does so!The birdlime mentioned in the quotation and also in the synonyms is the resin viscin, from the Latin viscum, birdlime.MOUNTAIN FLAX.Linum cartharticum. N.O. LinaceaeSynonym: Purging Flax.Habitat: Heaths, moorlands; occasionally meadows and pastures.
Features ? Stem simple, up to eight inches high. Leaves opposite, small, lower obovate, higher lanceolate, entire. Flowers small, white (June to September), five-parted with serrate sepals, pointed petals. Taste, bitter and acrid.Part used ? Herb.Action: Laxative, cathartic.
In constipation, action similar to Senna, and sometimes preferred to the latter; rarely gripes. Occasionally prescribed with diuretics, etc., for gravel and dropsy. Combined with tonics and stomachics such as Gentian and Calumba root, makes a first-rate family medicine. Dose, wineglass of the ounce to pint infusion.... mistletoeUnder normal conditions the surface of a mucous membrane is lubricated by only a small quantity of mucus; the appearance of large quantities is a sign of in?ammation.... mucus
Habitat: Flourishes in sandy and gravelly waste ground, and is sometimes noticed under garden cultivation.
Features ? Reaching a height of four feet, the thick, erect, un-branched stem isheavily coated with hairs. The large, flannel-like leaves are lanceolate-oblong below, the upper ones becoming decurrent, smaller, and more ovate in shape. Characteristic of the plant, leaves narrow at the base into two wings which pass down the stem, this feature enabling the medicinal Mullein to be distinguished from Verbascum nigrum and various other Mulleins. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are built of five golden-yellow, rounded petals, and are densely packed on a woolly spike some foot or more in length.Part used ? Leaves and flowers.Action: Demulcent, pectoral and astringent.
A medicine is made by infusing 1 ounce in 1 pint of boiling water, the usual dose being a wineglassful, taken frequently. This is recommended mainly for chest coughs and certain other pulmonary complaints. Mullein has been considered a pile cure for several hundred years, and is still used for this purpose both internally and as a fomentation.Culpeper preferred the root to the leaves and flowers, and advised it to be taken in wine. He tells us that this "is commended by Dioscorides against lasks and fluxes of the belly."... mulleinStructure of muscle Skeletal or voluntary muscle forms the bulk of the body’s musculature and contains more than 600 such muscles. They are classi?ed according to their methods of action. A ?exor muscle closes a joint, an extensor opens it; an abductor moves a body part outwards, an adductor moves it in; a depressor lowers a body part and an elevator raises it; while a constrictor (sphincter) muscle surrounds an ori?ce, closing and opening it. Each muscle is enclosed in a sheath of ?brous tissue, known as fascia or epimysium, and, from this, partitions of ?brous tissue, known as perimysium, run into the substance of the muscle, dividing it up into small bundles. Each of these bundles consists in turn of a collection of ?bres, which form the units of the muscle. Each ?bre is about 50 micrometres in thickness and ranges in length from a few millimetres to 300 millimetres. If the ?bre is cut across and examined under a high-powered microscope, it is seen to be further divided into ?brils. Each ?bre is enclosed in an elastic sheath of its own, which allows it to lengthen and shorten, and is known as the sarcolemma. Within the sarcolemma lie numerous nuclei belonging to the muscle ?bre, which was originally developed from a simple cell. To the sarcolemma, at either end, is attached a minute bundle of connective-tissue ?bres which unites the muscle ?bre to its neighbours, or to one of the connective-tissue partitions in the muscle, and by means of these connections the ?bre affects muscle contraction. Between the muscle ?bres, and enveloped in a sheath of connective tissue, lie here and there special structures known as muscle-spindles. Each of these contains thin muscle ?bres, numerous nuclei, and the endings of sensory nerves. (See TOUCH.) The heart muscle comprises short ?bres which communicate with their neighbours via short branches and have no sarcolemma.
Plain or unstriped muscle is found in the following positions: the inner and middle coats of the STOMACH and INTESTINE; the ureters (see URETER) and URINARY BLADDER; the TRACHEA and bronchial tubes; the ducts of glands; the GALL-BLADDER; the UTERUS and FALLOPIAN TUBES; the middle coat of the blood and lymph vessels; the iris and ciliary muscle of the EYE; the dartos muscle of the SCROTUM; and in association with the various glands and hairs in the SKIN. The ?bres are very much smaller than those of striped muscle, although they vary greatly in size. Each has one or more oval nuclei and a delicate sheath of sarcolemma enveloping it. The ?bres are grouped in bundles, much as are the striped ?bres, but they adhere to one another by cement material, not by the tendon bundles found in voluntary muscle.
Development of muscle All the muscles of the developing individual arise from the central layer (mesoderm) of the EMBRYO, each ?bre taking origin from a single cell. Later on in life, muscles have the power both of increasing in size – as the result of use, for example, in athletes – and also of healing, after parts of them have been destroyed by injury. An example of the great extent to which unstriped muscle can develop to meet the demands made on it is the uterus, whose muscular wall develops so much during pregnancy that the organ increases from the weight of 30–40 g (1–1••• oz.) to a weight of around 1 kg (2 lb.), decreasing again to its former small size in the course of a month after childbirth.
Physiology of contraction A muscle is an elaborate chemico-physical system for producing heat and mechanical work. The total energy liberated by a contracting muscle can be exactly measured. From 25–30 per cent of the total energy expended is used in mechanical work. The heat of contracting muscle makes an important contribution to the maintenance of the heat of the body. (See also MYOGLOBIN.)
The energy of muscular contraction is derived from a complicated series of chemical reactions. Complex substances are broken down and built up again, supplying each other with energy for this purpose. The ?rst reaction is the breakdown of adenyl-pyrophosphate into phosphoric acid and adenylic acid (derived from nucleic acid); this supplies the immediate energy for contraction. Next phosphocreatine breaks down into creatine and phosphoric acid, giving energy for the resynthesis of adenyl-pyrophosphate. Creatine is a normal nitrogenous constituent of muscle. Then glycogen through the intermediary stage of sugar bound to phosphate breaks down into lactic acid to supply energy for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine. Finally part of the lactic acid is oxidised to supply energy for building up the rest of the lactic acid into glycogen again. If there is not enough oxygen, lactic acid accumulates and fatigue results.
All of the chemical changes are mediated by the action of several enzymes (see ENZYME).
Involuntary muscle has several peculiarities of contraction. In the heart, rhythmicality is an important feature – one beat appearing to be, in a sense, the cause of the next beat. Tonus is a character of all muscle, but particularly of unstriped muscle in some localities, as in the walls of arteries.
Fatigue occurs when a muscle is made to act for some time and is due to the accumulation of waste products, especially sarcolactic acid (see LACTIC ACID). These substances affect the end-plates of the nerve controlling the muscle, and so prevent destructive overaction of the muscle. As they are rapidly swept away by the blood, the muscle, after a rest (and particularly if the rest is accompanied by massage or by gentle contractions to quicken the circulation) recovers rapidly from the fatigue. Muscular activity over the whole body causes prolonged fatigue which is remedied by rest to allow for metabolic balance to be re-established.... muscle
It is a classical example of an autoimmune disease (see AUTOIMMUNITY). The body develops ANTIBODIES which interfere with the working of the nerve endings in muscle that are acted on by ACETYLCHOLINE. It is acetylcholine that transmits the nerve impulses to muscles: if this transmission cannot be e?ected, as in myasthenia gravis, then the muscles are unable to contract. Not only the voluntary muscles, but those connected with the acts of swallowing, breathing, and the like, become progressively weaker. Rest and avoidance of undue exertion are necessary, and regular doses of neostigmine bromide, or pyridostigmine, at intervals enable the muscles to be used and in some cases have a curative e?ect. These drugs act by inhibiting the action of cholinesterase – an ENZYME produced in the body which destroys any excess of acetylcholine. In this way they increase the amount of available acetylcholine which compensates for the deleterious e?ect of antibodies on the nerve endings.
The THYMUS GLAND plays the major part in the cause of myasthenia gravis, possibly by being the source of the original acetylcholine receptors to which the antibodies are being formed. Thymectomy (removal of the thymus) is often used in the management of patients with myasthenia gravis. The incidence of remission following thymectomy increases with the number of years after the operation. Complete remission or substantial improvement can be expected in 80 per cent of patients.
The other important aspect in the management of patients with myasthenia gravis is IMMUNOSUPPRESSION. Drugs are now available that suppress antibody production and so reduce the concentration of antibodies to the acetylcholine receptor. The problem is that they not only suppress abnormal antibody production, but also suppress normal antibody production. The main groups of immunosuppressive drugs used in myasthenia gravis are the CORTICOSTEROIDS and AZATHIOPRINE. Improvement following steroids may take several weeks and an initial deterioration is often found during the ?rst week or ten days of treatment. Azathioprine is also e?ective in producing clinical improvement and reducing the antibodies to acetylcholine receptors. These effects occur more slowly than with steroids, and the mean time for an azathioprine remission is nine months.
The Myasthenia Gravis Association, which provides advice and help to sufferers, was created and is supported by myasthenics, their families and friends.... myasthenia gravis
The disease is rare under the age of 30, frequency increasing with age to peak between 60 and 70 years. There may be a long preclinical phase, sometimes as long as 25 years. When symptoms do occur, they tend to re?ect bone involvement, reduced immune function, renal failure, anaemia or hyperviscosity of the blood. Vertebral collapse is common, with nerve root pressure and reduced stature. The disease is eventually fatal, infection being a common cause of death. Local skeletal problems should be treated with RADIOTHERAPY, and the general disease with CHEMOTHERAPY
– chie?y the ALKYLATING AGENTS melphalan or cyclophosphamide. Red-blood-cell TRANSFUSION is usually required, together with plasmapheresis (see PLASMA EXCHANGE), and orthopaedic surgery may be necessary following fractures.... myelomatosis
Myrtilla, Myrtisa, Myrtis, Mertice, Mertis, Mertle, Mirtie, Myrta, Myrtia, Myrtice, Myrtie, Myrtiece, Myrteace, Myrtee... myrtle
– an early graded return to activity gives the best long-term results, but doing too much too soon runs the risk of exacerbating the original injury.
Chronic (overuse) injuries affecting the bones (see BONE), tendons (see TENDON) or BURSAE of the JOINTS are common in many sports. Examples include chronic INFLAMMATION of the common extensor tendon where it
attaches to the later EPICONDYLE of the humerus – common in throwers and racquet sportspeople – and stress fractures of the TIBIA or METATARSAL BONES of the foot in runners. After an initial period of rest, management often involves coaching that enables the athlete to perform the repetitive movement in a less injury-susceptible manner.
Exercise physiology is the science of measuring athletic performance and physical ?tness for exercise. This knowledge is applied to devising and supervising training regimens based on scienti?c principles. Physical ?tness depends upon the rate at which the body can deliver oxygen to the muscles, known as the VO2max, which is technically di?cult to measure. The PULSE rate during and after a bout of exercise serves as a good proxy of this measurement.
Regulation of sport Sports medicine’s role is to minimise hazards for participants by, for example, framing rule-changes which forbid collapsing the scrum, which has reduced the risk of neck injury in rugby; and in the detection of the use of drugs taken to enhance athletic performance. Such attempts to gain an edge in competition undermine the sporting ideal and are banned by leading sports regulatory bodies. The Olympic Movement Anti-Doping Code lists prohibited substances and methods that could be used to enhance performance. These include some prohibited in certain circumstances as well as those completely banned. The latter include:
stimulants such as AMPHETAMINES, bromantan, ca?eine, carphedon, COCAINE, EPHEDRINE and certain beta-2 agonists.
NARCOTICS such as DIAMORPHINE (heroin), MORPHINE, METHADONE HYDROCHLORIDE and PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE.
ANABOLIC STEROIDS such as methandione, NANDROLONE, stanazol, TESTOSTERONE, clenbuterol, androstenedone and certain beta-2 agonists.
peptide HORMONES, mimetics and analogues such as GROWTH HORMONE, CORTICOTROPHIN, CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIC HORMONE, pituitary and synthetic GONADOTROPHINS, ERYTHROPOIETIN and INSULIN. (The list produced above is not comprehen
sive: full details are available from the governing bodies of relevant sports.) Among banned methods are blood doping (pre-competition administration of an athlete’s own previously provided and stored blood), administration of arti?cial oxygen carriers or plasma expanders. Also forbidden is any pharmacological, chemical or physical manipulation to affect the results of authorised testing.
Drug use can be detected by analysis of the URINE, but testing only at the time of competition is unlikely to detect drug use designed to enhance early-season training; hence random testing of competitive athletes is also used.
The increasing professionalism and competitiveness (among amateurs and juveniles as well as professionals) in sports sometimes results in pressures on participants to get ?t quickly after injury or illness. This can lead to
players returning to their activity before they are properly ?t – sometimes by using physical or pharmaceutical aids. This practice can adversely affect their long-term physical capabilities and perhaps their general health.... sports medicine
(2) The second meaning (also called test feed) applies to a diagnostic procedure for congenital PYLORIC STENOSIS, whereby a paediatrician feels over the baby’s abdomen while he or she is feeding. The pyloric mass can be felt as a ?rm swelling with the consistency of a squash ball, which comes and goes under the examiner’s ?ngers.... test meal
MOTH REPELLENT. Sew into small linen bags any of the following: Cinnamon, Sandalwood chips, Camphor, Cloves. Add: sprinkle of Cedarwood for greater potency. MOTHER SEIGEL’S SYRUP. See: SHAKERS, The. ... morning sickness
Features: long fingers and arm span, high palate, kyphosis, etc.
Symptoms. Backache, pain in joints, dislocations.
Alternatives. Alfalfa, Fenugreek, Irish Moss, Kelp, Horsetail, Marshmallow, Bamboo gum.
Teas. Alfalfa, Comfrey leaves, Horsetail, Plantain, Silverweed. Any one: 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 10-15 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Decoction. Fenugreek seeds 2; Horsetail 1; Bladderwrack 1; Liquorice half. Prepare: 3 heaped teaspoons to 1 pint (500ml) water gently simmered 10 to 20 minutes. 1 wineglass thrice daily. Fenugreek seeds decoction.
Diet. High protein, oily fish.
Supplements. Calcium, Dolomite, Zinc. ... marfan’s syndrome
Symptoms: Mastoid bone behind the ear is tender to touch. Feverishness, red flush over mastoid area, deafness with throbbing earache, malaise, heavy discharge from the ear through perforated eardrum. Diagnostic sign: pinna (external ear) is displaced.
Treatment. Indicated: anti-microbials, anti-bacterials, alteratives with nervines as supportives. Yarrow tea.
Decoction. Combine: Echinacea 3; Wild Indigo 2; Poke root 1. 1 teaspoon to each cup water gently simmered 20 minutes. Half-1 cup every 2 hours with pinch of Cayenne.
Formula. Echinacea 2; Wild Indigo 1; Pulsatilla 1; few grains of Cayenne or Tincture Capsicum drops. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 30-60 drops (2-4ml). Tinctures: 4-8ml. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon). Every 2 hours according to age. Children under 5 years – one-quarter dosage; under 12 years – half dosage.
Vitamin C. Copious fluids: fruit juices. Yarrow tea.
Topical. Goldenseal Ear Drops. Oil of Mullein, Sage or Lavender. Gentle massage with Tea Tree oil or Rosemary oil around the mastoid bone and in front of the ear 3/4 times daily.
Treatment by or in liaison with a general medical practitioner. ... mastoiditis
Etiology. Obscure; though cases may be traced to auto-toxaemia, Vitamin B deficiency, menstruation, malaria drugs (chloroquine).
Symptoms: dizziness, nausea, vomiting, tinnitus, sound distortions, heavy sweating, loss of hearing; usually in one ear only. Early diagnosis essential for effective treatment. This may mean reference to a department of otolaryngology or otoneurology.
Treatment. Antispasmodics. Nervines. Sometimes a timely diuretic reduces severity – Uva Ursi, Dandelion root, Wild Carrot.
Alternatives. Current European practice: Betony, German Chamomile, Passion flower, Hawthorn, Hops, Feverfew, White Willow.
Tea. Combine, equal parts: Valerian, Wild Carrot, Agrimony. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup every 2 hours during attack; thrice daily thereafter.
Decoction. Mistletoe: 2 teaspoons to each cup cold water steeped overnight. Bring to boil. Allow to cool. Half-1 cup, as above.
Tablets/capsules. Feverfew, Mistletoe, Prickly Ash.
Formula. Ginkgo 2; Dandelion 1; Black Cohosh 1. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Feverfew tincture. See: FEVERFEW.
Dr J. Christopher: inject into ears, at night, few drops oil of Garlic (or contents of Garlic capsule).
Cider vinegar. 2 teaspoons to glass water: as desired.
Aromatherapy. Inhalants: Eucalyptus or Rosemary oils.
Diet: gluten-free, low salt; good responses observed. High fibre. Avoid dairy products and chocolate. Vitamins: B-complex, B1; B2; B6; E; F. Brewer’s yeast, Niacin.
Minerals: Calcium. Magnesium. Phosphorus. Dolomite. ... meniere’s disease
Disorders that can be helped or even cured include certain types of LEUKAEMIA and many inherited disorders of the immune system (see IMMUNITY).... bone marrow transplant
Habitat: Ditches, by waterways, and in wet places generally; also cultivated in gardens.
Features ? Erect, smooth, angular, brown-spotted stem, two to three feet high. Leaves opposite, stalked, smooth, serrate, usually in three or five segments. Flowers (July to September) in terminal heads, small, tawny. Numerous seeds, four-cornered, reflexed prickles. Root tapering, many-fibred.Part used ? Whole plant.Action: Astringent, diuretic, diaphoretic.
Dropsy, gout and bleeding of the urinary and respiratory organs, as well as uterine hemorrhage. 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion, in wineglass doses, three or four times daily. Ginger is usually added to this herb. Hool recommends 2 ounces Burr Marigold to 1 of crushed Ginger in 3 pints of water simmered down to 1 quart, given in the above quantity five times daily, or oftener if necessary.... burr marigoldThe disease usually appears within the ?rst three years of life, beginning in the pelvic girdle and lower limbs and later spreading to the shoulder girdle. The calf muscles become bulky (pseudohypertrophy). The weakness gives rise to a characteristic waddling gait and, when rising from the supine position, the child rolls on to his face and then uses his arms to push himself up. Death usually occurs by the middle of the second decade from respiratory infections. Prenatal screening of female carriers using gene probes is increasingly available. (See DYSTROPHY; MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF – Myopathy.)... duchenne muscular dystrophy
– see also EYE.... macropsia
Treatment includes the full gamut of neonatal intensive care, as well as speci?c therapy with PULMONARY SURFACTANT.... hyaline membrane disease
Magnoliya, Magnoliah, Magnolea, Magnoleah, Magnoliyah, Magnolya, Magnolyah... magnolia
Habitat: A common plant in the United States and Canada, the root is imported into this country in large quantities for medicinal purposes.
Features ? The rhizome (as the part used should more strictly be termed) is reddish- brown in colour, fairly smooth, and has knotty joints at distances of about two inches. The fracture shows whitish and mealy.American Mandrake is an entirely different plant from White Bryony or English Mandrake, dealt with elsewhere. Preparations of the rhizome of the American Mandrake are found in practice to be much more effective than those of the resin. This is one of the many confirmations of one of the basic postulates of herbal medicine—the nearer we can get to natural conditions the better the results. Therapeutic principles are never the same when taken from their proper environment.Podophyllum is a very valuable hepatic, and a thorough but slow-acting purgative. Correctly compounded with other herbs it is wonderfully effective in congested conditions of the liver, and has a salutary influence on other parts of the system, the glands in particular being helped to normal functioning. Although apparently unrecognised in Coffin's day, the modern natural healer highly appreciates the virtues of this medicine and has many uses for it.As American Mandrake is so powerful in certain of its actions, and needs such skillful combination with other herbs, it should not be used by the public without the advice of one experienced in prescribing it toindividual needs.... mandrake, americanHabitat: Marshes near the sea.
Features ? This erect plant grows to a height of three feet, and is distinguishable from the Common Mallow by the velvety down covering the stem and leaves. Stems are round, the soft leaves being five-lobed below and three-lobed above. The pinkish- blue flowers appear in luxuriant axillar panicles between July and September. Roots are thick and fleshy, resembling those of the parsnip, and greyish-white outside, white and fibrous internally. The taste is mucilaginous and unpleasant, with only a very slight odour. The roots should be stored in a very dry place, or a yellowish matter of disagreeable smell will form.Part used ? Root and leaves.Action: The root is preferred, as the demulcent, emollient, diuretic and expectorant properties are present here in greater strength.
Marshmallow, usually in combination with other remedies, is takeninternally for coughs, colds and bronchitis. Its diuretic and emollient qualities adapt it to urinary complaints and, as there is no astringent action (indeed, there appears to be some relaxing effect) it is particularly suitable in the treatment of nephritis, cystitis and gravel.The powdered or crushed fresh roots make a first-rate poultice, and the leaves also are used as a fomentation in inflammation. The addition of Slippery Elm powder improves the poultice, and the two remedies are frequently made up into an ointment for skin diseases, boils and ulcers.The leaves are taken as an infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint of boiling water frequently, in wineglass doses.Culpeper relates a personal story about this herb:"You may remember that not long since there was a raging disease called the bloody flux ; the College of Physicians not knowing what to make of it, called it The Plague in the Guts, for their wits were at ne plus ultra about it. My son was taken with the same disease ; myself being in the country, was sent for ; the only thing I gave him was Mallow bruised and boiled both in milk and drink ; in two days it cured him, and I have here to shew my thankfulness to God in communicating it to his creatures, leaving it to posterity."... marshmallowHabitat: Waste places.
Features ? Stem erect, two or three feet high. Leaves in threes, ovate-truncate, serrate, two horns at base of leaf stalk. Flowers small, yellow, in one-sided clusters. Hay-like taste and scent.Part used ? Herb.Action: Carminative, emollient.
The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion in wineglass doses as needed, to relieve flatulence. Sometimes used in fomentations and poultices.... melilotDuring registration, information from the sense organs and the cerebral cortex is put into codes for storage in the short-term memory system. The codes are usually acoustic (based on the sounds and words that would be used to describe the information) but may use any of the ?ve senses. This system can take only a few chunks of information at a time: for example, only about seven longish numbers can be retained and recalled at once – the next new number displaces an earlier one that is then forgotten. And if a subject is asked to describe a person just met, he or she will recall only seven or so facts about that person. This depends on attention span and can be improved by concentration and rehearsal – for example, by reciting the list of things that must be remembered.
Material needing storage for several minutes stays in the short-term memory. More valuable information goes to the long-term memory where it can be kept for any period from a few minutes to a lifetime. Storage is more reliable if the information is in meaningful codes – it is much easier to remember people’s names if their faces and personalities are memorable too. Using techniques such as mnemonics takes this into account.
The ?nal stage is retrieval. Recognising and recalling the required information involves searching the memory. In the short-term memory, this takes about 40-thousandths of a second per item – a rate that is surprisingly consistent, even in people with disorders such as SCHIZOPHRENIA.
Most kinds of forgetting or AMNESIA occur during retrieval. Benign forgetfulness is usually caused by interference from similar items because the required information was not clearly coded and well organised. Retrieval can be improved by recreating the context in which the information was registered. This is why the police reconstruct scenes of crimes, and why revision for exams is more e?ective if facts are learnt in the form of answers to mock questions.
Loss of memory or amnesia mainly affects long-term memory (information which is stored inde?nitely) rather than short-term memory which is measured in minutes. Short-term memory may, however, be affected by unconsciousness caused by trauma. Drivers involved in an accident may be unable to recall the event or the period leading up to it. The cause of amnesia is disease of or damage to the parts of the brain responsible for memory. Degenerative disorders such as ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE, brain tumours, infections (for example, ENCEPHALITIS), STROKE, SUBARACHNOID HAEMORRHAGE and alcoholism all cause memory loss. Some psychiatric illnesses feature loss of memory and AGEING is usually accompanied by some memory loss, although the age of onset and severity vary greatly.... memory
There are also more than 200 identi?ed disorders described as inborn errors of metabolism. Some cause few problems; others are serious threats to an individual’s life. Individual disorders are, fortunately, rare – probably one child in 10,000 or 100,000; overall these inborn errors affect around one child in 1,000. Examples include GALACTOSAEMIA, PHENYLKETONURIA, porphyrias, TAY SACHS DISEASE and varieties of mucopolysaccharidosis, HOMOCYSTINURIA and hereditary fructose (a type of sugar) intolerance.... metabolic disorders
(2) MIND: The National Association for Mental Health, a voluntary charitable body that works in the interests of those with MENTAL ILLNESS, advising, educating and campaigning for and supporting them.... mind
(2) An internationally agreed unit (see SI UNITS) for measuring the quantity of a substance at molecular level.... mole
Moina, Monah, Monalisa, Monalissa, Monna, Moyna, Monalysa, Monalyssa... mona
M. leprae cause, respectively, TUBERCULOSIS and LEPROSY.... mycobacterium
Action: Hips—applied to wounds, injuries, sprains and foul ulcers.
R. chinensis Jacq. and R. borboni- ana Desp. are synonyms of Rosa indica, found and cultivated throughout India. This variety is also known as Edward Rose or Kat Gulaab.... rosa macrophyllaSee: BRUCELLOSIS. ... mediterranean fever
Carbon monoxide binds with haemoglobin and prevents the transportation of oxygen to body tissues.
The initial symptoms of acute high-level carbon monoxide poisoning are dizziness, headache, nausea, and faintness.
Continued inhalation of the gas may lead to loss of consciousness, permanent brain damage, and even death.
Low-level exposure to carbon monoxide over a period of time may cause fatigue, nausea, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, and general malaise.... carbon monoxide
Since the barefoot doctors (paramedics) have been grafted into the public Health Service, mass preventative campaigns with public participation of barefoot doctors have led to a reduction in the mortality of infectious disease.
Chinese doctors were using Ephedra 5000 years ago for asthma. For an equal length of time they used Quinghaosu effectively for malaria. The Chinese first recorded goose-grease as the perfect base for ointments, its penetrating power endorsed by modern scientific research.
While Western medicine appears to have a limited capacity to cure eczema, a modern Chinese treatment evolved from the ancient past is changing the lives of many who take it. The treatment was brought to London by Dr Ding-Hui Luo and she practised it with crowded surgeries in London’s Chinatown.
Chinese herbalism now has an appeal to general practitioners looking for alternative and traditional therapies for various diseases where conventional treatment has proved to be ineffective.
See entry: BAREFOOT DOCTOR’S MANUAL.
Address. Hu Shilin, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China. ... chinese medicine
Of the 2 types of macular degeneration that may occur, one type is usually remedied by laser treatment.
There is no treatment for the other form, although the affected person may benefit from aids such as magnifying instruments.... macular degeneration
Mercury has an affinity for the central nervous system. Soon it concentrates in the kidney causing tubular damage. A common cause is the mercurial content (50 per cent) in the amalgam fillings in teeth which, under certain conditions, release a vapour. Fortunately, its use in dentistry is being superceded by an alternative composite filling.
A common cause of poisoning was demonstrated in 1972 when 6,000 people became seriously ill (600 died) from eating bread made from grain treated with a fungicide containing methylmercury. For every fungus in grain there is a mercuric compound to destroy it. The seed of all cereal grain is thus treated to protect its power of germination.
Those who are hypersensitive to the metal should as far as possible avoid button cells used in tape recorders, cassette players, watch and camera mechanisms. As the mercury cells corrode, the metal enters the environment and an unknown fraction is converted by micro organisms to alkylmercury compounds which seep into ground waters and eventually are borne to the sea. When cells are incinerated, the mercury volatilises and enters the atmosphere. (Pharmaceutical Journal, July 28/1984)
Mercury poisoning from inhalation of mercury fumes goes directly to the brain and pituitary gland. Autopsies carried out on dentists reveal high concentrations of mercury in the pituitary gland. (The Lancet, 5-27-89,1207 (letter))
Treatment. For years the common antidote was sulphur, and maybe not without reason. When brought into contact sulphur and mercury form an insoluble compound enabling the mercury to be more easily eliminated from the body. Sulphur can be provided by eggs or Garlic.
Old-time backwoods physicians of the North American Medical School used Asafoetida, Guaiacum and Echinacea. German pharmacists once used Bugleweed and Yellow Dock. Dr J. Clarke, USA physician recommends Sarsaparilla to facilitate breakdown and expulsion from the body.
Reconstructed formula. Echinacea 2; Sarsaparilla 1; Guaiacum quarter; Asafoetida quarter; Liquorice quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Chelation therapy.
Formula. Tinctures. Skullcap 2-15 drops; Pleurisy root 20-45 drops; Horehound 5-40 drops. Mercurial salivation. Thrice daily. (Indian Herbology of North America, by Alma Hutchens) Dental fillings: replace amalgam with safe alternative – ceramic, etc. Evidence of a link between tooth fillings containing mercury and ME has caused the use of dental amalgam to be banned in Sweden. ... mercury poisoning
Methadone is used under supervision to relieve withdrawal symptoms in people undergoing a heroin or morphine detoxification programme.
Side effects may include nausea, vomiting, constipation, dizziness, and dry mouth.... methadone
Most microorganisms are too small to be seen by the naked eye.... microorganism
Adverse effects include confusion, drowsiness, and dizziness.
If benzodiazepines are taken for a long period, dependence may result.... midazolam
The midbrain is also called the mesencephalon.... midbrain
Malocclusion usually develops during childhood. It is inherited, or is caused by thumb-sucking or a mismatch betweenthe teeth and jaws – for example, the combination of large teeth and a small mouth (see overcrowding, dental).
Orthodontic appliances (braces) may be used to move teeth into the proper position, and if there is dental overcrowding, some teeth may be extracted. Orthognathic surgery is used to treat severe recession or protrusion of the lower jaw. Treatment is best carried out in childhood or adolescence.... malocclusion
Marsupialization is used to treat certain types of cysts affecting the pancreas and liver, and cysts affecting the Bartholin’s glands at the entrance to the vagina.... marsupialization
In an allergic response, mast cells release histamine.... mast cell
The tumour usually arises from the cerebellum, which is concerned with posture, balance, and coordination.
It grows rapidly and may spread to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.
A morning headache, repeated vomiting, and a clumsy gait develop.
There are also frequent falls.
The tumour is diagnosed by CT scanning or MRI and often responds to radiotherapy.
Surgery and anticancer drugs may also be needed.... medulloblastoma
The prefix megalo- has the same meaning.... mega-
Possible adverse effects of megestrol include swollen ankles, weight gain, nausea, dizziness, headache, rash, and, rarely, raised blood calcium level. ... megestrol
There may also be speech loss or visual disturbance. If the tumour invades the skull bone, there may be thickening and bulging of the skull.
Meningiomas can be detected by X-ray or CT scanning, and MRI of the skull, and can often be completely removed by surgery. Otherwise, treatment is by radiotherapy.... meningioma
Arthroscopy may be carried out to confirm and locate the damage, and the damaged area removed by instruments passed through the arthroscope.
Alternatively, the meniscus may be removed through an incision at the side of the patella (kneecap).
In either case, there may be an increased risk of osteoarthritis in later life, but this is less than if the damaged meniscus had been left in place.... meniscectomy
For example, a 13 year-old child with learning difficulties may have a mental age of 5.... mental age
Act (1983) details the rights of patients with mental illness and the grounds for detaining mentally ill people against their will. It also outlines forms of legal guardianship for such patients.
When a person is endangering his or her own or other people’s health or safety (for example, threatening harm or suicide) because of a recognized mental illness, he or she may be compulsorily taken into hospital to be given treatment.
If a person breaks the law because of a mental disorder, the courts may remand him or her to hospital.... mental health act
Many people suffered severe nerve damage and some died.... minamata disease
The most common type of motor neuron disease is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( or Lou Gehrig’s disease). It usually affects people over the age of 50 and is more common in men. Some cases run in families. Usually, symptoms start with weakness in the hands and arms or legs, and muscle wasting. There may be irregular muscle contractions, and muscle cramps or stiffness. All four extremities are soon affected.
Progressive muscular atrophy and progressive bulbar palsy both start with patterns of muscle weakness different from but usually develop into.There are 2 types of motor neuron disease that first appear in childhood or adolescence. In most cases, these conditions are inherited. Werdnig–Hoffman disease affects infants at birth or soon afterwards. In almost all cases, progressive muscle weakness leads to death within several years. Chronic spinal muscular atrophy begins in childhood or adolescence, causing progressive weakness but not always serious disability.
There are no specific tests for motor neuron disease. Diagnosis is based on careful clinical examination by a neurologist. Tests including EMG, muscle biopsy, blood tests, myelography, CT scanning, or MRI may be performed.
The disease typically goes on to affect the muscles involved in breathing and swallowing, leading to death within 2–4 years. However, about 10 per cent of sufferers survive for 10 years.
Nerve degeneration cannot be slowed down, but physiotherapy and the use of various aids may help to reduce disability. The drug riluzole is used to extend life (or the time until mechanical ventilation is required).... motor neuron disease
The usual complaints are abdominal pain, bleeding, neurological symptoms, rashes, and fever. Sufferers typically invent dramatic histories and behave disruptively in hospital. Many have detailed medical knowledge and scars from self-injury or previous treatment. In Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, parents cause factitious disorders in their children.
Treatment consists of protecting sufferers from unnecessary operations and drug treatments.... munchausen’s syndrome
Features may include abnormalities of the skeleton and/or the central nervous system, with learning difficulties and, in some cases, a characteristic facial appearance. There may also be clouding of the cornea, liver enlargement, and joint stiffness. No specific treatment is available. However, a bone marrow transplant may successfully be used to treat Hurler’s syndrome.
Mild forms of mucopolysaccharidoses allow a child to have a relatively normal life.
More severe types usually cause death during childhood or adolescence.... mucopolysaccharidosis
It usually occurs on one limb, producing a hard swelling and a discharge of pus.
Infections caused by actinomycetes are treated with antibiotic drugs.
Surgical removal of diseased tissue may be necessary for a fungal infection.... mycetoma
The acquired form may develop after a bony injury, especially around the elbow; it causes severe pain and a swelling, which hardens. Treatment with diathermy, coupled with gentle, active movements, may be helpful.... myositis ossificans
Annual death rates (deaths per million at risk) vary widely between occupations, ranging from 5 in clothing and footwear manufacture to about 1,650 in offshore oil and gas industries.
More than 1,000 per year are due to work-related diseases, mainly pneumoconiosis and cancers.... occupational mortality
It is usually complete after about 12 hours; the stiffness then disappears over the next 48–60 hours.
Physical exertion before death makes rigor mortis begin sooner.
The sooner rigor mortis begins, the quicker it passes.
These facts are used to help assess the time of death.... rigor mortis
The manoeuvre occurs naturally when an attempt is made to breathe out while holding the vocal cords tightly together.
This happens, for example, at the beginning of a sneeze.
When performed deliberately by pinching the nose and holding the mouth closed, the manoeuvre can prevent pressure damage to the eardrums (see barotrauma).... valsalva’s manoeuvre
A&E Medicine is a relatively new specialty in the UK and there are still inadequate numbers of consultants and trainees, despite an inexorable rise in the number of patients attending A&E departments. With a similar rise in hospital admissions there is often no bed available immediately for casualties, resulting in backlogs of patients waiting for treatment. A major debate in the specialty is about the likely need to centralise services by downgrading or closing smaller units, in order to make the most e?cient use of sta?.
See www.baem.org.uk... accident and emergency medicine
Habitat: The western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon.
English: Milfoil, Yarrow, Thousand Leaf.Unani: Biranjaasif. National Formulary of Unani Medicine also equates Leonurus cardica Linn. (Labiatae) with Biranjaasif.Folk: Gandana, Rojmari.Action: Anti-inflammatory, anti- spasmodic (used in cold, flatulent colic, heartburn), emmenagogue, cicatrizant, antidysenteric, anti- haemorrhagic, antipyretic, diaphoretic, diuretic, urinary antiseptic.
Key application: In dyspeptic ailments, such as mild, spastic discomforts of the gastrointestinal tract. As astringent, antispasmodic, choleretic, antibacterial. (German Commission E.) As diaphoretic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Internally for feverish conditions, common cold and digestive complaints; topically for slow-healing wounds and skin inflammations. (The British Herbal Compendium.)The plant contains flavonoids, alkaloids (achilleine), polyacetylenes, triterpenes, coumarins, tannins, salicylic acid, a volatile oil containing linalool, camphor, sabinene, chamazu- lene and other azulenes.Sesquiterpene lactones are bitter and tonic. Achilleine helps arrest internal and external bleeding. Flavonoids contribute to the antispasmodic action.The flavonoid apigenin is anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet and spasmolytic. Alkaloids and bases are anti- inflammatory. Alkaloid betoncine is haemostatic. Salicylic acid is anti- inflammatory. Chamazulene is anti- inflammatory and antiallergenic. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)An extract of the plant was found to be rich in luteolin or luteolin 7- glucoside and can be used for the treatment of hyperpigmentation of skin.... achillea millefoliumHabitat: The plains and submountain regions of India, ascending to an altitude of 1,200 m in the western Himalayas; cultivated all over India.
English: Bael tree, Bengal Quince.Ayurvedic: Bilva, Shriphala, Shaandilya, Shailuusha, Shalya, Sadaaphala, Mahaakapitha (Kapitha is equated with Feronia limonia), Maaluura, Rudrajataa, Rudranir- maalya, Shivajataakhya.Unani: Bael.Siddha/Tamil: Vilvam, Koovilam.Action: Stomachic, antimicrobial (specific for diarrhoea, colitis, dysentery and enteric infections), digestive, astringent, spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic.
Key application: As antidiarrhoeal. (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of root in dysuria; stembark in diabetes and lipid disorders.A number of coumarins (including xanthotoxol and alloimperatorin methyl ether), flavonoids (including rutin and marmesin), alkaloids (including alpha-fagarine), sterols and essential oils have been isolated from plant parts. Pectin is an important constituent of the fruit.Alkaloid aegeline, present in the leaves, is efficacious in asthma. The active principle in aqueous extract of leaf shows hypoglycaemic activity similar to insulin. Leaves are also given in jaundice. Alcoholic extract of seeds shows antiallergic activity.Marmin, a coumarin isolated from the roots, shows anti-inflammatory effects experimentally. Marmin also inhibited gastric haemorrhagic lesions in rats and exhibited antiulcer effects. Seed oil showed beneficial effects in regeneration of tumour cells.Aurapten is found to be the most potent inhibitor of heart rate. Rootbark is used for palpitation of the heart.Dosage: Pulp of unripe or half ripe fruit—3 g powder. Root—6 g powder. (API Vols. I, III.)... aegle marmelosHabitat: Native to Afghanistan. (A bulbous plant related to onion.)
English: Oriental Royal Salep.Unani: Baadshaahi Saalab.Action: Anabolic and gastrointestinal tonic.... allium macleanii
Habitat: Native to tropical Africa; cultivated in Indian gardens.
English: Grains of Paradise, Alligator pepper, Meleguetta pepper.Unani: Heel Habshi.Action: Roots possess cardamomlike tasteand aregivenasadecoction for constipation; also as a vermifuge for tapeworms. Juice of young leaves—styptic. The seeds contain an alkaloid, piperine; also gingerol, paradol, shogaol and zingerone.
Gingerol and shogaol suppress gastric contractions; also have sedative and analgesic actions. Pungency of the grains is due to paradol.A decoction of the whole plant is taken internally as a febrifuge.High oxalic acid content in the fruit may cause reduced function of the heart.Aframomum korarima K. Schum., native to tropical Africa, known as... aframomum meleguetaHabitat: The evergreen forests of western Ghats from Konkan southwards.
Siddha: Perumaram.Folk: Guggul-dhuupa. (Maharashtra.)Action: Bark—febrifuge, carminative (given in typhoid, dyspepsia and constipation). Oleo resin— used for dysentery and bronchitis.
The bark and roots give a number of beta-carboline alkaloids. The resin- uous exudates from trunk give several triterpenoids, including malabaricol and malabaricanediol.... ailanthus malabaricaHabitat: Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, up to 1,500 m, and western Ghats of Kerala.
Folk: Saliyeridumpa (Tamil).Action: Rhizome—employed to cure sores. Fruits—emetic (used with salt).
The rhizomes yield essential oil consisting of methyl cinnamate as chief constituent.... alpinia malaccensisHabitat: Native to China; now mostly grown on the tea estates of Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh, and also in Assam and Bengal to provide shade for tea bushes.
English: Candlenut tree.Ayurvedic: Akshota, Jangali Akharot.Siddha/Tamil: Naatuakrottu.Action: Oil from seeds—purgative; employed externally in rheumatism; ulcers; also as a hair tonic. Leaves— applied in acute rheumatism. Fruit—carminative and expectorant. Bark and flowers—used for asthma.
Aleurites fordii Hemsl., Tung Oil tree, native to China, is also equated with Jangali Akharot.The tree was introduced on the tea estates of Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Coorg and Mysore.... aleurities moluccanaHabitat: Cultivated in Jammu and Himachal Pradesh.
English: Biship's Weed-Amee, Greater Ammi.Unani: Itarilaal, Khalah.Action: Source of xanthotoxin, a drug employed in the treatment of leucoderma. Dried fruit powder or extract of the plant is used topically in vitiligo.
The fruits contain ammoidin (xan- thotoxin), ammidin (imperatorin) and majudin (bergapten). All the three compounds are used in leucoderma. Maximum xanthotoxin content (1%) is found in green fruits from Jammu.The 8-MOP, methoxypsoralen constituent of the weed is one of the first agents used along with UVA radiation to treat psoriasis. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... ammi majusHabitat: All over India.
English: Vetiver, Cuscus.Ayurvedic: Ushira.Unani: Khas.Siddha: Vettiveru.Action: Roots—refrigerant, febrifuge, diaphoretic, stimulant, stomachic and emmenagogue; used in strangury, colic, flatulence, obstinate vomiting; paste used as a cooling application in fevers.
Major constituents of the essential oil are vetiselinenol and khusimol. Several sesquiterpenoids, including vetid- iol, are also present. The two types of oils, laevorotatory and dextrorotatory, from northern India and southern India, respectively, are biochemically different.Andropogon sp.: see Cymbopogon sp.... andropogon muricatusHabitat: Around ledges and roadsides.
Features ? Several erect, hairy stems, two to three feet high. Leaf and flower stalks also hairy. Roundish leaf has five to seven lobes, middle one longest. Numerous flowers (June-September), large reddish-purple, clustered four or five together on axillary stalk.Part used ? Flowers, herb.Action: Demulcent, mucilaginous, pectoral.
1 ounce to 1 pint infusion makes a popular cough and cold remedy.... blue mallowHabitat: The western Ghats from Maharashtra to Karnataka; Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
English: Malabar Catmint.Ayurvedic: Sprikkaa.Siddha/Tamil: Irattaipeyameratti.Action: Antispasmodic (used in dyspepsia, colic), antipyretic, diaphoretic, antiperiodic, emme- nagogue, antirheumatic. The oil is used externally as an embrocation in rheumatic arthritis.
The plant contains beta-sitosterol, letulinic acid, ovatodiolide and ani- somelic acid. The essential oil from tops and flowers yield a terpene hydrocarbon, citral and geranic acid.... anisomeles malabaricaPharmaceutical manufacturers usually give proprietary (brand) names to the drugs they develop, though doctors in the NHS are expected to prescribe using approved – nonproprietary or generic – titles. Most nonproprietary titles are those in the European Pharmacopoeia, British Pharmacopoeia Commission or the British Pharmaceutical Codex. The USA has its own legislation and arrangements covering the naming and prescribing of medicines. (See PROPRIETARY NAME; GENERIC DRUG; PATENT.)... approved names for medicines
Habitat: Native to America; naturalized throughout India.
English: Prickly Poppy, Mexican Poppy.Ayurvedic: Katuparni, Svarnkshiri, Kaanchan-kshiri, Pitadugdhaa. Hemaahvaa, Himaavati, Hemavati. (Not to be equated with Brah- madandi—Tricholepis glaberrima.)Unani: Satyaanaashi.Siddha/Tamil: Piramathandu, Kudiyotti.Action: Seed—responsible for epidemic dropsy. Causes diarrhoea and induces toxicity. Oil, leaf juice and root—used externally for indolent ulcers and skin diseases.
The herb contains isoquinoline alkaloids. The fresh latex contains protein- dissolving constituents and is used externally to treat warts, tumours and cancer. Latex contains alkaloid berberine (0.74%), protopine (0.36%) and free amino acids. Sanguinarine is the toxic factor in seeds.... argemone mexicanaHabitat: The western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon.
English: Wormseed, Santonica.Ayurvedic: Chauhaara, Kirmaani Yavaani, Chuhaari Ajawaayin; not related to Ajawaayin.Unani: Dirmanah, Kirmaalaa, Afsanteen-ul-bahar. (Dirmanah Turki is equated with A. stechmani- ana Besser.)Folk: Kirmaani Ajawaayin, Kirmaani-owaa, Kirmaani-ajmo.Action: Deobstructant, stomachic, anthelmintic (effective against roundworms), antifungal.
A decoction of the fresh plant is given in cases of intermittent and remittent fever.A. maritima var. thomsoniana C. B. Clarke is a santonin-yielding var.; A. maritima var. fragrans (Willd.) Ledeb. is a non-santonin var.Immature flowerheads and leaves contain santonin. Roots, stems and twigs are devoid of santonin. Santonin, a sesquiterpene lactone, is used for the treatment of ascaris and oxyuris infections. Large doses (0.3 g is adults and 0.06 in children) are toxic.Beta-santonin is less anthelmintic in action than santonin; pseudosantonin is devoid of anthelmintic property.Studies is albino mice revealed that santonin had no androgenic, estro- genic, antiestrogenic, progestational and antiprogestational effects.Santonin is toxic at 60 mg in children; 200 mg in adults. (Francis Brinker.)Dosage: Whole plant—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... artemisia maritimaBritish National Formulary (BNF)
A pocket-book for those concerned with the prescribing, dispensing and administration of medicines in Britain. It is produced jointly by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society and the British Medical Association, is revised twice yearly and is distributed to NHS doctors by the Health Departments. The BNF is also available in electronic form.... british medical association (bma)
Habitat: Throughout India, especially in Assam, Meghalaya and Andaman Islands.
English: Wild Lime.Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Narangam, Kattu Elumichai.Folk: Jungli Nimbu.Action: Oil from leaves and berry— antibacterial, antifungal. Leaves— a decoction is applied to cutaneous affections. Fruit—juice, antibilious.... atalantia monophylla
Habitat: Throughout the plains of India in damp marshy areas.
English: Thyme-leaved Gratiola.Ayurvedic: Braahmi, Aindri, Nir- braahmi, Kapotavankaa, Bhaarati, Darduradalaa, Matsyaakshaka, Shaaluraparni, Mandukaparni (also equated with Centella asiatica Linn., synonym Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn. Umbelliferae, Apiaceae).Unani: Brahmi.Siddha/Tamil: Piramivazhukkai, Neerbrami.Folk: Jalaneem, Safed-Chammi.Action: Adaptogenic, astringent, diuretic, sedative, potent nervine tonic, anti-anxiety agent (improves mental functions, used in insanity, epilepsy), antispasmodic (used in bronchitis, asthma and diarrhoea).
Key application: In psychic disorders and as a brain tonic. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India; Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)B. monnieri has been shown to cause prolonged elevated level of cerebral glutamic acid and a transient increase in GABA level. It is assumed that endogenous increase in brain glutamine maybe helpful in the process oflearn- ing.The herb contains the alkaloids brahmine, herpestine, and a mixture of three bases. Brahmine is highly toxic; in therapeutic doses it resembles strychnine. The herb also contains the saponins, monnierin, hersaponin, bacosides A and B. Bacosides A and B possess haemolytic activity. Her- saponin is reported to possess car- diotonic and sedative properties. It was found, as in case of reserpene, to deplete nor-adrenaline and 5-HT content of the rat brain.An alcoholic extract of the plant in a dose of 50 mg/kg produced tranquil- izing effect on albino rats and dogs, but the action was weaker than that produced by chlorpromazine.Dosage: Whole plant—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. II.)... bacopa monnieriHabitat: The Himalayas, Assam, Khasi Hills, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Peninsular India, ascending to 1,800 m.
Ayurvedic: Danti, Nikumbha, Udumbarparni, Erandphalaa, Shighraa, Pratyak-shreni, Vishaalya. Baliospermum calycinum Muell- Arg. is considered as Naagadanti.Siddha/Tamil: Neeradimuthu, Danti.Folk: Jangli Jamaalgotaa.Action: Seed—purgative. Leaves— purgative (also used in dropsy), antiasthmatic (decoction is given in asthma). Latex—used for body ache and pain of joints. Root and seed oil—cathartic, antidropsical.
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of dried root in jaundice, abdominal lump and splenomegaly.The presence of steroids, terpenoids and flavonoids is reported in the leaves. The root contains phorbol derivatives. EtOH extract of roots showed in vivo activity in P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia.Dosage: Root—103 g powder. (API Vol. III.)... baliospermum montanumHabitat: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.
English: Indian Bdellium, Gum Guggul.Ayurvedic: Guggul, Devadhoop, Kaushika, Pur, Mahishaaksha, Palankash, Kumbha, Uluukhala.Unani: Muqallal yahood, Muql, Bu-e-JahudaanSiddha/Tamil: Erumaikan Kungiliyam.Action: Oleo-gum-resin—used for reducing obesity and in rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, sciatica.
Key application: In the treatment of hyperlipidemia, hypercholestero- laemia and obesity. (WHO.)Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic. Guggul resin contains steroids—gug- glsterones Z and E, guggulsterols IV, diterpenoids; volatile oil, including other constituents, contains a terpene hydrocarbon cembrene A. E- and Z- guggulsterones are characteristic constituents, which distinguish C. mukul from other Commiphore sp.Guggul resin increases catechola- mine biosynthesis and activity in cholesterol-fed rabbits, inhibits platelet aggregation, exhibits anti-inflammatory activity and appears to activate the thyroid gland in rats and chicken. Z- guggulsterone may increase uptake of iodine by thyroid gland and increase oxygen uptake in liver and bicep tissues. (Planta Med 1984,1, 78-80.)The gum is also used in hemiplegia and atherosclerotic disorders; as a gargle in pyrrhoea aveolaris, chronic tonsilitis and pharyngitis. Fumes are recommended in hay fever, chronic bronchitis and nasal catarrh.Oleo-gum resin of Balsamodendron caudatum is also equated with Guggul in Siddha medicine.Dosage: Oleo-gum-resin—2-4 g (API Vol. I.) 500 mg to 1 g (CCRAS.)... balsamodendron mukulHabitat: Arabia, Somaliland.
Ayurvedic: Bola, Hiraabola, Surasa, Barbara, Gandharasa.Unani: Murmakki, Bol.Siddha/Tamil: Vellaibolam.Action: Oleo-gum-resin—em- menagogue (used for irregular menstruation and painful periods), anti-inflammatory (on pharyngitis and gingivitis), antiseptic, bacteriostatic, antiviral, astringent, stimulant, expectorant, stomachic, carminative (in dyspepsia), a leuco- cytogenic agent (increases number of white cells in the blood). Used externally for treating acne, boils and pressure sores, internally as a blood purifier.
Key application: In topical treatment of mild inflammations of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. (German Commission E.) As a gargle or mouth rinse for the treatment of aphthous ulcers, tonsillitis, common cold and gingivitis. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, ESCOP.)The gum (30-60%) contains acidic polysaccharides, volatile oil (2-10%) including other constituents, heer- abolene, eugenol, furanosequiterpenes and monoterpenes.Myrrh is taken as a powder or a tincture, rather than as an infusion; used generally externally or as a gargle.Aqueous suspension of the gum resin decreased ethanol-induced and indomethacin-induced ulcer in rats. (JEthnopharmacol, 1997, Jan 55(2), 141150.)Dosage: Gum-resin—3-5 g (CCRAS.)... balsamodendron myrrhaHabitat: South India, Assam and Bengal.
English: Malabar Mountain Ebony.Ayurvedic: Ashmantaka var., Kaanchanaara var. (in the South).Siddha/Tamil: Malaiyatti.Folk: Aapataa (Maharashtra), Amli, Amlosaa.Action: Antidysenteric.
The plant contains flavonoid gly- cosides—quercitroside, iso-quercitro- side, rutoside, taxifoline rhamnoside, kaempferol glycosides and quercetol glycoside.... bauhinia malabaricaHabitat: The sub-Himalayan tract from Kashmir eastwards to Assam, and in Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
Ayurvedic: Ekaviraa.Siddha/Tamil: Venge-maram.Folk: Gondni, Asaanaa (Maharashtra).Action: Bark and Root—astringent, anthelmintic. Used in the treatment of bone fracture.
The root contains 5.7% tannins.The leaves contain beta-sitosterol, its beta-D-glucoside and a triterpe- noid. Fructose, glucose and sucrose were identified as the components of the glycoside.... bridelia montanaHabitat: Throughout India, up to 1,200 m except in very arid regions.
English: Flame of the Forest, Butea Gum, Bengal Kino.Ayurvedic: Paalasha, Kimshuka, Raktapushpaka, Kshaarshreshtha, Brahmavriksha, Samidvar.Unani: Dhaak, Samagh Dhaak, Kamarkas.Siddha/Tamil: Palasam, Purasus.Folk: Tesu.Action: Bark—astringent, styptic (prescribed in bleeding piles, ulcers, haemorrhages, menstrual disorders), anthelmintic. Flowers— astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue (also given for leucorrhoea). A decoction of flowers is given in diarrhoea and haematuria, also to puerperal women. Seeds—clinical use of seeds as an anthelmintic drug is not considered safe in humans.
Leaves—antibacterial. Stem bark— antifungal.An aqueous extract of flowers has shown hepatoprotective activity against CCl4-induced liver injury in albino rats.Extracts of flowers have exhibited significant anti-oestrogenic activity in mice. The seed suspension, on oral administration to albino rats (175 and 350 mg/kg body weight), showed 38.46 and 68.75% cases, respectively, where pregnancy was not interrupted but foetus was malformed.Alcoholic extract of the whole plant produced persistent vasodepression in cats.The plant contains flavonoids and glucosides—butin, butrin, isobutrin and palastrin. Flowers contain butrin, coreopsin, monospermoside and their derivatives and sulphurein; also chal- cones.Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g powder (API Vol. II); flower—3-6 g powder; seed—3 g powder; gum—0.5-1.5 g (API Vol. IV.)... butea monospermaEach year around 50 people in the United Kingdom are reported as dying from carbon monoxide poisoning, and experts have suggested that as many as 25,000 people a year are exposed to its effects within the home, but most cases are unrecognised, unreported and untreated, even though victims may suffer from long-term effects. This is regrettable, given that Napoleon’s surgeon, Larrey, recognised in the 18th century that soldiers were being poisoned by carbon monoxide when billeted in huts heated by woodburning stoves. In the USA it is estimated that 40,000 people a year attend emergency departments suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning. So prevention is clearly an important element in dealing with what is sometimes termed the ‘silent killer’. Safer designs of houses and heating systems, as well as wider public education on the dangers of carbon monoxide and its sources, are important.
Clinical effects of acute exposure resemble those of atmospheric HYPOXIA. Tissues and organs with high oxygen consumption are affected to a great extent. Common effects include headaches, weakness, fatigue, ?ushing, nausea, vomiting, irritability, dizziness, drowsiness, disorientation, incoordination, visual disturbances, TACHYCARDIA and HYPERVENTILATION. In severe cases drowsiness may progress rapidly to COMA. There may also be metabolic ACIDOSIS, HYPOKALAEMIA, CONVULSIONS, HYPOTENSION, respiratory depression, ECG changes and cardiovascular collapse. Cerebral OEDEMA is common and will lead to severe brain damage and focal neurological signs. Signi?cant abnormalities on physical examination include impaired short-term memory, abnormal Rhomberg’s test (standing unsupported with eyes closed) and unsteadiness of gait including heel-toe walking. Any one of these signs would classify the episode as severe. Victims’ skin may be coloured pink, though this is very rarely seen even in severe incidents. The venous blood may look ‘arterial’. Patients recovering from acute CO poisoning may suffer neurological sequelae including TREMOR, personality changes, memory impairment, visual loss, inability to concentrate and PARKINSONISM. Chronic low-level exposures may result in nausea, fatigue, headache, confusion, VOMITING, DIARRHOEA, abdominal pain and general malaise. They are often misdiagnosed as in?uenza or food poisoning.
First-aid treatment is to remove the victim from the source of exposure, ensure an e?ective airway and give 100-per-cent oxygen by tight-?tting mask. In hospital, management is largely suppportive, with oxygen administration. A blood sample for COHb level determination should be taken as soon as practicable and, if possible, before oxygen is given. Ideally, oxygen therapy should continue until the COHb level falls below 5 per cent. Patients with any history of unconsciousness, a COHb level greater than 20 per cent on arrival, any neurological signs, any cardiac arrhythmias or anyone who is pregnant should be referred for an expert opinion about possible treatment with hyperbaric oxygen, though this remains a controversial therapy. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy shortens the half-life of COHb, increases plasma oxygen transport and reverses the clinical effects resulting from acute exposures. Carbon monoxide is also an environmental poison and a component of cigarette smoke. Normal body COHb levels due to ENDOGENOUS CO production are 0.4 to
0.7 per cent. Non-smokers in urban areas may have level of 1–2 per cent as a result of environmental exposure. Smokers may have a COHb level of 5 to 6 per cent.... carbon monoxide (co)
Eva Maria, Eva Mary, Eva Mariah... eva marie
Habitat: Dense moist forests throughout India up to 1,500 m altitude.
English: Wood Vine.Ayurvedic: Used in the Southern states as Muurvaa.Action: Powdered root and stems— laxative, antibilious.
A lignan derivative has been isolated from the stem. It accelerated uptake of low density lipoprotein by Hep G2 cell by 67.0%.The root bark contains 3.03% of total alkaloids consisting mainly of chonemorphine. Chonemorphine di- hydrochloride is an anti-amoebic principle. It showed in vitro activity against Entamoeba histolytica and trichomo- nas vaginalis. It proved efficacious against hepatic amoebiasis in golden hamsters and intestinal amoebiasis in Wister rats.... chonemorpha macrophyllaHabitat: North-eastern region up to 1,500 m in Assam and Tripura.
English: Pummelo, Shaddock.Ayurvedic: Madhukarkatikaa.Unani: Chakotra.Siddha/Tamil: Pambalimasu.Folk: Mahaa-nibu, Sadaaphal.Action: Fruit—cardiotonic. Leaves, flowers and rind—used as a sedative in nervous affections. Leaves— used in convulsive cough, chorea, epilepsy, also in the treatment of haemorrhagic diseases. A lotion of boiled leaves used hot in painful swellings. The essential oil from fresh leaves exhibits dermatophytic, and fungistatic activity.
The root-bark contains beta-sitos- terol and acridone alkaloids. It also contains several coumarins. The alkaloids and coumarins show antimicrobial acitivity.The essential oil from the leaves and unripe fruits contain 20% limonin, 30% nerolol, 40% nerolyl acetate and 3% geraniol. diosmin, beta-sitosterol and beta-D- glucoside. The roots contain campes- terol, stigmasterol, sitosterol and cholesterol.Aqueous extract of the peel showed hypotensive action in dogs.The fruits and seeds are a cardioton- ic; found useful in palpitation.Dosage: Fruit—10-20 ml juice. (API Vol. III.) Leaf, flower, fruit, root— 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... citrus maximaThe University of Exeter Centre for Complementary Health Studies report, published in 2000, estimated that there are probably more than 60,000 practitioners of complementary and alternative medicine in the UK. In addition there are about 9,300 therapist members of organisations representing practitioners who have statutory quali?cations, including doctors, nurses (see NURSING), midwives, osteopaths and physiotherapists; chiropractors became fully regulated by statute in June 2001. There are likely to be many thousands more health sta? with an active interest or involvement in the practice of complementary medicine – for example, the 10,000 members of the Royal College of Nursing’s Complementary Therapy Forum. It is possible that up to 20,000 statutory health professionals regularly practise some form of complementary medicine including half of all general practices providing access to CAMs – most commonly manipulation therapies. The report from the Centre at Exeter University estimates that up to 5 million patients consulted a practitioner specialising in complementary and alternative medicine in 1999. Surveys of users of complementary and alternative practitioners show a relatively high satisfaction rating and it is likely that many patients will go on to use such therapists over an extended period. The Exeter Centre estimates that, with the increments of the last two years, up to 15–20 million people, possibly 33 per cent of the population of the country, have now sought such treatment.
The 1998 meeting of the British Medical Association (BMA) agreed to ‘investigate the scienti?c basis and e?cacy of acupuncture and the quality of training and standards of con?dence in its practitioners’. In the resulting report (July 2000) the BMA recommended that guidelines on CAM use for general practitioners, complementary medicine practitioners and patients were urgently needed, and that the Department of Health should select key CAM therapies, including acupuncture, for appraisal by the National Institute for Clinical Medicine (NICE). The BMA also reiterated its earlier recommendation that the main CAM therapies, including acupuncture, should be included in familiarisation courses on CAM provided within medical schools, and that accredited postgraduate education should be provided to inform GPs and other clinicians about the possible bene?ts of CAM for patients.... complementary and alternative medicine (cam)
Habitat: North temperate regions.
English: Spotted Hemlock, Poison Hemlock.Unani: Khardmaanaa, Shuk.Action: Sedative, anodyne, antispasmodic. Used for relief in whooping cough, asthma; paralysis; epilepsy. Antidote to strichnine poisoning and other poisons of the same class. Highly toxic. Mother tincture of Hemlock is used in homoeopathy for prevention of immature cataract.
All parts of the plant contain alkaloids—highest in aerial parts (1.77%) and lowest in stems. Gamma-conice- ine is the principal alkaloid in the leaves, whereas N-methylconiine is the major alkaloid in mature fruits. Beside the alkaloids, a flavone glycoside, dios- min and chlorogenic acid have been reported in the leaves and inflorescence. Ripe seeds yield coumarins, bergapten and xanthotoxin. Experimentally, the plant exhibited teratogenic properties. (Rarely used today.)Berries are toxic at 10 g, leaves at 30 g and coniine at 150 mg. (Francis Brinker.)... conium maculatumNutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: High Cholesterol: Moderate Carbohydrates: None Fiber: None Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins Major mineral contribution: Iron, zinc
About the Nutrients in This Food Like other animal foods, game meat has high-quality proteins with suf- ficient amounts of all the essential amino acids. Some game meat has less fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol than beef. All game meat is an excellent source of B vitamins, plus heme iron, the form of iron most easily absorbed by your body, and zinc. For example, one four-ounce serving of roast bison has 28 g protein, 2.7 g fat (1.04 g saturated fat), 93.7 mg cholesterol, 3.88 mg iron (25.8 percent of the R DA for a woman of childbearing age), and 4.1 mg zinc (27 percent of the R DA for a man). The Nutrients in Roasted Game Meat (4-ounce serving)
The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food With a food rich in vitamin C. Vitamin C increases the absorption of iron.
Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-protein diet (for kidney disease)
Buying This Food In American markets, game meats are usually sold frozen. Choose a package with no leaks or stains to suggest previous defrosting.
Storing This Food Keep frozen game meat well wrapped in the freezer until you are ready to use it. The packaging protects the meat from oxygen that can change its pigments from reddish to brown. Freezing prolongs the freshness of the meat by slowing the natural multiplication of bacteria that digest proteins and other substances on the surface, converting them to a slimy film. The bacteria also change the meat’s sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cystine into smelly chemicals called mercaptans. When the mercaptans combine with myoglobin, they produce the greenish pigment that gives spoiled meat its characteristic unpleasant appearance. Large cuts of game meat can be safely frozen, at 0°F, for six months to a year.
Preparing This Food Defrost the meat in the refrigerator to protect it from spoilage. Trim the meat to dispose of all visible fat, thus reducing the amount of fat and cholesterol in each serving. When you are done, clean all utensils thoroughly with hot soap and hot water. Wash your cutting board, wood or plastic, with hot water, soap, and a bleach-and-water solution. For ultimate safety in preventing the transfer of microorganisms from the raw meat to other foods, keep one cutting board exclusively for raw meats, fish, and poultry, and a second one for everything else. Finally, don’t forget to wash your hands.
What Happens When You Cook This Food Cooking changes the way meat looks and tastes, alters its nutritional value, makes it safer, and extends its shelf life. Browning meat before you cook it does not “seal in the juices,” but it does change the flavor by caramelizing proteins and sugars on the surface. Because meat’s only sugars are the Game Meat
63 small amounts of glycogen in muscle tissue, we add sugars in marinades or basting liquids that may also contain acids (vinegar, lemon juice, wine) to break down muscle fibers and tenderize the meat. (NOTE : Browning has one minor nutritional drawback. It breaks amino acids on the surface of the meat into smaller compounds that are no longer useful proteins.) When meat is heated, it loses water and shrinks. Its pigments, which combine with oxygen, are denatured (broken into fragments) by the heat. They turn brown, the natural color of well-done meat. At the same time, the fats in the meat are oxidized, a reaction that produces a characteristic warmed-over flavor when the cooked meat is refrigerated and then reheated. Cooking and storing the meat under a blanket of antioxidants—catsup or a gravy made of tomatoes, peppers and other vitamin-C rich vegetables—reduces fat oxidation and lessens the warmed-over flavor. Meat reheated in a microwave oven is also less likely to taste warmed-over.
How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Aging. Hanging fresh meat exposed to air in a cold room evaporates moisture and shrinks the meat slightly. At the same time, bacterial action on the surface of the meat breaks down proteins, producing an “aged” flavor. (See below, Food/drug interactions.) Curing. Salt-curing preserves meat through osmosis, the physical reaction in which liquids flow across a membrane, such as the wall of a cell, from a less dense to a more dense solu- tion. The salt or sugar used in curing dissolve in the liquid on the surface of the meat to make a solution that is more dense than the liquid inside the cells of the meat. Water flows out of the meat and out of the cells of any microorganisms living on the meat, killing the micro-organisms and protecting the meat from bacterial damage. Salt-cured meat is higher in sodium than fresh meat. Smoking. Hanging fresh meat over an open fire slowly dries the meat, kills microorgan- isms on its surface, and gives the meat a rich, smoky flavor. The flavor varies with the wood used in the fire. Meats smoked over an open fire are exposed to carcinogenic chemicals in the smoke, including a-benzopyrene. Artificial smoke flavoring is commercially treated to remove tar and a-benzopyrene.
Medical Uses and/or Benefits Treating and/or preventing iron deficiency. Without meat in the diet, it is virtually impossible for an adult woman to meet her iron requirement without supplements.
Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Like all foods from animals, game meats are a source of cholesterol. To reduce the risk of heart disease, the National Cholesterol Education Project recommends following the Step I and Step II diets. The Step I diet provides no more than 30 percent of total daily calories from fat, no more than 10 percent of total daily calories from saturated fat, and no more than 300 mg of cholesterol per day. It is designed for healthy people whose cholesterol is in the range of 200 –239 mg/dL. The Step II diet provides 25– 35 percent of total calories from fat, less than 7 percent of total calories from saturated fat, up to 10 percent of total calories from polyunsaturated fat, up to 20 percent of total calories from monounsaturated fat, and less than 300 mg cho- lesterol per day. This stricter regimen is designed for people who have one or more of the following conditions: • Existing cardiovascular disease • High levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs, or “bad” cholesterol) or low levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs, or “good” cholesterol) • Obesity • Type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes, or diabetes mellitus) • Metabolic syndrome, a.k.a. insulin resistance syndrome, a cluster of risk fac- tors that includes type 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent diabetes) Food-borne illness. Improperly cooked meat contaminated with E. coli O157:H7 has been linked to a number of fatalities in several parts of the United States. In addition, meat con- taminated with other bacteria, viruses, or parasites poses special problems for people with a weakened immune system: the very young, the very old, cancer chemotherapy patients, and people with HIV. Cooking meat to an internal temperature of 140°F should destroy Salmo- nella and Campylobacter jejuni; to 165°F, E. coli, and to 212°F, Listeria monocytogenes. Decline in kidney function. Proteins are nitrogen compounds. When metabolized, they yield ammonia that is excreted through the kidneys. In laboratory animals, a sustained high-pro- tein diet increases the flow of blood through the kidneys, accelerating the natural age-related decline in kidney function. Some experts suggest that this may also occur in human beings.
Food/Drug Interactions Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Meat “tenderized” with papaya or a papain powder can interact with the class of antidepressant drugs known as monoamine oxidase inhibi- tors. Papain meat tenderizers work by breaking up the long chains of protein molecules. One by-product of this process is tyramine, a substance that constructs blood vessels and raises blood pressure. M AO inhibitors inactivate naturally occurring enzymes in your body that metabolize tyramine. If you eat a food such as papain-tenderized meat, which is high in tyramine, while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, you cannot effectively eliminate the tyramine from your body. The result may be a hypertensive crisis.... game meat
Habitat: Throughout India, wild and often planted.
English: Sabestan Plum.Ayurvedic: Shleshmaataka, Shelu, Bahuvaara, Bahuvaaraka, Bhutvrk- shak, Uddaalaka Shita, Picchila, Lisodaa.Unani: Sapistaan, Lasodaa.Siddha/Tamil: Naruvili.Action: Fruit—astringent, demulcent, expectorant, diuretic, anthelmintic, mucilaginous. Used in the diseases of the chest and urinary passage. Bark—used in dyspepsia and fevers. Kernels— externally applied to ringworm. Leaf—decoction used in cough and cold.
The fruits contain Ca 55, P 275, Zn 2, Fe 6, Mn 2, Cr 0.2 and Cu 1.6 mg/100 g (Chromium is of therapeutic value in diabetes).Antinutritional factors are—phytic acid 355, phytate phosphorus 100 and oxalic acid 250 mg/100 g.The seeds contain alpha-amyrin and taxifolin-3, 5-dirhamnoside, which showed significant anti-inflammatory activity. EtOH (50%) of leaves and stems—antimicrobial; aerial parts— diuretic and hypothermic.... cordia myxaHabitat: Cultivated in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
English: Snake Cucumber.Ayurvedic: Ervaaru, Ervaaruka, Urvaaru, Bahukanda, Karkati.Unani: Kakari.Siddha/Tamil: Kakkarikkay, Vellarikkai.Action: Seeds—cooling, diuretic; used in painful micturition and suppression of urine.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the seed in dysuria and lithiasis.Dosage: Seed—3-6 g. (API Vol. II.)... cucumis meloHabitat: Cultivated throughout India.
English: Red Gourd, Red Pumpkin.Ayurvedic: Peeta Kuushmaanda, Kuushmaandaka, Kuusmaandi, Karkaaruka, Seetaaphal.Unani: Kaddu-e-Sheerin, Aqteen.Siddha/Tamil: Parangikayi.Action: Fruit pulp—sedative, emollient and refrigerant; used as poultice, applied to burns, inflammations, boils, and burns. Seeds—diuretic, anthelmintic (for tapeworm). Because of their zinc content and antimitotic effect, seeds are used to arrest enlargement of prostate gland. Also used in cystitis and minor kidney dyfunction.
Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima and C. pepo) seeds contain B vitamins, Vitamin A; minerals—calcium, iron, phosphorus, zinc; cucurbitacins; linonelic acid. An infusion of seeds (2-3 teaspoons) is taken as a diuretic and in hypertrophy of prostate.Seeds of C. maxima contain sterol glycosides and sterol fatty acid esters which showed antitumour activity in mice.The leaves contain calcium 36.38; magnesium 38.80; iron 2.04; zinc 0.76; and copper 0.42 (mg/100 g).The seed oil contains sterols and tri- terpenoids. The oil is used in migraine and neuralgia.... cucurbita maximaHabitat: Native to Central America. Cultivated in warmer climate than that required for C. maxima.
English: Squash.Ayurvedic: Kumshmaanda.Action: Fruit—used in headache, bronchitis, asthma; as diuretic in genitourinary disorders; as anthelmintic against tapeworms. Dried pulp is administered in haemptysis.
The lipids isolated from the seeds included glycerides, sterol esters, phos- phatidylcholine and phosphatidylinos- itol. The aqueous extract of seeds showed potent gastroprotective activity against ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats.In Chinese medicine, Cucurbita mo- schata flower is used in jaundice, dysentery and cough; the root in jaundice, strangury, galactostasis and dysentery; the stem in irregular menstruation and scalds.... cucurbita moschataHabitat: In drier parts of India; in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The most important centers of Rosha Grass oil production are Betul and Mimar in Madhya Pradesh and Nasik in Maharashtra.
English: Rosha Grass, Palmarosa.Ayurvedic: Rohisha-trn, Dhyaama- ka.Siddha/Tamil: Kavathampillu.Action: Essential oil is used externally for stiff joints and lumbago, skin diseases, and in the treatment of baldness. Given internally in small doses in bilious complaints.
The essential oil obtained from mo- tia var. is rich in geraniol (79-95%).The oil is known as Palmarosa, alsoRusa. Sofia var. yields an oil with lesser geraniol. It is known as Gingergrass Oil.... cymbopogon martiniiHabitat: Throughout India, particularly in waste place.
English: Thornapple, Downy Datura.Ayurvedic: Dhattuura, Dhuurta, Dhastura, Unmatta, Shivapriya, Harapriya, Hema, Haatta, Dhustuu- ra, Dhustuuraka, Kanaka, Maatula. Also equated with Raaj-dhatuura. (white var.)Unani: Dhaturaa.Siddha/Tamil: Oomatthai, Karu- voomatthai.Action: Various plant parts are used in headache, hemiplegia, epilepsy, delirium, convulsions, cramps, rigid thigh muscles, rheumatism. Leaf— antitumour, antirheumatic. Leaf and corolla—anti-inflammatory. Flower—antiasthmatic. Seed, leaf and root—anticatarrhal, febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal, antidermatosis; also used in cerebral complications. Seeds—used in asthma. Limited use in kinetosis (excessive salivation, nausea and vomiting).
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia indicated the use of the whole plant in dysuria and alopecia.The plant accumulates more hyos- cine than hyoscyamine. Hyoscine content of dried leaves and flowering tops—between 0.02-0.55%. Alkaloid content of leaves—0.55%; stem—0.4%; seeds—0.19%; pericarps—0.8%; root at flowering of the plant—0.77%.Hyoscine in large doses causes delirium and coma.Dosage: Seed—30-60 mg. (API Vol. III.)... datura metelHabitat: Throughout the plains of India, as a weed in cultivated fields.
Ayurvedic: Katthinjara, Kunanjara.Siddha/Tamil: Thoyya-keerai.Folk: Lat-mahuriaa, Lahsuvaa.Action: Astringent, antibilious. Laxative in large doses. Flowers and seeds—diuretic; given for urinary discharges.
The plant contains alpha-and beta- spinasterol.... digera muricataHabitat: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Peninsula.
English: Coromandel Ebony, Persimmon.Ayurvedic: Tinduka (var.), Dirgha- patrakaa.Siddha/Tamil: Karum Dumbi, Thumbi, Beedi-elai.Action: Leaves—carminative, laxative, diuretic, styptic. Bark— astringent. Used in dyspepsia and diarrhoea. Unripe fruit— carminative and astringent. Ripe fruit—antibilious. Dried flowers— used in anaemia, inflammation of spleen, also in leucorrhoea. Leaf and dried flower—used in dyspepsia and diarrhoea, topically in scabies. Aerial parts—hypotensive.
Half-ripe fruit contains 23, ripe fruit 15 and bark 19% tannin.The bark and sapwood extracts yield beta-sitosterol, lupeol, betulin and be- tulinic acid. Leaves contain hentria- contane, hentriacontanol, alpha-amy- rin, baurenol, ursolic, oleanolic and be- tulinic acids.... diospyros melanoxylon[catlist id=8 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]
... herbal manual[catlist id=9 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]
... herbal medicalAvoid overstocking; some herbs lose their potency on the shelf in time, especially if exposed. Do not keep on a high shelf out of the way. Experts suggest a large box with a lid to protect its contents, kept in a cool dry place away from foods and other household items. Store mixtures containing Camphor separately elsewhere. Camphor is well-known as a strong antidote to medicinal substances. Keep all home-made ointments in a refrigerator. However harmless, keep all remedies out of reach of children. Be sure that all tablet containers have child-resistant tops.
Keep a separate box, with duplicates, permanently in the car. Check periodically. Replace all tablets when crumbled, medicines with changed colour or consistency. Always carry a large plastic bottle of water in the car for cleansing dirty wounds and to form a vehicle to Witch Hazel and other remedies. Label all containers clearly.
Health care items: Adhesive bandages of all sizes, sterile gauze, absorbant cotton wool, adhesive tape, elastic bandage, stitch scissors, forceps (boiled before use), clinical thermometer, assorted safety pins, eye-bath for use as a douche for eye troubles, medicine glass for correct dosage.
Herbal and other items: Comfrey or Chickweed ointment (or cream) for sprains and bruises. Marshmallow and Slippery Elm (drawing) ointment for boils, abscesses, etc. Calendula (Marigold) ointment or lotion for bleeding wounds where the skin is broken. An alternative is Calendula tincture (30 drops) to cupful of boiled water allowed to cool; use externally, as a mouth rinse after dental extractions, and sipped for shock. Arnica tincture: for bathing bruises and swellings where the skin is unbroken (30 drops in a cup of boiled water allowed to cool). Honey for burns and scalds. Lobelia tablets for irritating cough and respiratory distress. Powdered Ginger for adding to hot water for indigestion, vomiting, etc. Tincture Myrrh, 5-10 drops in a glass of water for sore throats, tonsillitis, mouth ulcers and externally, for cleansing infected or dirty wounds. Tincture Capsicum (3-10 drops) in a cup of tea for shock, or in eggcup Olive oil for use as a liniment for pains of rheumatism. Cider vinegar (or bicarbonate of Soda) for insect bites. Oil Citronella, insect repellent. Vitamin E capsules for burns; pierce capsule and wipe contents over burnt area. Friar’s balsam to inhale for congestion of nose and throat. Oil of Cloves for toothache. Olbas oil for general purposes. Castor oil to assist removal of foreign bodies from the eye. Slippery Elm powder as a gruel for looseness of bowels. Potter’s Composition Essence for weakness or collapse. Antispasmodic drops for pain.
Distilled extract of Witch Hazel deserves special mention for bleeding wounds, sunburn, animal bites, stings, or swabbed over the forehead to freshen and revive during an exhausting journey. See: WITCH HAZEL.
Stings of nettles or other plants are usually rendered painless by a dock leaf. Oils of Tea Tree, Jojoba and Evening Primrose are also excellent for first aid to allay infection. For punctured wounds, as a shoemaker piercing his thumb with an awl or injury from brass tacks, or for shooting pains radiating from the seat of injury, tincture or oil of St John’s Wort (Hypericum) is the remedy. ... first aid and medicine chest
Lead disrupts neurotransmitters in the brain and disposes to nervous excitability, aggression and hyperactivity. Aluminium is associated with senile dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, accumulating in the brain. Cadmium induces changes in behaviour with reduced mental ability. Mercury is present in the amalgam used in dental surgery as part-filling for teeth. Arsenical poisoning may occur in food contamination or paints.
An internal chelating or cleansing of tissues of the lungs, urinary system, blood and lymph may be assisted by a combination of relative expectorants, diuretics, hepatics and adaptogens among which are: Barberry, Blue Flag root, Chaparral, Burdock, Echinacea, Red Clover, Yellow Dock. To bind with metals and assist their passage through the intestinal canal to the outside of the body: Irish Moss, Iceland Moss or Slippery Elm. Garlic.
The Medicines Control Agency of the Ministry of Health (UK) has given consideration to the content of heavy metal impurities and rules that a limit of 75 micrograms of total heavy metals shall be the acceptable maximum daily intake.
Licence-holders are required to carry out tests on all incoming material. Some seaweeds may be heavily polluted with mercury, arsenic and radioactive particles as a result of micro-biological contamination. The MCA requires Bladderwrack and other seaweeds to contain minimum levels. ... heavy metal toxicity
Of historic interest only, as a cholagogue, emmenagogue and diuretic. No longer used in medicine.
Used in the dyeing industry as Turkey Red. ... madder
Tea. Skullcap 1; Oats 2; Valerian half. Mix. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water. 1 cup as desired.
Life Drops. Few drops in tea.
Lime flower tea, at night.
Ginkgo. For brain fatigue.
Diet. Avoid strong tea, coffee, alcohol. ... manager’s stress
Uses: Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1). ... mango leaves
Habitat: Throughout the greater part of India.
English: Mountain persimmon.Ayurvedic: Visha-tinduka, Kaaka- tinduka.Siddha/Tamil: Vakkanai, Vakkanatan.Folk: Timru.Action: Various plant parts are used in fever, puerperal fever, neuralgia, pleurisy, pneumonia, menorrhagia, dysurea. Fruits are applied externally to boils.
Bark extract—anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic. Leaves and seeds—antibacterial.Diospyrin occurs in the bark and wood. Leaves contain hentriacon- tane, hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterol, alpha-and beta-amyrin, lupeol, taraxe- rol and ursolic acid.Alcoholic extract of the plant showed CNS depressant and spasmolytic activity and also produced bradycardia and hypertension.... diospyros montanaHabitat: The temperate Western Himalaya in Kashmir from 2,1002,400 m.
Ayurvedic: Raam Tulasi.Unani: FeranjmushkAction: Seeds—Febrifuge, carminative, astringent, demulcent, vulnerary. Used is cephalalgia, neurological disorders, as a cardiac tonic, brain tonic and deobstruent in Unani medicine.
Citral and geranyl acetate are major constituents of the essential oil. Others include alpha-pinene, nerol, cit- ronellol, linalool, geraniol, limonene and caproic acid. Flavonoids, including moldavoside, have been isolated from the plant.... dracocephalum moldavicaHabitat: Konkan and North Kanara, throughout dry forests of Tamil Nadu.
Folk: Kaakibeeraa, Kansamaara.Siddha/Tamil: Agori. Motirakkanni.Action: Root—anti-inflammatory, febrifuge; disperses swellings.... hugonia mystax
Habitat: South India, up to 1,000 m.
English: Bastard Sandal, Red Cedar.Ayurvedic: Kattuchandanam (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil: Devadaram.Folk: Gandh-giri (Maharashtra).Action: Leaf—diaphoretic, stimulant, diuretic, stomachic. A decoction is used for malarial fever. Bark and wood—febrifuge.
The wood yields diterpenes, including monogynol, OH-ogynol, devada- rool; d-hibaene, its epoxide and an olefinic hydrocarbon.Biological activity of the plant is hypothermic and CNS active.... erythroxylum monogynum[catlist id=3 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]
... indian medicinal plantsThe imaging systems of COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (see MRI) have powerful computer techniques underlying them.
Computerised statistical analysis of study data, population databases and disease registries is now routine, leading to enhanced understanding of the interplay between diseases and the population. And the results of research, available on computerised indexes such as MEDLINE, can be obtained in searches that take only seconds, compared with the hours or days necessary to accomplish the same task with its paper incarnation, Index Medicus.
Medical informatics The direct computerisation of those activities which are uniquely medical – history-taking, examination, diagnosis and treatment – has proved an elusive goal, although one hotly pursued by doctors, engineers and scientists working in the discipline of medical informatics. Computer techniques have scored some successes: patients are, for example, more willing to be honest about taboo areas, such as their drug or alcohol consumption, or their sexual proclivities, with a computer than face to face with a clinician; however, the practice of taking a history remains the cornerstone of clinical practice. The examination of the patient is unlikely to be supplanted by technological means in the foreseeable future; visual and tactile recognition systems are still in their infancy. Skilled interpretation of the result by machine rather than the human mind seems equally as remote. Working its way slowly outwards from its starting point in mathematical logic, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE that in any way mimics its natural counterpart seems a distant prospect. Although there have been successes in computer-supported diagnosis in some specialised areas, such as the diagnosis of abdominal pain, workable systems that could supplant the mind of the generalist are still the dream of the many developers pursuing this goal, rather than a reality available to doctors in their consulting rooms now.
In therapeutics, computerised prescribing systems still require the doctor to make the decision about treatment, but facilitate the process of writing, issuing, and recording the prescription. In so doing, the system can provide automated checks, warning if necessary about allergies, potential drug interactions, or dosing errors. The built-in safety that this process o?ers is enhanced by the superior legibility of the script that ensues, reducing the potential for error when the medicine is dispensed by the nurse or the pharmacist.
Success in these individual applications continues to drive development, although the process has its critics, who are not slow to point to the lengthier consultations that arise when a computer is present in the consulting room and its distracting e?ect on communication with the patient.
Underlying these many software applications lies the ubiquitous personal computer – more powerful today than its mainframe predecessor of only 20 years ago – combined with networking technology that enables interconnection and the sharing of data. As in essence the doctor’s role involves the acquisition, manipulation and application of information – from the individual patient, and from the body of medical knowledge – great excitement surrounds the development of open systems that allow di?erent software and hardware platforms to interact. Many problems remain to be solved, not least the fact that for such systems to work, the whole organisation, and not just a few specialised individuals, must become computer literate. Such systems must be easy to learn to use, which requires an intuitive interface between user(s) and system(s) that is predictable and logical in its ordering and presentation of information.
Many other issues stand in the way of the development towards computerisation: standard systems of nomenclature for medical concepts have proved surprisingly di?cult to develop, but are crucial for successful information-sharing between users. Sharing information between existing legacy systems is a major challenge, often requiring customised software and extensive human intervention to enable the previous investments that an organisation has made in individual systems (e.g. laboratory-result reporting) to be integrated with newer technology. The beginnings of a global solution to this substantial obstacle to networking progress is in sight: the technology that enables the Internet – an international network of telephonically linked personal computers – also enables the establishment of intranets, in which individual servers (computers dedicated to serving information to other computers) act as repositories of ‘published’ data, which other users on the network may ‘browse’ as necessary in a client-server environment.
Systems that support this process are still in early stages of development, but the key conceptualisations are in place. Developments over the next 5–10 years will centre on the electronic patient record available to the clinician on an integrated clinical workstation. The clinical workstation – in essence a personal computer networked to the hospital or practice system – will enable the clinician to record clinical data and diagnoses, automate the ordering of investigations and the collection of the results, and facilitate referral and communication between the many professionals and departments involved in any individual patient’s care.
Once data is digitised – and that includes text, statistical tables, graphs, illustrations and radiological images, etc. – it may be as freely networked globally as locally. Consultations in which live video and sound transmissions are the bonds of the doctor-patient relationship (the techniques of telemedicine) are already reality, and have proved particularly convenient and cost-e?ective in linking the patient and the generalist to specialists in remote areas with low population density.
As with written personal medical records, con?dentiality of personal medical information on computers is essential. Computerised data are covered by the Data Protection Act 1984. This stipulates that data must:
be obtained and processed fairly and lawfully.
be held only for speci?ed lawful purposes.
•not be used in a manner incompatible with those purposes.
•only be recorded where necessary for these purposes.
be accurate and up to date.
not be stored longer than necessary.
be made available to the patient on request.
be protected by appropriate security and backup procedures. As these problems are solved, concerns about
privacy and con?dentiality arise. While paper records were often only con?dential by default, the potential for breaches of security in computerised networks is much graver. External breaches of the system by hackers are one serious concern, but internal breaches by authorised users making unauthorised use of the data are a much greater risk in practice. Governing network security so that clinical users have access on a need-to-know basis is a di?cult business: the software tools to enable this – encryption, and anonymisation (ensuring that clinical information about patients is anonymous to prevent con?dential information about them leaking out) of data collected for management and research processes – exist in the technical domain but remain a complex conundrum for solution in the real world.
The mushroom growth of websites covering myriad subjects has, of course, included health information. This ranges from clinical details on individual diseases to facts about medical organisations and institutes, patient support groups, etc. Some of this information contains comments and advice from orthodox and unorthodox practitioners. This open access to health information has been of great bene?t to patients and health professionals. But web browsers should be aware that not all the medical information, including suggested treatments, has been subject to PEER REVIEW, as is the case with most medical articles in recognised medical journals.... information technology in medicine
Habitat: Deccan, West Coast, Western Ghats and in the Nilgiris.
Ayurvedic: Mudgara.Folk: Mogaraa (var.), Ran-mogaraa.Action: See Jasminum sambac.... jasminum malabaricum
Habitat: Deccan, Konkan and Karnataka.
Unani: Brahmdandi. (Tricholepis angustifolia DC. of the same family has also been equated with Brahmdandi in National Formulary of Unani Medicine.)Folk: Brahmdandi (Maharashtra), Ajadandi.Action: Antiseptic, bitter tonic.... lamprachaenium microcephalum
Habitat: West Bengal, Bihar, Central and Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. Grown in gardens, and as an avenue tree. Quite common in New Delhi.
Ayurvedic: Plaksha (related sp.).Siddha/Tamil: Kal Ichi.Folk: Itti.Action: Bark—antibilious. Leaf— antispasmodic. Root bark and leaf— used in preparations of oils and ointments for ulcers, skin diseases, oedema and inflammations.... ficus microcarpa
Habitat: Western India, Punjab and Sind.
Folk: Dudh-phad (Rajasthan).Action: Plant—galactagogue. A decoction is administered in constipation.... launaea mucronata
Habitat: Throughout hotter parts of India.
Ayurvedic: Hastikanda, Hasti-karna Palaasha; Kekidandaa.Folk: Hatkan, Dholsamudra, Haath, Kaan.Action: Astringent, anodyne, styptic, antiseptic. Root tubers— astringent, mucilaginous; applied to wounds and sores; used for ringworm and guineaworm.... leea macrophylla
Habitat: Bihar and South India.
Folk: Guumaa (var.). Sugandhak is a doubtful synonym.Action: Plant—an infusion is given for colds and gastrointestinal troubles.... leucas martinicensis
Habitat: Native to Malaysia. Now cultivated mainly on lower slopes of the Nilgiris.
English: Mangosteen, Dodol.Siddha/Tamil: Sulambuli, Mangusta.Folk: Mangustaan.Action: Fruit—antileucorrhoeic, astringent, antifungal, antibacterial; used in cystitis, diseases of the genitourinary tract, diarrhoea, tropical dysentery and fevers. Pericarp—used externally for eczema and other skin diseases. Leaves—anti-inflammatory, anti- immunosuppressive, antiprotozoal, antimicrobial.
The plant contains anthocyanin gly- cosides, a benzophenone, maclurin and several prenylated and related xan- thones. The leaves contain terpenoids, xanthones and long chain hydrocarbons.The pericarp (fruit hull) contains the xanthone derivatives, mangostin, nor- mangostin, beta-mangostin, gamma- mangostin, isomangostin as major constituents.Mangostin, isolated from the rind of fruit, inhibited primary and secondary responses to adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. Mangostin, isoman- gostin and mangostin triacetate exhibited pronounced anti-inflammatory activity in rats both by i.p. and oral routes.Mangostin also produced antiulcer activity in rats.Mangostin and some of its derivatives produced CNS depression, characterized by ptosis, sedation and decreased motor activity.Gamma-mangostin showed more potent radical scavenging and antioxi- dant activity than BHA.... garcinia mangostanaHabitat: Throughout southern India, also in Assam and West Bengal, up to 1,000 m
English: Indian Gamboge.Ayurvedic: Kankushtha, Tamaal, Taapichha, Ushaare-revand.Siddha/Tamil: Iravakhinni.Action: Gum-resin—hydragogue, cathartic, anthelmintic. Used in dropy and amenorrhoea. Causes nausea, vomiting and griping in large doses.
The gum contains morellin, neo- morellin, beta-guttiferin and alpha- guttiferin and their derivatives. The heartwood gave morelloflavone. Seed coat gave morellin, isomorellin and their neo derivatives which exhibited antibacterial and antiprotozoal activity.Dosage: Gum-resin—50-125 mg. (CCRAS.)... garcinia morellaThe Council is funded by doctors’ annual fees and is responsible to the Privy Council. Substantial reforms of the GMC’s structure and functions have been and are still being undertaken to ensure that it operates e?ectively in today’s rapidly evolving medical and social environment. In particular, the Council has strengthened its supervisory and disciplinary functions, and among many changes has proposed the regular revalidation of doctors’ professional abilities on a periodic basis. The Medical Register, maintained by the GMC, is intended to enable the public to identify whom it is safe to approach to obtain medical services. Entry on the Register shows that the doctor holds a recognised primary medical quali?cation and is committed to upholding the profession’s values. Under revalidation requirements being ?nalised, in addition to holding an initial quali?cation, doctors wishing to stay on the Register will have to show their continuing ?tness to practise according to the professional attributes laid down by the GMC.
Once revalidation is fully established, there will be four categories of doctor:
Those on the Register who successfully show their ?tness to practise on a regular basis.
Those whose registration is limited, suspended or removed as a result of the Council’s disciplinary procedures.
Those who do not wish to stay on the Register or retain any links with the GMC.
Those, placed on a supplementary list, who do not wish to stay on the main Register but who want to retain a formal link with the medical profession through the Council. Such doctors will not be able to practise or prescribe.... general medical council (gmc)
Habitat: Tropical Himalayas from Nepal to Bhutan, Assam and Meghalaya.
English: Joint Fir.Siddha/Tamil: Anapendu, Peiodal (G. ula.)Action: Seed oil—antirheumatic. Plant— antiperiodic. Leaves— piscic.
The stem-wood yielded bergenin, acetophenone and stilbene derivatives.G. ula Brongn. non-Karst is found in evergreen forests of Western and Eastern Ghats up to 1,800 m.... gnetum montanumHabitat: Throughout the greater part of India.
Ayurvedic: Aakaarakarabha substitute (doubtful).Siddha/Tamil: Maasipathri.Folk: Mastaru, Mukhatari, Maachipatri (Maharashtra).Action: Leaf—stomachic, antispas- modic, sedative, emmenagogue, deobstruent, antiseptic. Used in amenorrhoea.
Aerial parts of the plant afforded clerodane derivatives. Presence of phytol, lupeol, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, a phenylalanine derivative, hardwicki- ic acid, strictic acid and butenolides, is reported. Aura amide was also isolated from the aerial parts.A mixture of flavonoids extracted from the aerial parts exhibited oestro- genicity and anti-implantation activity in mice. A crude extract of the plant exhibited strong cytotoxic activity.... grangea maderaspatanaHabitat: Native to tropical Africa. Cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Orissa.
English: Nigerseed.Family: Asclepidaceae.Habitat: Western Ghats from Konkan southwards.
Folk: Gurmaar (related species).Action: See G. sylvertre.
The leaves contain gymnemic acid.... gymnema montanumHabitat: Native to China; planted in the hedges of gardens.
English: Cotton-Rose, ChineseRose, Confederate Rose.Ayurvedic: Sthala-Padam, Sthal- Kamal.Siddha/Tamil: Irratai-vellaichemba- rattam, Sembarattai.Action: Flower—used in pectoral and pulmonary affections. Leaf and flower—expectorant, bechic, anodyne. Used in menorrhagia, dysuria, swellings, fistulae, wounds and burns.
The flowers contain quercetin, kaempferol, betulinic acid, hexyl stearate, tetratriacontanol, nonacosane, stigmasta-3, 7-dione, stigmasta-4-ene- one and beta-sitosterol. Flowers collected in the morning gave no an- thocyanin; maximum anthocyanin is found in the afternoon.... hibiscus mutabilisMachara, Macharia, Macharea... macha
Mackendra, Mackennah, McKenna, McKendra, Makenna, Makennah... mackenna
Habitat: North-western Himalayas. Cultivated on limited scale in North Indian plains.
English: Egyptian Henbane.Ayurvedic: Paarsika-yavaani (related species), Turushkaa.Unani: Ajwaayin Khuraasaani, Shuukraan, Tukhm-bang.Folk: Vajra-bhang.Action: Sedative.
The leaves and flowering tops contain higher concentration of tropane alkaloids than other species of Hyoscy- amus, used as a source of hyoscine.... hyoscyamus muticusThe improvement in the infant mortality rate has occurred mainly in the period from the second month of life. There has been much less improvement in the neonatal mortality rate – that is, the number of infants dying during the ?rst four weeks of life, expressed as a proportion of every 1,000 live births. During the ?rst week of life the main causes of death are asphyxia, prematurity, birth injuries and congenital abnormalities. After the ?rst week the main cause of death is infection.
Social conditions also play an important role in infant mortality. In England and Wales the infant mortality rate in 1930–32 was: Social Class I (professional), 32·7; Social Class III (skilled workers), 57·6; Social Class V (unskilled workers), 77·1. Many factors come into play in producing these social variations, but overcrowding is undoubtedly one of the most important.
1838–9 146 1950–52 30 1851–60 154 1960–62 22 1900–02 142 1970–72 18 1910–12 110 1980–82 12 1920–22 82 1990–92 7 1930–32 67 1996 6·2 1940–42 59 1999 5.8 2000 5.6
It is thus evident that for a reduction of the infant mortality rate to the minimum ?gure, the following conditions must be met. Mothers and potential mothers must be housed adequately in healthy surroundings, particularly with regard to safe water supplies and sewage disposal. The pregnant and nursing mother must be ensured an adequate diet. E?ective antenatal supervision must be available to every mother, as well as skilled supervision during labour (see PREGNANCY AND LABOUR). The newborn infant must be adequately nursed and fed and mothers encouraged to breast feed. Environmental and public-health measures must be taken to ensure adequate housing, a clean milk supply and full availability of medical care including such protective measures as IMMUNISATION against diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis and whooping-cough. (See also PERINATAL MORTALITY.)... infant mortality rate (imr)
The principle of one-to-one, 24-hours-a-day care for seriously ill patients has been widely adopted and developed for the initial treatment of many patients with life-threatening conditions. Thus, severely injured patients – those with serious medical conditions such as coronary thrombosis or who have undergone major surgery, and individuals suffering from potentially lethal toxic affects of poisons – are treated in an INTENSIVE THERAPY UNIT (ITU). Patients whose respiratory or circulatory systems have failed bene?t especially by being intensively treated. Most patients, especially post-operative ones, leave intensive care when their condition has been stabilised, usually after 24 or 48 hours. Some, however, need support for several weeks or even months. Since 1952, intensive medicine has become a valued specialty and a demanding one because of the range of skills needed by the doctors and nurses manning the ITUs.... intensive care medicine
Habitat: Throughout India in the plains, especially on the bank of stream and rivers.
Ayurvedic: Lakshmanaa (Also equated with Ipomoea obscura (Linn.) Ker-Gawler.), Putradaa, Putrajanani.Folk: Tirutaalli (Kerala).Action: Used as a single drug for curing sterility in women, and for promoting fertility and virility.
The seeds of Ipomoea obscura contain non-ergolin type indole alkaloids, ipobscurine A and B and serotonin also alkaloid ipobscurine C.... ipomoea marginataHabitat: The Himalayas, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra and South India.
English: Traveller’s Midnight Lilies.Ayurvedic: Krishnabija (related species). (Sold as Kaalaadaanaa, seeds of Ipomoea nil.)Siddha/Tamil: Kattu Talai.Folk: Michaai.Action: Purgative, febrifuge. Seeds—cardiac depressant, spasmolytic, hypotensive, antibacterial, antifungal. Plant juice destroys bedbugs.
The seeds contain resin glycosides which are laxative. Lysergol is also present in the seeds. It exhibits hypotensive, psychotropic, analgesic, and uterus and intestine-stimulating properties. The presence of indole alkaloids is reported in the seed.... ipomoea muricataHabitat: Sub-Himalayan tract and in moist forests of Western Ghats.
English: Downy Jasmine.Ayurvedic: Kunda, Kasturi Mogaraa.Siddha/Tamil: Magarandam, Malli.Folk: Kasturi Mogaraa.Action: Diuretic, emetic. Boiled bark—applied on burns.
Ethanolic extract of fresh leaves and flowers contain the secoiridoid lactones, jasmolactone A, B, C and D; and secoiridoid glycosides. Jas- molactone B and D and the secoiri- doid glycosides (multifloroside and 10-hydroxyoleuropein) exhibited va- sodilatory and cardiotropic activities.... jasminum multiflorumMadiera, Madera, Madira, Madyra, Madeera, Madeara... madeira
Madelharie, Madelhary, Madelharey, Madelharee, Madelharea... madelhari
Habitat: Native to South America. Naturalized in various parts of India.
English: Coral plant, Physic Nut.Ayurvedic: Brihat-Danti (bigger var. of Danti, also equated with Baliospermum montanum).Folk: Danti (var.).Action: Seeds—purgative, emetic. Fruits—poisonous. Leaves—used for scabies. Latex—applied to wounds and ulcers.
The latex from the plant showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococ- cus aureus. It contains immunologi- cally active acylphloroglucinols, mul- tifidol, phloroglucinol and multifidol beta-D-glucopyranoside. The latex also contains an immunologically active, cyclic decapeptide, labaditin.J. panduraefolia Andr. (native to America), widely grown in Indian gardens, is known as Fiddle-leaved Jat- ropha. The latex from the plant shows fungitoxic activity against ringworm fungus, Microsporum gypseum.... jatropha multifidaHabitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon.
Ayurvedic: Jaatukanda, Gugguluka.Folk: Guugal, Dhuup.Action: Roots—used as incense. Stimulant, given in colic, also in fever after child birth. Bruised roots are applied to eruptions.
The alcoholic extract of the root inhibits about 50% growth of NK65 strain of Plasmodium berghei at a dose of 2 g/kg per day in 4 days.... jurinea macrocephalaHabitat: Hedgerows and waysides.
Features ? Whole plant covered with silky hairs. Leaves rounded, about two inches across, nine blunt, serrate lobes, on long stalks. Greenish flowers, without petals, bloom in small clusters from forked stem. Astringent, saliva-drying taste.Part used ? Herb.Action: Astringent, nervine, antispasmodic.
In excessive menstruation and flooding, as well as spasmodic nervous complaints. Decoction of 1 ounce to 1 1/2 pints water simmered to 1 pint is used as an injection in the menstrual disorders. The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion may be taken internally in teacupful doses as required.... ladies' mantleMaddison, Madisen, Madisson, Madisyn, Madyson... madison
Madonnah, Madona, Madonah... madonna
Madrie, Madry, Madrey, Madree, Madrea... madri
Habitat: Assam and Eastern Himalayas, also Tamil Nadu.
Ayurvedic: Maidaa-lakdi (var.).Siddha/Tamil: Maidalagadil, Picin- pattai.Action: Bark—stimulant, astringent, spasmolytic, stomachic, antidiarrhoeal. Root—applied externally for pains, bruises and contusions.
The bark contains beta-sitosterol and an aporphine alkaloid, actino- daphnine.... litsea monopetalaHabitat: A dioecious palm, cultivated in gardens as an ornamental.
English: Double Coconut Palm, Sea Coconut Palm.Ayurvedic: Samudra-naarikela, Dariyaayee Naariyal.Unani: Naarjeel-e-Daryaayee, Naarjeel-e-Bahari.Siddha/Tamil: Kadalthengai, Aklaari.Action: The water of the green fruit and its soft kernel—antacid and antibilious.
A decoction of the fibrous husk is reported to bring down urinary sugar level in diabetic patients (the effect is temporary).The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofln- dia recommends dried endosperm in gastroenteritis.Dosage: Dried endosperm—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol.IV.)... lodoicea maldivicaHabitat: Gujarat.
Folk: Ragat-Rohido (Gujarat), Rakta-Rohido.Action: Used for diseases of liver and spleen. In folk medicine, as a substitute for Rakta-Rohitaka. (Rohitaka is equated with Tecomel- lia undulata Seem., synonym Tecoma undulata G. Don, Bignoni- aceae.)
In Gujarat, Polygonum glabrum Willd. (Polygonaceae) and Myristica attenuta Wall., synonym Knema atten- uata (Wall.) Warb. (Myristicaceae) are also known as Rakta Rohido, and are used for diseases of liver and spleen.In Mumbai, Rhamnus wightii Wight & Arn. (Rhamnaceae) is known as Rakta-Rohidaa. The bark is used as astringent and deobstruent.Folk: Phulwaaraa, Maakhaniaa Mahuaa.Action: Fat used as ointment in rheumatism, for chapped hands and feet during winter.
The flowers contain beta-amyrin acetate, friedelin, erythrodiol monopal- mitate, beta—sitosterol and apha-spi- nasterol. The seeds contain triterpe- noid saponins, butyroside C and buty- roside D. A triterpenoidal sapogenin, butyraceol, has been isolated from the seed. The leaves contain butyracic acid. Defatted seed flour contains 10.4% saponins.Administration of acute dose of saponins to albino rats caused severe diarrhoea and histopathological changes in liver and kidney and altered, particularly in female rats, levels of serum alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol and proteins.... maba nigrescensHabitat: Found in sub-Himalayan tract from Kumaon to Bhutan.
Ayurvedic: Madhuuka (related species).Synonym: M. longifolia (Koen.) Macb. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Cheval. Bassia latifolia Roxb.Family: Sapotaceae.Habitat: A large tree, cultivated mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.
English: Mahua tree, Moha.Ayurvedic: Madhuuka, Madhu- pushpa, Madhusrav, Gudapushpa.Unani: Mahuaa.Siddha/Tamil: Ieluppai.Action: Flowers—stimulant, demulcent, laxative, anthelmintic, bechic. Seed oil—galactogenic, anticephalgic, emetic. Used in pneumonia, skin diseases, piles. Bark—astringent, emollient. Used for tonsilitis, gum troubles, diabetes, ulcers. Bark, seed oil and gum— antirheumatic.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the flower without stalk or calyx in asthma and pthisis.The fruit pulp yielded a number of triterpenoids (including alpha- and beta-amyrin acetate); also n-hexaco- sanol, beta-D-glucoside of beta-sitos- terol and free sitosterol.Nut shell gave beta-sitosterol gluco- side, quercetin and dihydroquercetin.The carollas are rich source of sugars, vitamins, phosphorus, calcium and iron; magnesium and copper are also present. The sugars identified are sucrose, maltose, glucose, fructose, ara- binose and rhamnose.The seeds yielded saponins—2,3- di-O-glucopyranoside of bassic acid (saponin A and saponin B). Mixture of saponins from seeds exhibits spermi- cidal activity.Trunkbarkcontainedlupeol acetate, beta-amyrin acetate, alpha-spinasterol, erythrodiol monocaprylate, betulinic acid and oleanolic acid caprylates.Dosage: Flower—10-15 g (API, Vol. II.); flower-juice—10-20 ml; bark— 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... madhuca indicaMagnild, Magnilda, Magnilde, Magnhild, Magnhilde, Maganhildi, Maganhildie, Maganhilde, Maganhilda... magnhilda
Habitat: Cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhara Pradesh, Karnataka, Bengal and Maharas- tra.
English: South Indian Mahua.Siddha/Tamil: Illupei, Elupa, Naatu Iluppai, Iruppai.Folk: Madhuulaka, Jala-Madhuuka, Jala-Mahuaa.Action: Same as that of Madhuca indica.
Seed kernel gave protobassic acid (a sapogenol) and two major sapo- nins named Mi-saponins A and B and a minor one Mi-saponin C—all bis- desmosides of protobassic acid. Mi- saponins exhibit anti-inflammatory and antiulcerogenic activities.Mahua oil causes total but reversible sterility in male rats as it shows testicu- lar atrophy with degeneration of seminiferous tubules.A related species, Madhuca neri- ifolia (Moon) H. J. Lam., synonym Bassia neriifolia Moon, Bassia mal- abarica Bedd. (known as Atta Illuppei in Tamil), is found in Western Ghats and coastal region of South India.The flowers are used in renal diseases; fruits in rheumatism, cough, asthma and consumption; seed oil is used in rheumatism.... madhuca longifoliaHabitat: Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Central and Southern India.
Ayurvedic: Morata, Piluparni, Madhusravaa.Siddha/Tamil: Bhumichakkarai.Folk: Murhari.Action: Root—used for bleeding piles, as alterative in fevers; as a tonic in muscular debility.
(The root resembles liquorice root in appearance and taste.)... maerua arenariaHabitat: Native to North America; found in the Himalayas and the Nilgiri hills up to 2,100 m.
English: Bull Bay, Great Laurel Magnolia, Southern Magnolia.Ayurvedic: Him-Champaa.Action: Bark—anti-inflammatory, stimulant, diaphoretic. Wood— toxic. Plant is used against cold, headache and stomach-ache. Leaf extract—fungitoxic.
The leaves gave germacanolide lactones, a guaianolide (magnograndio- lide, melampomagnolide A and B); the wood, quaternary aporphine alkaloids; bark, cyclocolorenone; root bark, eudesmanolides; seeds, phenolic constituents.The sesquiterpene ketone, cyclocol- orenone, also found in leaves, shows antifungal activity.Magnolia pterocarpa Roxb., synonym M. sphenocarpa Roxb. (Vana- Champaa), Dhulichampaa) bark contains sesamin, eudesmin, fargesin, imperatorin, dimethyl-terephthalate and beta-sitosterol. Powdered bark is used for fevers and cough.... magnolia grandifloraMahadevie, Mahadevy, Mahadevey, Mahadevee, Mahadevea... mahadevi
Mahalia, Mahalah, Mahlah, Mahla, Mahalea, Mahaliah, Mahaleah... mahala
Mahanaime, Mahanaima, Mahanayme, Mahanaym, Mahanayma, Mahanaem, Mahanaema... mahanaim
Mabubi, Mahbubee, Mahbubie, Mabubie, Mabubee, Mahbubey, Mabubey... mahbubi
Maheena, Mahyna, Maheana, Maheyna, Mahiena, Maheina... mahina
Mahmude, Mahmudee, Mahmoude, Mamoudee... mahmoode
Mahogani, Mahoganey, Mahoganie, Mahogane, Mahogonee, Mahogonea... mahogany
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Garhwal to Bhutan at 1,3502,700 m. and in Khasi Hills.
English: Holly Leaved Berberry.Folk: Chhatri (Nepal), Haldia (Garhwal).Action: Used as Berberis. Anti- prolific, antipsoriatic, alterative, demulcent, diuretic, antidysenteric.
The plant gave tertiary aporphines, berberine and jatrorrhizine.... mahonia napalensisMaaja, Maiah, Maja, Moia, Moja, Moya... maia
Mairwenn, Mairwenne, Mairwyn, Mairwynn, Mairwynne, Mairwin, Mairwinn, Mairwinne... mairwen
Maisarah, Maisarra, Maisarrah... maisara
Maitreyah, Maetreya, Maitraya, Maetraya... maitreya
Majeeda, Majeedah, Majidah, Maji, Maajida... majida
Makenah, Makeena, Makeenah, Makeana, Makeanah, Makyna, Makynah, Mackena, Mackenah... makena
Makhelothe, Makhelotha, Makhelothia... makheloth
Malaka, Malaika, Malayka, Malaeka, Malake, Malayk, Malaek, Malakia... malak
Malatie, Malaty, Malatey, Malatee, Malatea... malati
Malihah, Malyha, Maleeha, Maleiha, Maleaha... maliha
Malilah, Maleela, Maleila, Maliela, Malyla, Maleala... malila
Mallary, Mallerey, Mallery, Malloreigh, Mallorey, Mallori, Mallorie, Malorey, Malori, Malorie, Malory, Malloren, Mallorea, Malorea, Maloree... mallory
Habitat: Throughout tropical regions of India.
English: Kamala tree, Monkey Face tree.Ayurvedic: Kampillaka, Kampilla, Karkash, Raktaanga, Rechan, Chandra.Unani: Kamilla, Kambilaa.Siddha/Tamil: Kapli, Kalupatti.Action: Gland and hair of fruit— purgative, anthelmintic, styptic. Used for the treatment of tapeworm infestation; in scabies, ringworm, herpes. Fruit—hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic, antibacterial.
Capsule hair and glands gave phlo- roglucinol derivatives; rottlerin, isorot- tlerin, iso-allorottlerin (the "red compound") and methylene-b¿s-methyl- phloroacetophenone (the "yellow compound"). The red powder, obtained from capsules, containing largely resinous matter, had lithotropic effect in rats, comparable to drugs used commonly against urinary calculi. Two more compounds designated as kama- lins 1 and 2 have been isolated.The stem bark contains kamaladiol- 3-acetate and friedelin.Dosage: Glands and hairs of the fruit—0.5-1.0 g powder. (API, Vol.I.)... mallotus philippensisHabitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated in gardens as hedge.
English: Barbados Cherry, Acerola.Action: Fruits—used in dysentery, diarrhoea and liver disorders. Fruits are rich in ascorbic acid (1,000-4,000 mg/100 g of edible pulp). The bark contains about 26% tannin. Fruits of Brazilian plant gave alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthine.... malpighia glabra
Habitat: Cultivated in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
English: West Indian Cherry.Folk: Vallari (Telugu), Simeyaranelli (Kannada).Action: See Malpighia glabra.
Fruits contain ascorbic acid in high concentration (green fruits contain up to 3,000 mg/100 g). 3-methyl-3- buten-1-ol has been identified as major volatile constituent of the fruit.... malpighia punicifoliaHabitat: Native to Europe and West Asia; now cultivated in Himachal Pradesh., Kashmir, Kulu, Kumaon, Assam and in the Nilgiris.
English: Cultivated Apple.Ayurvedic: Sinchitikaa.Folk: Seb, Sev.Action: Bark—anthelmintic, refrigerant, hypnotic, given in intermittent, remittent and bilious fevers. Leaves—inhibit the growth of a number of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
The fruit contains malic (90-95% of the total acids), citric, lactic and succinic acids; (unripe fruit contains quinic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, lactic acid); caffeic acid derivatives, pectins, minerals and vitamins.Edible portion of fresh apple contains thiamine 0.12, riboflavin 0.03, niacin 0.2 and ascorbic acid 2 mg/100 g. The ascorbic acid content varies widely and values up to 40 mg/100 g. Sugars constitute about 80% of the total carbohydrates of ripe fruits—fructose (60), glucose (25) and sucrose (15%). The pectin content of the edible portion varies from 0.14 to 0.96% (as calcium pectate). The uronic acid content of apple pectin varies from 0.5 to 15%.The astringent principles of apple include tannins, tannin derivatives and colouring materials (flavones). The browning of apple slices on exposure to air is due to enzymic oxidation of tannin compounds.Fresh juice contains 0.20-0.80 malic acid, 11.6 total sugars and 0.02100.080% tannin.The seeds contain cyanogenic gly- coside, amygdalin (0.62-1.38%, HCN equivalent, 0.037-00.087%).... malus pumilaHabitat: Simla, Kumaon and plains of North India.
English: Round-leaved Mallow, Drawf Mallow, Cheese Cake Flower.Ayurvedic: Suvarchalaa.Unani: Khubhaazi, Gul-Khair.Action: Leaves—demulcent, emollient; used in glycosuria, stomach disorders and as emmenagogue; used as poultice for maturing abscesses. Seeds—demulcent; prescribed in bronchitis, cough, inflammation of the bladder and haemorrhoids.
Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) is a different herb.... malva rotundifoliaHabitat: Temperate Himalayas from Punjab to Kumaon, up to 2,400 m; Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
English: Common Mallow, Blue Mallow, High Mallow.Ayurvedic: Suvarchalaa (var.).Unani: Khubbaazi, Bhubhaazi Bustaani, Gul-Khair.Action: Mucilaginous, emollient, laxative, antitussive, pectoral, antibacterial. Infusion is used for coughs and colds, irritation of the bronchi. Phagocyte stimulant.
Key application: In irritation of the mucosa and throat and dry, irritative cough. (German Commission E.)The herb contains sulphated flavo- nol glycosides, mucilage and tannins.Flowers contain malvin (an antho- cyanin), malvidin diglucoside, tannins, carotene and ascorbic acid.Malva coromandeliana Linn. (also malvastrum) is anti-inflammatory, pectoral, antidysenteric and diaphoretic.... malva sylvestrisManamie, Manamy, Manamey, Manamee, Manamea... manami
Habitat: Mediterranean region.
English: Mandrake.Ayurvedic: Wrongly equated with Lakshmanaa, a fertility promoting herb. (In Indian medicine, Panax quinquefolium Linn. and Panax schinseng Nees have been equated with Lakshmanaa.)Action: Anaesthetic, narcotic, poisonous. Alkaloid pattern similar to Atropa belladona. A sample of roots from Morocco contained atropine (0.2% at flowering stage).
In India, Panax sp. are perceived as fertility and vitality promoting herbs, which have been attributed to Laksh- manaa. Mandrake exhibits anticholinergic effects.English Mandrake and American Mandrake are equated with Bryonia alba and Podophyllum hexandrum respectively.... mandragora autumnalisHabitat: Uttar Pradesh., Punjab, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
English: Mango.Ayurvedic: Aamra, Amb, Rasaal, Sa- hakaar, Pikavallabha, Madhudoot, Atisaurabha, Maakanda.Unani: Aam, Ambaj.Siddha/Tamil: Manga, Mau, Mamaram (bark), Mangottai Paruppu (seed).Action: Unripe fruit—astringent, antiscorbutic. Ripe fruit—invigorating and refrigerant in heat apoplexy. Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, chloretic, diuretic. Used in diabetes, externally in burns and scalds. Kernel—astringent, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, anthelmintic, antispas- modic, antiscorbutic; given in diarrhoea, diabetes and menstrual disorders. Stem bark—astringent; used for haemorrhages, diarrhoea, rheumatism.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the dried seed in diarrhoea and dysentery; and the dried stem bark in genitourinary disorders.Ripe mango contains sugars (9.518.6%), citric acid (0.12-0.34%), ascorbic acid (10.8-225.0 mg/100 g), carote- noids as beta-carotene (2,00017,000 mcg/100 g). The fruit gave phenolic compounds (m-digallic acid, gal- lotannin, phloroglucinol, protocate- chuic acid); flavonoids (1,2,3,4-tetrahy- droxy benzene, kaempferol and myri- cetin).The seed kernel contains alpha-and beta-amyrins, gallotannin, glucogallin and several sterols.The leaves contain a pentacyclic tri- terpene alcohol, indicol, besides tarax- one, taraxerol, friedelin, lupeol and beta-sitosterol. Leaves contain several sugars, free malic and citric acids and amino acids. Some esters of ben- zophenone C-glucosides and kinic and shikmic acids have also been reported. Mangiferin is present predominantly in the leaves and twigs.The bark contains phenolic compounds (gallocatechin, protocatechuic acid), xanthones (homomangiferin), several triterpenoids and sterols.All parts gave phenolic acids (el- lagic acid, gallic acid, ethyl gallate); flavonoids (catechin), and xanthones (mangiferin).Dosage: Dried seed—1-2 g powder (API, Vol. I); stem bark—3-6 g powder, 25-50 g for decoction. (API, Vol. III.)... mangifera indicaManeesha, Manishah, Manysha, Maniesha, Maneisha, Maneasha... manisha
Habitat: Native to Brazil. Major crop in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
English: Manioc, Tapioca, Cassava.Siddha/Tamil: Maravalli kizhangu, Ezhalai kizhangu.Folk: Tapioca.Action: Staple food for poorer section of the population in many tropical countries. The starch is used for the manufacture of dextose, liquid glucose. The bitter variety is used for treating scabies and weeping skin.
The tuber is a good source of provitamin A carotenoids. It contains 0.1-3.0 mg/kg (fresh weight) of beta- carotene and 0.05-00.6 mg/kg (fresh weight) of lutein. The bitterness of the tuber is related to the cyanoglu- coside content which ranges from 320 to 1,100 mcg cyanide/g in very bitter tubers and from 27.5 to 77.5 mcg is non-bitter tubers. Boiling, crushing and sun-drying reduce bitterness and also cyanoglucoside content. The tannin equivalent content in the clones varies from 0.31 to 0.34% and saponin equivalent varies from 0.18 to 0.29%.Feeding tapioca significantly reduced the plasma cholesterol profile experimentally in cats and rats.... manihot esculentaManjushah, Manjushia, Manjousha, Manjoushia... manjusha
Mansie, Mansy, Mansey, Mansee, Mansea, Mausi, Mausie, Mausee, Mausy, Mausey, Mausea... mansi
Habitat: A native of Malaya; occasionally grown in gardens, especially in North India, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
English: Kauki.Ayurvedic: Khirni.Siddha: Palai.Action: Root and bark—astringent. Given in infantile diarrhoea. Seed— febrifuge, anthelmintic, antileprotic. Leaf—used as poultice for tumours.
Seeds contain about 16% of fatty oil and 1% saponin.Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Du- bard, synonym Mimusops hexandra Roxb., found in central India and Dec- can Peninsula, and cultivated throughout the greater part of India, is also equated with Khirni.All parts gave taraxerol, a triterpene ketone, alpha-and beta-amyrin, cin- namates, alpha-sipnasterol, beta-sitos- terol, its beta-D-glucoside, quercitol, quercetin and its dihydroderivatives, ursolic acid.The bark contains 10% tannin.... manilkara kaukiMantia, Mantika, Manteia, Mantea, Mantai, Mantae... manto
Mantrini, Mantrania, Mantranna, Mantrani, Mantrinie, Mantranie... mantrana
Manulanie, Manulane, Manulaney, Manulanee, Manulanea... manulani
Maolmine, Maolmina, Maolminia, Maolmyn, Maolmyna, Maolmyne... maolmin
Marra, Mahra, Marah, Maralina, Maralinda, Maraline... mara
Habitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated throughout the country for its edible starch.
English: Arrowroot.Siddha: Koovaikizhangu, Kookaineer.Action: Nutritive, demulcent (especially for infants and convalescence). Used as a dietary aid in acute diarrhoea and gastroenteritis. Used as a substitute for Bamboo-manna.
The rhizome contains about 25-27% neutral starch.... maranta arundinaceaMarivella, Marivilla, Marevilla, Marevella, Maravella, Maraville, Marivel, Marivelle... maravilla
Marcey, Marci, Marcie, Marcee, Marsee, Marsey, Marsy, Marsie, Marsi, Marcea, Marsea... marcy
Mariam, Mariana, Marian, Marion, Maryann, Maryanne, Maryanna, Maryane, Maryana, Marianne, Marianna, Mariann, Maryam, Marianda, Marien... mariane
Maricel, Maricella, Marisela, Maresella, Marisella, Maryzela, Marecela, Marecella... maricela
Maryko, Mareeko, Marieko, Mareiko... mariko
Marjolaine, Marjolayn, Marjolayne, Marjolayna, Marjolaene, Marjolaen, Marjolaena... marjolaina
Marlaina, Marlana, Marlane, Marlayna, Marlayne, Marleen, Marleena, Marleene, Marleina, Marlen, Marlena, Marleni, Marna, Marlin, Marlina, Marline, Marlyn, Marlynne, Marla, Marlette... marlene
Marothe, Marotha, Marothia, Marothea, Marothiya... maroth
Marpesa, Marpessah, Marpesah, Marpe, Marpes... marpessa
Habitat: Western and Eastern Himalayas, Simla and Kumaon, hills of Assam.
Ayurvedic: Muurvaa (var.).Folk: Maruaa-bel. Khaarchu (Garhwal).M. hamiltonii Wight (sub-Himalayan tract and adjacent plains of Ut- tar Pradesh and Bihar) has also been equated with a Muurvaa var. It is known as Moran-adaa in folk medicine.... marsdenia royleiHabitat: Native to Europe and Central Asia; also found in Kashmir
English: Horehound.Unani: Faraasiyun (wrongly equated with Valerian in National Formulary of Unani Medicine).Action: Expectorant, cholagogue; bitter tonic for stomach and liver, antispasmodic. Used for bronchitis, asthma, whooping cough, hard cough with little phlegm; also for cardiac extrasystols.
Key application: In loss of appetite, dyspepsia; bloating and flatulence. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia and The British Herbal Compendium (additionally) indicate its use for acute bronchitis, non-productive cough and catarrh and the respiratory tracts.The herb yields a diterpenoid, pre- marrubiin, which generates marrubiin as an artefact; caffeic acid derivatives; and flavonoids—apigenin, apigenin-7- glucoside, luteolin, luteolin-7-gluco- side, quercetin-3-glucoside and -3- rhamnoglucoside. The extracts of the herb exhibit anti-inflammatory and antiserotonin activity experimentally. Marrubiin is considered to be responsible for expectorant activity. It has also shown to normalize extrasystolic arrhythmias. High doses may cause cardiac irregularities.The oil exhibits antimicrobial properties and is reported to be vasodilatory and hypotensive.... marrubium vulgareHabitat: Himalayas from Kumaon to Assam, up to 1,500 m, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Deccan Peninsula.
English: White Turpeth.Ayurvedic: Muurvaa, Atirasaa, Madhurasaa, Gokarni, Morataa, Madhulikaa, Suvaa, Devi, Tejani, Tiktavalli.Siddha/Tamil: Perunkurinjan.Folk: Maruaa-bel.Action: Root—purgative, antispas- modic, mild CNS depressant; used in colic.
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the bark in lipid disorders, also in polyuria and haemorrha- gic diseases.Roots and seeds are rich in pregnane glycosides of 2-deoxysugars, which on hydrolysis gave genins and sugars. Stem yielded tenacissosides A to E. In folk medicine, the root is known as White Turpeth (Safed Nishoth). Op- erculina turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso synonym Ipomoea turpethum R. Br. is the source of Turpeth (Nishoth) in Indian medicine.Dosage: Root—2-6 g powder, 1020 g for decoction. (API, Vol.II.)... marsdenia tenacissimaHabitat: Throughout India as a weed in marshy places.
Ayurvedic: Sunishannaka, Parnaka, Vastika-parnika, Swastika, Cha- tushpatri, Susunishaak, Chaupaitra.Action: Sedative. Used in insomnia and in the treatment of epilepsy and behavioral disorders.
The most active anti-epileptic principle is marsilin (1-triacontanol cero- tate).Dosage: Whole plant—10-20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)... marsilea minutaHabitat: Native of Mexico; found throughout India.
English: Devil's Claw, Tiger Claw.Ayurvedic: Kaakanaasikaa, Kaakaangi, Shirobal.Siddha/Tamil: Kakatundi, Thelko- dukkukai.Folk: Hathajori, Bichhuu.Action: Leaf—used in epilepsy, also applied to tuberculous glands of the neck. Fruit—anti-inflammatory. Ash of the fruit, mixed with coconut oil, is applied on burns. Seed oil— applied on abscesses and for treating itching and skin affections.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the seed for arresting greying of hair.Flowers gave (several flavonoids including apigenin, luteolin, apigenin-7- O-beta-D-glucuronide, luteolin-7-O- beta-D-glucuronide, pellargonidin-3, 5-diglucoside, cyanidin-3-galactoside.The essential oil from the plant moderately inhibited passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in animals.Pentatropis microphylla W. & A. and P. spiralis Decne have also been equated with Kaakanaasaa, Kaakanaasikaa.Dosage: Dried seed—2-5 g. (API, Vol. III.)... martynia annuaMasada, Masalde, Masaldia, Masaldea... masalda
Mashakah, Mashakia, Mashake, Mashaki, Mashakie, Mashaky, Mashakey, Mashakee, Mashakea... mashaka
... masika
Massassie, Masasi, Masasie, Massasi, Masassi, Massassy, Masasy, Massassee, Masasee... massassi
Matangy, Matangie, Matangee, Matangey, Matangea... matangi
Maitilde, Maltilda, Maltilde, Mat, Matelda, Mathilda, Mathilde, Matilde, Matti, Mattie, Matty, Mahault, Maitilda, Maiti, Matia, Mathild, Matyidy... matilda
Habitat: Native of Europe; grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
English: German Chamomile, Chamomile. German chamomile flower is equated with Matricaria recutita L. (synonym Chamomilla recutita L.) and Roman Chamomile flower with Anthemis nobilis L. (synonym Chamamaelum nobilis L.)Unani: Baabunaa.Action: Sedative, anticonvulsant, carminative, antispasmodic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic. See also Anthemis nobilis.
Key application (German Chamomile) ? In inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and gastrointestinal spasm. Externally, in skin, mucous membrane and ano-genital inflammation and bacterial skin diseases. (German Commission E, The British Herbal Compendium.) As anti-inflammatory and anti- spasmodic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The flowers of German chamomile gave volatile oil up to about 2%, containing alpha-bisabolol up to 50%, azu- lenes including chamazulene, guiazu- line and matricine; flavonoids including apigenin and luteolin and their glycosides, patuletin and quercetin; spiroethers; coumarins; polysaccha- rides.The flowers are used as herbal tea for cough and cold and for promoting the flow of gastric secretion and bile. In chamomlile extracts, chamazulene has been found responsible for anti- inflammatory activity. Matricine and (-)-alpha-bisabolol also show anti- inflammatory and analgesic activity. Bisabolol exhibits ulceroprotective effect. Natural (-)-alpha-bisabolol has been shown to be significantly effective in healing burns; (-)-alpha-bisabolol, spiroethers and apigenin exhibit spasmolytic effect comparable with that of papaverine.The polysaccharides are immunos- timulating and activate macrophages and B lymphocytes; play an important role in wound healing.Crude aqueous extract of the plant has been reported to significantly delay the onset of convulsions and reduce mortality rate produced by picrotoxin experimentally.... matricaria chamomillaMatrena, Matresha, Matrina, Matryna, Motreina... matriona
Habitat: Native of Europe; grown as ornamental.
English: Stock, Gilli-flower.Unani: Tudri Safed.Action: Expectorant, diuretic, stomachic.
The seeds contain mucilage, a fatty oil, two crystalline colouring matters and a volatile oil which yields methyl, isopropyl and 4-methylthiobutyl iso- thiocyanates. Beta-sitosterol is present in fatty oil. Fatty acids include palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic and ru- cic.... matthiola incanaMaverik, Maveryck, Maveryk, Mavarick, Mavarik... maverick
Maxeen, Maxena, Maxence, Maxene, Maxi, Maxie, Maxime, Maximina, Maxina, Maxy, Maxanda, Maxima, Maxea... maxine
Maylee, Mayli, Maylie, Mayley, Mayly, Mayleigh... maylea
Maysoon, Maysuna, Maysoona, Maysoun, Maysouna... maysun
Meadowe, Meado, Meadoe, Medow, Medowe, Medoe... meadow
Habitat: Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon, between 3,300-4,500 m.
English: Blue Poppy.Folk: Gul-e-Nilam (Kashmir), Gudi, Kunda, Kanderi (Punjab), Kalihaari (Himachal).Action: Plant—diuretic. Root— narcotic.
In Garhwal Himalayas, the whole plant is used as a blood purifier and to reduce blood pressure. The natives apply the plant paste externally in rheumatic pains as anodyne.Meconopsis horridula Hook, known as Tasargaun in Tibet, is used for cardiac and respiratory disorder.Meconopsis napaulensis DC., synonym M. wallichii HK. (temperate and alpine Himalaya from Nepal to Bhutan at 2,700-5,200 m) also exhibits narcotic properties. The roots gave alkaloids— protopine, magnoflorine, cryptopine, coptisine, allocryptopine, rhoeadine, papaverrubines E and D, corysamine and2-methyl-6-methoxy-l,2,3,4-tetra- hydro-beta-carboline.... meconopsis aculeataMadora, Medeia, Media, Medeah, Mediah, Mediya, Mediyah... medea
Habitat: Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, as a farm crop.
English: Alfalfa, Lucerne.Ayurvedic: Alfalfa, Vilaayati- gawuth, Lasunghaas, Lusan.Unani: Barsem.Action: Anticholesterolemic, rich in essential enzymes, minerals and vitamins; a preventive of high blood pressure, diabetes, peptic ulcer.
Alfalfa tea is used to strengthen the digestive system. Sprouts (of seeds) are used by diabetics.The herb contains carotinoids (including lutein), triterpene saponins, isoflavonoids coumarins, triterpenes (including sitgmasterol, spinasterol); also cyanogenic glycosides (corresponding to less than 80 mg HCN/ 100 g); pro-vitamins A, B6, B12, D, K, E and P; calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, magnesium, choline, sodium, silicon and essential enzymes.The seeds contain 33.2% protein and 4.4% mineral matter; saponins with the aglycones, soyasapogenol B and E and polymines, diaminopropane and norspermine. Two storage globulins, alfin and medicagin are found in the seeds.The flowers contain flavonoids, kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin and laricytrin. The fruits contain beta- amyrin, alpha- and beta-spinasterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, myrselli- nol, scopoletin and esculetin.The saponin, medicagenic acid, is found in leaves and roots (leaves 1.49%, roots 2.43% of dry matter).Alfalfa seed extracts prevented hy- percholesterolemia, triglyceridaemia and atherogenesis in cholesterol-fed rabbits and cynomologus monkeys. The saponins in the extract reduce intestinal absorption of cholesterol in rabbits.Human trials have indicated the use of the herb in menopause. (Sharon M. Herr.)... medicago sativa[catlist id=11 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]
... medical dictionaryIn the hospital service, claims for clinical negligence have risen enormously since the 1970s. In 1975 the NHS spent about £1m a year on legal claims; by 2004 the NHS faced over £2 billion in outstanding claims. In 1995 a risk-pooling Clinical Negligence Scheme for Trusts (CNST) was set up in England, and is administered by the NHS Litigation Authority. NHS trusts are expected to follow a set of risk-management standards, the ?rst being that each trust should have a written risk-management strategy with an explicit commitment to managing clinical risk (see RISK MANAGEMENT).... medical litigation
[catlist id=4 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]
... medicinal plants[catlist id=7 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]
... medicinal plants glossaryA range of research investigations has developed within medical education. These apply to course monitoring, audit, development and validation, assessment methodologies and the application of educationally appropriate principles at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Research is undertaken by medical educationalists whose backgrounds include teaching, social sciences and medicine and related health-care specialties, and who will hold a medical or general educational diploma, degree or other appropriate postgraduate quali?cation.
Development and validation for all courses are an important part of continuing accreditation processes. The relatively conservative courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including diplomas and postgraduate quali?cations awarded by the specialist medical royal colleges (responsible for standards of specialist education) and universities, have undergone a range of reassessment and rede?nition driven by the changing needs of the individual practitioner in the last decade. The stimuli to change aspects of medical training have come from the government through the former Chief Medical O?cer, Sir Kenneth Calman, and the introduction of new approaches to specialist training (the Calman programme), from the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC) and its document Tomorrow’s Doctors, as well as from the profession itself through the activities of the British Medical Association and the medical royal colleges. The evolving expectations of the public in their perception of the requirements of a doctor, and changes in education of other groups of health professionals, have also led to pressures for changes.
Consequently, many new departments and units devoted to medical education within university medical schools, royal colleges and elsewhere within higher education have been established. These developments have built upon practice developed elsewhere in the world, particularly in North America, Australia and some European countries. Undergraduate education has seen application of new educational methods, including Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester; clinical and communications skills teaching; early patient contact; and the extensive adoption of Internet (World Wide Web) support and Computer-Aided Learning (CAL). In postgraduate education – driven by European directives and practices, changes in specialist training and the needs of community medicine – new courses have developed around the membership and fellowship examinations for the royal colleges. Examples of these changes driven by medical education expertise include the STEP course for the Royal College of Surgeons of England, and distance-learning courses for diplomas in primary care and rheumatology, as well as examples of good practice as adopted by the Royal College of General Practitioners.
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) and Continuing Medical Education (CME) are also important aspects of medical education now being developed in the United Kingdom, and are evolving to meet the needs of individuals at all stages of their careers.
Bodies closely involved in medical educational developments and their review include the General Medical Council, SCOPME (the Standing Committee on Postgraduate Medical Education), all the medical royal colleges and medical schools, and the British Medical Association through its Board of Medical Education. The National Health Service (NHS) is also involved in education and is a key to facilitation of CPD/CME as the major employer of doctors within the United Kingdom.
Several learned societies embrace medical education at all levels. These include ASME (the Association for the Study of Medical Education), MADEN (the Medical and Dental Education Network) and AMEE (the Association for Medical Education in Europe). Specialist journals are devoted to research reports relating to medical educational developments
(e.g. Academic Medicine, Health Care Education, Medical Education). The more general medical journals (e.g. British Medical Journal, New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons) also carry articles on educational matters. Finally, the World Wide Web (WWW) is a valuable source of information relating to courses and course development and other aspects of modern medical education.
The UK government, which controls the number of students entering medical training, has recently increased the quota to take account of increasing demands for trained sta? from the NHS. More than 5,700 students – 3,300 women and 2,400 men – are now entering UK medical schools annually with nearly 28,600 at medical school in any one year, and an attrition rate of about 8–10 per cent. This loss may in part be due to the changes in university-funding arrangements. Students now pay all or part of their tuition fees, and this can result in medical graduates owing several thousand pounds when they qualify at the end of their ?ve-year basic quali?cation course. Doctors wishing to specialise need to do up to ?ve years (sometimes more) of salaried ‘hands-on’ training in house or registrar (intern) posts.
Though it may be a commonly held belief that most students enter medicine for humanitarian reasons rather than for the ?nancial rewards of a successful medical career, in developed nations the prospect of status and rewards is probably one incentive. However, the cost to students of medical education along with the widespread publicity in Britain about an under-resourced, seriously overstretched health service, with sta? working long hours and dealing with a rising number of disgruntled patients, may be affecting recruitment, since the number of applicants for medical school has dropped in the past year or so. Although there is still competition for places, planners need to bear this falling trend in mind.
Another factor to be considered for the future is the nature of the medical curriculum. In Britain and western Europe, the age structure of a probably declining population will become top-heavy with senior citizens. In the ?nancial interests of the countries affected, and in the personal interests of an ageing population, it would seem sensible to raise the pro?le of preventive medicine – traditionally rather a Cinderella subject – in medical education, thus enabling people to live healthier as well as longer lives. While learning about treatments is essential, the increasing specialisation and subspecialisation of medicine in order to provide expensive, high-technology care to a population, many of whom are suffering from preventable illnesses originating in part from self-indulgent lifestyles, seems insupportable economically, unsatisfactory for patients awaiting treatment, and not necessarily professionally ful?lling for health-care sta?. To change the mix of medical education would be a di?cult long-term task but should be worthwhile for providers and recipients of medical care.... medical education
Lifestyle While this may change as people grow older – for instance, physical activity is commonly reduced – some lifestyle factors are unchanged: for example, cigarette smoking, commonly started in adolescence, may be continued as an adult, resulting in smoker’s cough and eventually chronic BRONCHITIS and EMPHYSEMA; widespread ATHEROSCLEROSIS causing heart attacks and STROKE; osteoporosis (see BONE, DISORDERS OF) producing bony fractures; and cancer affecting the lungs and bladder.
Genetic factors can cause sickle cell disease (see ANAEMIA), HUNTINGTON’S CHOREA and polycystic disease of the kidney.
Ageing process This is associated with the MENOPAUSE in women and, in both sexes, with a reduction in the body’s tissue elasticity and often a deterioration in mental and physical capabilities. When compared with illnesses described in much younger people, similar illnesses in old age present in an atypical manner
– for example, confusion and changed behaviour due to otherwise asymptomatic heart failure, causing a reduced supply of oxygen to the brain. Social adversity in old age may result from the combined effects of reduced body reserve, atypical presentation of illness, multiple disorders and POLYPHARMACY.
Age-related change in the presentation of illnesses This was ?rst recognised by the specialty of geriatric medicine (also called the medicine of ageing) which is concerned with the medical and social management of advanced age. The aim is to assess, treat and rehabilitate such patients. The number of institutional beds has been steadily cut, while availability of day-treatment centres and respite facilities has been boosted – although still inadequate to cope with the growing number of people over 65.
These developments, along with day social centres, provide relatives and carers with a break from the often demanding task of looking after the frail or ill elderly. As the proportion of elderly people in the population rises, along with the cost of hospital inpatient care, close cooperation between hospitals, COMMUNITY CARE services and primary care trusts (see under GENERAL PRACTITIONER (GP)) becomes increasingly important if senior citizens are not to suffer from the consequences of the tight operating budgets of the various medical and social agencies with responsibilities for the care of the elderly. Private or voluntary nursing and residential homes have expanded in the past 15 years and now care for many elderly people who previously would have been occupying NHS facilities. This trend has been accelerated by a tightening of the bene?t rules for funding such care. Local authorities are now responsible for assessing the needs of elderly people in the community and deciding whether they are eligible for ?nancial support (in full or in part) for nursing-home care.
With a substantial proportion of hospital inpatients in the United Kingdom being over 60, it is sometimes argued that all health professionals should be skilled in the care of the elderly; thus the need for doctors and nurses trained in the specialty of geriatrics is diminishing. Even so, as more people are reaching their 80s, there seems to be a reasonable case for training sta? in the type of care these individuals need and to facilitate research into illness at this stage of life.... medicine of ageing
Meenah, Meana, Meanah... meena
Meerah, Meira, Meirah, Meir... meera
There are three main categories of licensed medicinal product. Drugs in small quantities can, if they are perceived to be safe, be licensed for general sale (GSL – general sales list), and may then be sold in any retail shop. P (pharmacy-only) medicines can be sold from a registered pharmacy by or under the supervision of a pharmacist (see PHARMACISTS); no prescription is needed. P and GSL medicines are together known as OTCs – that is, ‘over-thecounter medicines’. POM (prescription-only medicines) can only be obtained from a registered pharmacy on the prescription of a doctor or dentist. As more information is gathered on the safety of drugs, and more emphasis put on individual responsibility for health, there is a trend towards allowing drugs that were once POM to be more widely available as P medicines. Examples include HYDROCORTISONE 1 per cent cream for skin rashes, CIMETIDINE for indigestion, and ACICLOVIR for cold sores. Care is needed to avoid taking a P medicine that might alter the actions of another medicine taken with it, or that might be unsuitable for other reasons. Patients should read the patient-information lea?et, and seek the pharmacist’s advice if they have any doubt about the information. They should tell their pharmacist or doctor if the medicine results in any unexpected effects.
Potentially dangerous drugs are preparations referred to under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and subsequent regulations approved in 1985. Described as CONTROLLED DRUGS, these include such preparations as COCAINE, MORPHINE, DIAMORPHINE, LSD (see LYSERGIC ACID
DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD)), PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE, AMPHETAMINES, BARBITURATES and most BENZODIAZEPINES.
Naming of drugs A European Community Directive (92/27/EEC) requires the use of the Recommended International Non-proprietary Name (rINN) for medicinal substances. For most of these the British Approved Name (BAN) and rINN were identical; where the two were di?erent, the BAN has been modi?ed in line with the rINN. Doctors and other authorised subscribers are advised to write titles of drugs and preparations in full because uno?cial abbreviations may be misinterpreted. Where a drug or preparation has a non-proprietary (generic) title, this should be used in prescribing unless there is a genuine problem over the bioavailability properties of a proprietary drug and its generic equivalent.
Where proprietary – commercially registered
– names exist, they may in general be used only for products supplied by the trademark owners. Countries outside the European Union have their own regulations for the naming of medicines.
Methods of administration The ways in which drugs are given are increasingly ingenious. Most are still given by mouth; some oral preparations (‘slow release’ or ‘controlled release’ preparations) are designed to release their contents slowly into the gut, to maintain the action of the drug.
Buccal preparations are allowed to dissolve in the mouth, and sublingual ones are dissolved under the tongue. The other end of the gastrointestinal tract can also absorb drugs: suppositories inserted in the rectum can be used for their local actions – for example, as laxatives – or to allow absorption when taking the drug by mouth is di?cult or impossible – for example, during a convulsion, or when vomiting.
Small amounts of drug can be absorbed through the intact skin, and for very potent drugs like OESTROGENS (female sex hormones) or the anti-anginal drug GLYCERYL TRINITRATE, a drug-releasing ‘patch’ can be used. Drugs can be inhaled into the lungs as a ?ne powder to treat or prevent ASTHMA attacks. They can also be dispersed (‘nebulised’) as a ?ne mist which can be administered with compressed air or oxygen. Spraying a drug into the nostril, so that it can be absorbed through the lining of the nose into the bloodstream, can avoid destruction of the drug in the stomach. This route is used for a small number of drugs like antidiuretic hormone (see VASOPRESSIN).
Injection remains an important route of administering drugs both locally (for example, into joints or into the eyeball), and into the bloodstream. For this latter purpose, drugs can be given under the skin – that is, subcutaneously (s.c. – also called hypodermic injection); into muscle – intramuscularly (i.m.); or into a vein – intravenously (i.v.). Oily or crystalline preparations of drugs injected subcutaneously form a ‘depot’ from which they are absorbed only slowly into the blood. The action of drugs such as TESTOSTERONE and INSULIN can be prolonged by using such preparations, which also allow contraceptive ‘implants’ that work for some months (see CONTRACEPTION).... medicines
Medinah, Medyna, Medynah, Medeena, Medeenah, Mediena, Medeina, Medeana, Mdina... medina
Mehitabelle, Mettabel, Meheytabel, Mehitabel, Mehitahelle... mehetabel
Meishana, Meishawn, Meishaun, Meishon... meishan
Mekona, Mekonia, Mekoniah, Mekonna... mekonah
Habitat: Indegenous to Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, Malay Peninsula to Australia; grown in Indian gardens and parks.
English: Cajeput tree, Swamp Tea tree, White Tea tree.Folk: Kaayaaputi. (The oil of Cajeput is imported into India, chiefly from France and Netherlands.)Action: Oil—used as an expectorant in chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, and as a carminative. Acts as anthelmintic, especially against round worms. Enters into ointments for rheumatism and stiff joints, sprains and neuralgia, migraine, colds, influenza, and as a mosquito repellent.
Key application: The oil is antimicrobial and hypermic in vitro. (German Commission.)The oil contains terpenoids, 1,8- cineole (40-65%) as major component, with alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol, nerolidol, limonene, benzaldehyde, valeraldehyde, dipentene and various sesquiterpenes; 3,5-dimethyl-4,6,di- O-methylphloroacetophenone.The essential oil of Melaleuca al- ternifolia (Tea Tree Oil) is indicated for acne, tinea pedis and toe and nail onychomycosis on the basis of human trials. (Sharon M. Herr.)Tea Tree Oil is distilled from the leaves of several species of Australian trees belonging the genus Melaleuca, principaly from M. alternifolia. Tea Tree Oil should contain a maximum of 15% 1,8-cineole and a minimum of 30% (+)-terpinen-4-ol, the principal germicidal ingredient. Other constituents, alpha-terpineol and linalool, also exhibit antimicrobial activity. (Cited in Rational Phytotherapy.)The essential oil of Melaleuca virdi- flora Solander ex Gaertner leaves, known as Niauli Oil, is used for catarrh of the upper respiratory tract. The oil is antibacterial and stimulatory to circulation in vitro. (German Commission E.) Like cajeput oil, the principal constituent is cineole (eucalyptol).A related species, M. genistifolia, indigenous to Australia, is grown in botanical gardens at Saharanpur and Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh). The leaves and terminal twigs yield 0.53% of a volatile oil which consists mainly of d-pinene, and about 2% cineole and traces of aldehyde.... melaleuca leucadendronMelangelle, Melangela, Melangella, Melangele, Melangel... melangell
Melanthe, Melanthia, Melanthea, Malantha, Mallantha, Mellantha... melantha
Habitat: Moist parts of India, up to 1,800 m.
English: Indian Rhododendron.Folk: Laakheri, Paalorey (Maharashtra). Tulasi (Nepal). Nakkukappan (Tamil Nadu), Phutuka (Assam).Action: Leaf—antidiarrhoeal, antiseptic. Locally applied in smallpox to prevent pox-marks. Leaf and flowering top—astringent, antileucorrhoeic. Bark—applied to wounds. Also employed in preparation of gargles.
The leaves gave amino acids—gly- cine, valine, leucine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, methionine, tyrosine, isoleucine and hydroxyproline. The roots gave beta-sitosterol and a tri- terpene, melastomic acid.... melastoma malabathricumMeleet, Meelete, Meleat, Meleate... melete
Melidice, Melitine, Meliah, Meelia, Melya... melia
Habitat: Cultivated and naturalized throuhout India. Wild in the Sub-Himalayan tract up to 1,800 m.
English: Persian Lilac, Pride of India.Ayurvedic: Mahaanimba, Ramyaka, Dreka. (Neem is equated with Azadirachta indica.)Unani: Bakaayan.Siddha/Tamil: Malaivembu.Action: Leaf—diuretic, anthelmintic, antilithic. Leaf and flower—febrifuge, sedative, em- menagogue. Leaf, fruit and stem bark—antileprotic. Leaf, flower, fruit, root bark—deobstruent, resolvent. Seed oil—antirheumatic, insecticidal. Leaves, bark and fruit—insect repellent. Gum— used in spleen enlargement. Heart- wood—an aqueous extract, used in asthma.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia indicated the use of the dried stem bark in increased frequency and turbidity of urine, skin diseases, nausea, emesis, asthma, gastroenteritis, giddiness and vertigo.The bitter constituents are present exclusively in the pericarp, not in the kernel as in the case of Neem fruit. Bakayanin has been isolated from the pericarp (bitter in dilutions of 1 in 10,000).The heartwood also yielded bakaya- nin and a lactone, bakalactone. Leaves gave quercitrin and rutin and tetranor- triterpenoids, salanin and vilasinin.An infusion of the bark is effective against ascariasis. The activity resides in the inner bark which is bitter but not astringent (outer bark contains tannins and is astringent).The ethanolic extract of the leaves is fungicidal and antibacterial. The activity is attributed to azadrine and me- liotannic acid.The fruits are considered poisonous to man and animals; contain melianon- inol, melianol, melianone, meliandi- ol, vanillin and vanillic acid. Vanillic acid analogues show micro- and macro-filaricidal activity.Gedunin, present in the plant, inhibits Plasmodium falciparum, while the seed extract does not show anti- malarial activity against P. berghei.The plant exhibited sedative and psychostimulant properties. Antitu- mour and antiviral activities have also been reported. Intraperitoneal administration of partially purified extracts of fresh green leaves reduced the spread of Tacaribe virus (that causes typical encephalitis) to kidneys, liver and brain in inoculated neonatal mice.Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g (API, Vol. IV.); leaf, seed, root—50- 100 ml decoction; 3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... melia azedarachHabitat: Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Western Ghats, Ganjam and Deccan up to 1,800 m.
English: Hill Neem, Malabar Neem, Common Bead tree.Ayurvedic: Arangaka.Folk: Malaivembu (Tamil).Action: Fruit—anthelmintic; used in skin diseases.
The leaves and seeds gave tetranor- triterpenoids, compositin and com- positolide. The fruit gave salannin. The heartwood yielded a triterpenoid.Tamil and Malyalam synonyms (Malaivembu and Malavembu) are common to Melia azedarach and Melia composita.... melia compositaHabitat: Native to Europe and Asia; grown in North India.
English: White Sweet Clover.Unani: Ilkil-ul-Malik, Naakhunaa (white-flowered var.).Action: See Melilotus indica.... melilotus alba
Melynda, Malinda, Malinde, Mallie, Mally, Malynda, Melinde, Mellinda, Mallee, Mallea... melinda
Melyora, Meliorah, Melyorah, Meleeora... meliora
Malisande, Malissande, Malyssandre, Melesande, Melisandra, Melisandre, Melissande, Melissandre, Mellisande, Melysande, Melyssandre... melisande
Habitat: Native to Eurasia; found as winter weed and cultivated for fodder in parts of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
English: Sweet Clover, Annual Yellow Sweet Clover, Small-flowered Melilot.Ayurvedic: Vana-methikaa.Unani: Ilkil-ul-Malik (yellow- flowered var.).Folk: Ban-Methi, Senji.Action: Plant—astringent, dis- cutient, emollient. Used as poultice or plaster for swellings. The plant gave coumarins—fraxidin, herniarin, umbelliferone and scopoletin.
When fed alone as a green fodder, it exhibits narcotic properties; causes lethargy, tympanitis and is reported to taint the milk of dairy cattle. It may cause even paralysis. The plant contains 3-methoxyflavone, meliter- natin which experimentally inhibited cell growth, induced granularity, retraction and then lysis of cells.... melilotus indicaHabitat: Ladakh, at 3,000-4,000 m, also cultivated.
English: Yellow Sweet Clover, Melilot.Unani: Iklil-ul-Malik, Asaab-ul- Malik, Naakhunaa.Action: Plant—astringent, wound healer, styptic, anti-inflammatory, sedative, mild analgesic, anticoagulant, spasmolytic. Flower and leaf—diuretic, analgesic, anti- inflammatory, smooth muscle relaxant, vasodilator. Seed—used in cold.
Key application: In chronic venous insufficiency. For supportive treatment of thrombophlebitis, haemorrhoids and lymphatic congestion. (German Commission E.) As venotonic, vulnerary. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The herb contains coumarin derivatives; flavonoid glycosides, including kaempferol and quercetin. Di- coumarol (melitoxin) is produced when fermentation takes place in me- lilot. Seeds gave canavanin and trigo- nelline. Reported poisonous to horses. The flowers contain the flavonoids, quercetin and myricetin besides kaem- pferol.The herb has shown increase in venous reflux and improvement in lymphatic kinetics. Animal experiments show an increase in healing wounds. Flower and leaf extracts have shown analgesic activity, prolongation in pento-barbital-induced hypnosis time and smooth muscle relaxant activity in mice; also exhibited hypotensive and vasodilatory activity in rabbit. Dicoumarol is a potent anticoagulant.In Europe and China, the plant extract is used for inflammations, arthritis, rheumatism, phlebitis, venous insufficiency, haemorrhoids, brachialgia and bronchitis.The Red Clove is equated with Tri- folium pratense.... melilotus officinalisHabitat: Kumaon to Sikkim, Gujarat and Peninsular India.
Siddha/Tamil: Pinnakkuppundu.Folk: Chunch, Bilpat.Action: Leaf and root—antidysen- teric. Leaf—applied as poultice for swellings of abdomen and sores.
The leaves gave flavonol glycosides, cyclopeptide alkaloids. The triter- penoids and steroids, isolated from the aerial parts, are friedelin, beta- sitosterol and its beta-D-glucoside and stearate.... melochia corchorifoliaMelvina, Mevah, Melvena, Melveena, Melvyna... melva
Menahema, Menaheme, Menahemia, Menahemai... menahem
Habitat: Temperate and alpine Himalaya, from Garhwal to Bhutan and in Darjeeling and Aka, Mishmi and Khasi hills at l,000-3,600 m.
Unani: Billilotan.Action: Carminative, diaphoretic, febrifuge in cases of catarrh and 406 Melissa officinalis Linn. influenza. The fruit is considered a brain tonic and useful in hypochondriac conditions.
The aerial parts of the plant yield 2% essential oil which is a good source of monoterpenic alcohols and aldehydes. It contains d-camphene 2.5, dl-alpha- pinene 2.3, 1-beta-pinene 2.13, delta- carene 2.05, d-limonene 12.95, azulene 1.26, linalool 13.36,1,8-cineole 9.33, cit- ronellal 4.0, citronellol 8.2, citral 13.0, geraniol 21.01, neptalactone 1.91, thymol 4.0 and citronellic acid 2.0%.The herb is used as a substitute for Melissa officinalis Linn.MJHabitat: Indigenous to the east Mediterranean region; introduced in India.
English: Mountain Balm, Sweet or Lemon Balm.Unani: Baadranjboyaa, Billilotan. (Nepeta cataria Linn. and Nepeta hindostana Haines are also known as Billilotan.)Action: Antidepressant, antispasmodic, antihistaminic, antiviral. Used in anxiety neurosis and nervous excitability, palpitation and headache. Also in hyperthyroidism.
Key application: In nervous sleeping disorders and functional gastrointestinal complaints. (German Commission E, ESCOP.) Externally for Herpes labialis (cold sores). (ESCOP.) As sedative and topi- cal antiviral. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Only fresh (herb within 6 months after collection) is usable as a sedative, because of low volatile oil content and its high volatility.The volatile oil of the herb (0.100.2%) consists mainly of geranial and neral, with caryophyllene oxide and smaller quantities of terpenes; glycosides of the alcoholic or phenolic components of the volatile oil (including eugenol glucoside); caf- feic acid derivatives (rosmaric acid); flavonoids (including cymaroside, cos- mosiin, rhamnocitrin, isoquercitrin); triterpene acids (including ursolic acid).Hot water extracts exhibit antiviral properties, mainly due to rosmaric acid and other polyphenols. (A cream containing the extracts of Balm is used for the treatment of cutaneous lesions of Herpes simplex virus.) Aqueous extracts inhibit tumour cell dividing.Freeze-dried aqueous extracts inhibit many of the effects of exogenous and endogenous thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH) on bovine thyroid gland by interfering with the binding of TSH to plasma membranes and by inhibiting the enzyme iodothyronine deiodinase in vitro.The anti-hormonal, mainly anti- thyroid effects of Balm are well documented. (Potter's New Cyclopedia, Sharon.M. Herr.)For mild to moderate Alzheimer disease, 60 drops per day of standardized Lemon Balm extract (1 : 11 45% alcohol) was prescribed daily. Results were encouraging. (J Neurol Neurosurg Memecylon edule Roxb. 407 Psychiatry, 74, 2003; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.) (For cholinergic activity, BMJ, 325, 2002, 1312-1233.)... melissa axillarisHabitat: Throughout India, ascending up to 1,800 m in the hills.
Ayurvedic: Ahilekhana, Trikoshaki.Siddha/Tamil: Musumsukkai.Folk: Agmaki.Action: Tender shoots—gentle aperient, diuretic, stomachic; decoction used in biliousness and flatulence.
The root contains columbin; seed oil gave linoleic, oleic and palmitic acids. Fresh aerial parts exhibit potent anti- hepatotoxic activity.In carbon tetrachloride-induced liver dysfunction in albino rats, the recovery of liver, treated with the extract from aerial parts, was significant and there was marked decrease in serum levels of the enzymes, alanine, aminotransferase, aspartate amino- transferase and alkaline phosphatase.Kuruvikizhangu of Siddha medicine, used for acute diarrhoea and fever, is equated with Malothria per- pusilla (Blume) Cogn. Zehneria hook- eriana Arn., found in upper Gangetic plain from Nepal to Assam and in Peninsular India.... melothria maderaspatanaHabitat: Orissa, Assam and Western Peninsula.
English: Iron Wood.Ayurvedic: Anjani.Siddha/Tamil: Kasai, Anjani.Folk: Yaalki, Lokhandi (Maharashtra).Action: Fruit and leaf—astringent. Leaf—antileucorrhoeic, spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic. A lotion prepared from the leaves is used in ophthalmia. Root—used in excessive menstrual discharge.
Aerial parts gave umbelactone, beta- amyrin, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, sitosterol and its glucoside.... memecylon eduleTreatment Acute vertigo symptoms can sometimes be alleviated with drugs such as CYCLIZINE HYDROCHLORIDE and NICOTINIC ACID, but the disorder is notoriously di?cult to treat and no certain cure is available. Surgical decompression of the ?uid in the ear’s balancing mechanism may relieve vertigo and prevent the disease from worsening. The vestibular nerve to the ear can also be cut to relieve vertigo while preserving hearing.... menière’s disease
Anxiety, phobias and depression are fairly common. For instance, surveys show that up to
2.5 per cent of children and 8 per cent of adolescents are depressed at any one time, and by the age of 18 a quarter will have been depressed at least once. Problems such as OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER, ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER (HYPERACTIVITY SYNDROME), AUTISM, ASPERGER’S SYNDROME and SCHIZOPHRENIA are rare.
Mental-health problems may not be obvious at ?rst, because children often express distress through irritability, poor concentration, dif?cult behaviour, or physical symptoms. Physical symptoms of distress, such as unexplained headache and stomach ache, may persuade parents to keep children at home on school days. This may be appropriate occasionally, but regularly avoiding school can lead to a persistent phobia called school refusal.
If a parent, teacher or other person is worried that a child or teenager may have a mental-health problem, the ?rst thing to do is to ask the child gently if he or she is worried about anything. Listening, reassuring and helping the child to solve any speci?c problems may well be enough to help the child feel settled again. Serious problems such as bullying and child abuse need urgent professional involvement.
Children with emotional problems will usually feel most comfortable talking to their parents, while adolescents may prefer to talk to friends, counsellors, or other mentors. If this doesn’t work, and if the symptoms persist for weeks rather than days, it may be necessary to seek additional help through school or the family’s general practitioner. This may lead to the child and family being assessed and helped by a psychologist, or, less commonly, by a child psychiatrist. Again, listening and counselling will be the main forms of help o?ered. For outright depression, COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY and, rarely, antidepressant drugs may be used.... mental health problems in children
Habitat: Cultivated in Indian gardens.
English: Water Mint, Wild Mint.Unani: Pudinaa Nahari.Action: Leaf—stimulant, astringent. Used for diarrhoea and dysmenorrhoea.
The essential oil is composed of 40-50% menthofuran, with menthol, methyl acetate, pulegone among other constituents.... mentha aquaticaTea. Mix, equal parts: Agrimony, Centuary, Meadowsweet.
Decoction. Mix, equal parts: Dandelion root, Echinacea root.
Tablets/capsules. Blue Flag. Devil’s Claw. Wild Yam.
Formula (1). Turkey Rhubarb, with pinch of Cayenne or drops of Tincture Capsicum. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Formula (2). Dandelion 2; Meadowsweet 1; Goldenseal quarter. Dose: as above. ... monosodium glutamate syndrome
Constituents: flavonoids, iridoids including rutin, diterpenes.
Action: antispasmodic, laxative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, vaso-constrictor. (Simon Mills) Nerve and heart sedative. Hypotensive. Action similar to Valerian. (Dr Rudolf F. Weiss) Cardiotonic.
Uses: angina on effort, simple uncomplicated heart conditions to enhance exercise duration; tachycardia from hyperactive thyroid, hypertension, absent or painful menstruation (hence its name), menopausal flushes, schizophrenic tendency, pre-menstrual tension.
“Drink Motherwort tea and live to be a source of continuous astonishment and frustration to waiting heirs.” (Old saying)
Not given in pregnancy.
Combines well with Vervain (equal parts) for relaxing nervine.
Practitioner combinations: Menstrual disorders, equal parts: Black Cohosh, Cramp bark, Motherwort. Heart disorders: Motherwort 1; Hawthorn 1; Lily of the Valley half.
Benzodiazepine addiction to assist withdrawal: equal parts, Motherwort, Skullcap and Valerian. Infusions, extracts or tinctures.
Preparations: Thrice daily.
Tea: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup.
Tea combination: equal parts, Motherwort, Balm and Lime flowers. 2 teaspoons to cup boiling water: infuse 15 minutes, 1 cup thrice daily. Angina and heart symptoms – to ameliorate.
Liquid Extract: 1:1, 25 per cent alcohol. Dose: 2-4ml (30-60 drops).
Tincture: 1:5, 25 per cent alcohol. Dose: 5-10ml (1-2 teaspoons).
Powders. 2 to 4g.
Tablets/capsules. Popular combination. Powdered extract Motherwort 4:1 – 50mg. Powdered Passion flower BHP (1983) – 90mg. Powdered extract Lime flowers 3:1 – 67mg. For a calming and sedating effect in stressful situations and insomnia. (Gerard House)
Note: Motherwort needs to be taken for weeks. ... motherwort
Action: antitussive, anticatarrhal, expectorant, diuretic, sialogogue, antispasmodic, astringent, antibiotic (fresh plant only). A drying agent for profuse mucous discharge.
Uses: whooping cough, cough productive of much mucus. Profuse catarrh, haemoptysis (blood in the sputum), brucellosis (Malta fever), colitis. Bruised fresh plant used by Spanish shepherds for injuries in the field. Nosebleeds. Liver disorders.
BHP (1983) combination: Mouse-ear, White Horehound, Mullein and Coltsfoot (whooping cough). Preparations. Average dose: 2-4 grams, or equivalent; thrice daily (5-6 times daily, acute cases). Works best as a tea or in combination of teas rather than in alcohol.
Tea: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose, half-1 cup.
Liquid Extract: 30-60 drops, in water.
Home tincture: 1 part to 5 parts 45 per cent alcohol (Vodka, gin, etc). Macerate 8 days, shake daily.
Filter. Dose: 1-3 teaspoons in water.
Powder. 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). ... mouse-ear
See also: EXPECTORANTS. ... mucolytics
Occupational tenosynovitis. Pain in hands, limbs, shoulders, neck.
Treatment. Radical rest, avoiding turning door handles, taps, writing, housework.
Teas, decoctions: St John’s Wort, Ginseng, Valerian, Alfalfa, Oats.
Tablets/capsules. Cramp bark. Valerian. St John’s Wort, Ginseng, Black Cohosh.
Formula. Cramp bark 1; Ginseng 1; Ginger half. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: half a teaspoon. Thrice daily.
Topical. Arnica cream or lotion.
Supplements. Vitamins B6, C, E. Calcium, Dolomite, Magnesium. ... musician’s cramp
Habitat: Cultivated in Jammu and Kashmir.
English: Japanese Mint.Unani: Naanaa.Action: Carminative, chola- gogue, expectorant, antibacterial, antifungal.
Key application: Mint oil— internally for flatulence, functional gastrointestinal and gallbladder disorders; catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract. Externally, for myalgia and neuralgia. (German Commission E.)Major components of the essential oil are menthol (up to 95%) and men- thone. Others are alpha-and beta- pinene, alpha-thujene, l-limonene, beta-phellandrene, furfural, methyl- cyclohexanone and camphene. The essential oil possesses both antibacterial and antifungal properties.The leaves show anti-implantation effect. Seeds showed abortifacient activity (29%) in albino rats with marked malformations in neonates where pregnancy was not terminated.... mentha arvensisHabitat: Native to Europe and Asia; cultivated in Kashmir, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
English: English Horsemint.Unani: Pudinaa-Barri, Jangali Pudinaa.Action: Leaf and flowering top— carminative, stimulant, antiseptic, febrifuge. Used for digestive disorders and headaches. Essential oil—antibacterial.
Chief components of the volatile oil are 1,8-cineole 28.8, piperitone 13.9, cis- piperitone oxide 15.4 and piperitenone 13.8%. The aerial parts contain flavonoids—3'-hydroxy-4',5,6,7-tetra- methoxyflavone, hesperetin-7-rutino- side, luteolin, ursolic acid and beta- sitosterol. The essential oil acts as a CNS depressant and has somnifacient properties. Phenolic extract showed stimulative effect on CNS of mice. Administration of the oil leads to a drop in body temperature.American Horsemint is equated with Monarda punctata L. The major component of the volatile oil is thymol. The leaves and tops are used as stimulant, carminative and emmenagogue.... mentha longifoliaHabitat: Native to Europe; cultivated in Maharashtra, Kashmir and Punjab.
English: Peppermint, Brandy Mint.Ayurvedic: Vilaayati Pudinaa.Action: Oil—digestive, carminative, chloretic, antispasmodic, diuretic, antiemetic, mild sedative, diaphoretic, antiseptic, antiviral, used in many mixtures of indigestion and colic and cough and cold remedies.
Key application: Leaf—internally for spastic complaints of the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder and bile ducts. (German Commission E, ESCOP.) The British Herbal Compendium indicates peppermint leaf for dyspepsia, flatulence, intestinal colic, and biliary disorders.Key application: Oil—as a carminative. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) In spastic discomfort fo the upper gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts, irritable colon, the respiratory tract and inflammation of the oral mucosa. Externally, for myalgia and neuralgia. (German Commission E.) ESCOP indicates its use for irritable bowel syndrome, coughs and colds. Externally, for coughs and colds, rheumatic complaints, pruritus, urticaria, and pain in irritable skin conditions. (ESCOP.)The essential oil has both antibacterial and antifungal properties.The major constituents of the essential oil are: menthol, menthone, pulegone, menthofuran, 1,8-cineole, men- thyl acetate, isomenthone. The leaves contain flavonoid glycosides, erioc- itrin, luteolin 7-O-rutinoside, hesperi- din, isorhoifolin, diosmin, eriodictyol 7-O-glucoside and narirutin, besides rosmarinic acid, azulenes, cholene, carotenes.Peppermint oil relaxed carvachol- contracted guinea-pig tenia coli, and inhibited spontaneous activity in guinea-pig colon and rabbit jejunum. It relaxes gastrointestinal smooth muscle by reducing calcium influx. Peppermint oil reduced gastric emptying time in dyspeptics.The aqueous and ethanolic extracts exhibited antiviral activity against RPV (rinder pest virus), a highly contagious viral disease of cattle.... mentha piperataMenulah, Menoola, Menoolah, Menoula, Menoulah... menula
Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.
English: Spearmint, Garden Mint.Ayurvedic: Pudinaa, Podinaka, Puutihaa, Rochini.Unani: Nanaa. Pudinaa Kohi.Action: Carminative, stimulant, antispasmodic, antiemetic, diaphoretic, antiseptic. A tea of dry flowers and leaves is prescribed for tracheobronchitis and hypertension.
The chief constituents of the essential oil are carvone (55-75%) and limonene (up to 21.4%). The herb gave flavonoids, diosmin and diosmetin. Caffeic acid derivatives include ros- marinic acid in the volatile oil.Dosage: Leaf—5-10 ml juice; 35 ml extract. (CCRAS.)... mentha spicataHabitat: Native to Britain and Europe; found in Kashmir.
English: Bogbean, Buckbean, Goat's bean, Marsh Trefoil.Folk: Buckbean.Action: Bitter tonic, deobstruent. Laxative in large doses. Used for diseases of liver and gallbladder, and rheumatism. (Contraindicated in diarrhoea, dysentery and colitis.)
Key application: Leaf—in loss of appetite, peptic discomforts. (German Commission E.) As a bitter tonic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) The drug stimulates saliva and gastric juice secretion. (German Commission E.)The herb contains iridoid glyco- sides, foliamenthin, dihydrofoliamen- thin, menthiafolin and loganin; pyri- dine alkaloids including gentianine; coumarins (scopoletin); phenolic acids (caffeic, with protocatechuic, ferulic, sinapic, vanillic including others; fla- vonoids including rutin, hyperoside.Choleretic action of the herb is attributed to the synergistic action of caffeic and ferulic acids and iridoid glycosides.Scoparone and scopoletin (cou- marins isolated from the aerial parts) exhibit antihepatotoxic, choleretic and cholagogue properties.The rhizomes contain dihydrofolia- menthin, loganin, menthiafolin and a triterpenoid saponin menyantho- side. Aqueous extract of the rhizome showed greater preserved renal function and higher glomerular filtration rate, possibly due to Platelet Activating Factor (PAF)-antagonistic effect of the extract.... menyanthes trifoliataMercedez, Mersadize, Merced, Mercede, Mercedeez... mercedes
Mercey, Merci, Mercie, Mercilla, Mercina, Mercena, Mersey, Mircea, Mercea, Mircy, Mircie, Mersy, Mersie, Mersi... mercy
Maredud, Meridel, Meredithe, Meredyth, Meridith, Merridie, Meradith, Meredydd... meredith
Meropi, Meropie, Meropy, Meropey, Meropee, Meropea... merope
Habitat: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan.
Action: Seeds—sedative.
The seeds contain ergoline alkaloids. The alkaloids are reported to produce vasoconstrictor, uterotonic, neurohor- monic, sympathicolytic and sedative effects.Plants of Merremia sp. are twiners and are used as diuretic, deobstruent, antirheumatic and alterative; the root is used as a mouthwash; leaves are used for burns, scalds and sores. M. vitifo- lia (Burm. F.) Hallier f. exhibits potent diuretic and antiseptic activity in strangury and urethral discharges. (Most of the twiners are known as Prasaarini in Indian medicine and are specific for rheumatic affections.)... merremia quinquefoliaHabitat: Upper Gangetic Plain, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, South India and Gujarat.
Ayurvedic: Prasaarini (Kerala and Karnataka), Tala-nili.Siddha/Tamil: Mudiyaakunthal.Action: Laxative, astringent, anti-inflammatory. Used in piles, swellings, rheumatic affections, stiffness of the joints, hemiplegia and urinary affections.
The aerial parts contain the flavo- noids, diometin, luteolin and their 7- O-beta-D-glucosides.... merremia tridentataMerrik, Merryck, Merryk, Meryk, Meryck... merrick
Merree, Merri, Merrie, Merrielle, Merrile, Merrilee, Merrili, Merrily, Merryn, Merrilie, Meri, Merrea, Merie... merry
Messinah, Massina, Mussina, Messena, Messinia... messina
Habitat: Eastern Himalayas, Assam, West Bengal, Western Ghats, Travancore and the Andaman Islands.
English: Iron-wood, Mesu.Ayurvedic: Naagakeshara, Naa- gapushpa, Chaampeya, Naaga, Naagakinjalika, Ahipushpa. (In Ayurvedic Formulary of India Part I, revised edn 2003, Keshara and Kesara are equated with Mesua ferrea, while Kumkuma is equated with Crocus sativus.)Unani: Naarmushk.Siddha/Tamil: Sirunagappo, Nagakesaram. Sirunagappo also consists of the tender fruits of Cinamonum wighti Meissn. Malabar Naagakeshar consists of the fruits of Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.Action: Flower bud—antidysenteric. Flowers—astringent, haemostatic, anti-inflammatory, stomachic. Used in cough, bleeding piles, metrorrhagia. Essential oil from stamens—antibacterial, antifungal.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of dry stamens in gout, haemorrhagic disorders and diseases of the urinary bladder.The heartwood gave xanthones— euxanthone, mesuaxanthones A and B, which exhibit anti-inflammatory, CNS depressant and antimicrobial activities.Theseedoil gave4-phenylcoumarin analogues—mesuol, mammeigin, me- suagin, mammeisin and mesuone. Phenol-containing fraction of seed oil is antiasthmatic and antianaphylaxis.Stamens gave alpha- and beta-amy- rin, beta-sitosterol, biflavonoids, me- suaferrones A and B, and mesuanic acid. Stamens constitute the drug Naa- gakeshar of Indian medicine, used as an astringent, haemostatic, particularly in uterine bleeding and renal diseases.Ethanolic extract of the plant showed diuretic and hypotensive activity.Dosage: Dried stamens—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... mesua ferreaMethadone is valuable as a suppressant for non-productive cough, acting on the medullary ‘cough centre’ in the central nervous system. It is also helpful in weaning addicts o? morphine and heroin, having a slower onset of DEPENDENCE and a less severe withdrawal syndrome. When used for prolonged periods, methadone should not be given more often than twice daily, to avoid the risks of accumulation and opioid overdosage.... methadone hydrochloride
Methyl alcohol, or wood spirit (see METHANOL), is distilled from wood and is thus a cheap form of alcohol. It has actions similar to, but much more toxic than, those of ethyl alcohol. It has a specially pronounced action on the nervous system, and in large doses is apt to cause neuritis, especially of the optic nerves, leading to blindness, partial or complete.... methyl
Habitat: West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, in hedges and waste places.
Ayurvedic: Pinditaka. Madana or Mainphala is a misleading synonym. It is equated with Randia dumetorum Poir.Folk: Muyana, Moyana, Muduna.Siddha/Tamil: Manakkarai. (Madana or Mainphala is known as Marukkallankay.)Action: Fruit—cholagogue, a decoction used in biliary complaints and hepatic congestion. Dried fruits—narcotic; used for boils.... meyna laxiflora
Micaiah, Mica, Meeca, Meica, Mika, Myka, Mykah, Mikah... micah
Micaela, Michal, Michael, Michaelina, Michaeline, Michaila, Michalin, Mickee, Mickie, Miguela, Miguelina, Miguelita, Mahalya, Mihaila, Mihalia, Mihaliya, Mikaela, Mikayla, Mikella, Mikelle, Mikhaila, Mikhayla, Miskaela, Mychaela, Makaila, Micole, Mika, Mikkel... michaela
Habitat: Eastern Himalayas, lower hills of Assam, hills of South India up to 1,000 m., cultivated in various parts of India.
English: Champak, Golden Champa.Ayurvedic: Champaka, Svarna Champaka, Hemapushpa, Chaam- peya.Siddha/Tamil: Sampagi.Action: Flowers—bitter, carminative, antispasmodic, demulcent, antiemetic, diuretic (used for dy- suria), antipyretic. Fruits—used for dyspepsia and renal diseases. Bark—stimulant, diuretic and febrifuge. Dried root and root bark—purgative and emmena- gogue. Externally—flower oil is used as an application in cepha- lalgia, gout and rheumatism; fruits and seeds for healing cracks in feet.
The ethanolic extract of the stem bark showed hypoglycaemic activity in rats. The benzene extract of the anthers showed 67% post-coital antiimplantation activity in rats (1000 mg/ kg per day).Stem bark and roots yielded an alkaloid liriodenine. Root bark yielded sesquiterpene lactones (including parthenolide and micheliolide). Leaves gave a polyisoprenoid, beta-sitosterol and liriodenine. Mono-and sesquiter- penes occur in essential oils isolated from the flowers, leaf and fruit ring.The bark and root cortex of the Chinese plant gave magnosprengerine (0.41%) and salicifoline (0.39%). These active principles showed lasting muscle relaxant and hypotensive activity.The bark of Michelia montana Blume (Eastern Himalayas and hills of Assam) is used as a bitter tonic in fevers. It bears white and fragrant flowers. The leaf and stem yield an essential oil, 0.95 and 0.36% on fresh basis, respectively. The flowers contains 75% safrole and the latter 76% sarisan.Michelia nilgarica Zenk. (Western Ghats, above 1,700 m) is known as Kattu-sambagam in Tamil Nadu, the yellow-flowered var. of Champaa. The bark and leaves are considered febrifuge. The bark contains a volatile oil, acrid resins, tannin and a bitter principle. The flowers yield a volatile oil similar to the bark oil. Aerial parts exhibit diuretic and spasmolytic activity.Dosage: Dried buds and flowers— 1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.) Bark— 50-100 m decoction. (CCRAS.)... michelia champacaMichi, Michyko, Meecheeko, Mecheeko, Meechiko, Michee... michiko
Habitat: North-eastern parts of India, West Bengal, Western Ghats and Andaman Islands.
Folk: Asar (Bengal); Thengprenke- orong (Assam); Kadambu, Visalam, Kottei (Tamil Nadu); Abhrangu (Karnataka).Action: Plant—stomachic, an- tidysenteric, antisyphilitic, antibacterial (also used for smallpox and eczema).... microcos paniculata
Habitat: North-eastern Indian hills.
Action: Leaf—used for ringworm of the scalp.
A acetylenic glucoside, isolated from the leaf, showed antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus.... microglossa pyrifoliaHabitat: Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Sikkim, Nepal, Assam, Khasi, Aka and Lushai hills.
Action: Bark of the root, stem and branches—used in the treatment of tubercular cases.
The root contains coumarins, mi- cromelin, phebalosin and yuehchak- ene.Micromelum pubescens Blume, synonym M. minutum (Forst. f.) Seem. is found in the Andamans. The plant is used in Malaya and Indonesia for phthisis and chest diseases. The root is chewed with betel for coughs.The leaves contain coumarins, mi- cropubescin and phebalosin.The bark contains phebalosin. The roots contain micromelumin, phe- balosin, imperatorin, angelical, lime- ttin, scopoletin, minumicrolin and murrangatin.Family: Lamiaceae; Labiatae.Habitat: Kumaon, Upper Gangetic plain, Bihar, Orissa, Western Ghats, Nilgiris.
Folk: Pudinaa (var.).Action: Plant—carminative. Used as a substitute for Mentha piperata Linn.
The plant yields an essential oil (1.6%) which contains mainly pulegone (80%).Micromeria biflora Benth., equated with Indian Wild Thyme, is found in tropical and temperate Himalayas, and in Western Ghats and hills of South India.The principal constituent of volatile oil of Camphorata sp. is camphor; of Citrata sp. is citral; of menthata and Pulegata sp. is d-menthone; and pulegone.... micromelum integerrimumHabitat: Northern Himalayas at altitudes of 1,500 to 2,800 m.
Ayurvedic: Jivaka, Madhura, Shranga, Hriswaanga, Kurcha, Shirraka. (Substitute: Pueraria tuberosa.)Action: Rejuvenating tonic.
Dosage: Tuber—3-6 g power (CCRAS.)Synonym: Malaxis acuminata D. DonFamily: Orchidaceae.Habitat: Northern Himalayas at altitudes of 1,500 to 2,800 m.
Ayurvedic: Rshabhaka, Rshabha, Rshabham, Vrishabh, Dhira, Vishani. (Substitute: Pueraria tuberosa.)Action: Rejuvenating tonic.
Dosage: Tuber—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... microstylis musiferaMigyna, Migena, Mygina, Mygyna... migina
Migisie, Migysi, Mygisi, Migisy, Migisea... migisi
Mignonette, Mignonne, Mingnon, Minyonne, Minyonette... mignon
Habitat: West Bengal, eastern Assam, as a weed in tea gardens; sal and other forests and waste lands. Distributed in tropical America, Africa and Asia.
Folk: Mikaaniaa.Action: Root—anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, adaptogenic.
Stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol and sesquiterpene dilactones, mikanolide, dihydromikanolide, deoxymikanolide and scandenolide have been isolated from the weed.The root extract exhibited anti-inflammatory activity; reduced carra- geenan-induced paw oedema in experimental rats.The methanolic extract of the root showed CNS deperssant action. It showed reduction in spontaneous motility, hypothermia, potentiation of pentobarbitone sleeping time, analgesia, suppression of aggressive behaviour and antagonism to amphetamine toxicity on experimental animals.The methanolic extract of the root exhibited adaptogenic activity against a variety of stress-induced effects in albino rats.The chemoprotective, anticarcino- genic and hepatoprotective effect of the methanolic extract of the root were also evaluated in animal studies. Chemical carcinogens were reduced in the liver of rats treated with the plant extract. The root extract induced recovery from carbon tetrachloride-induced damage to liver tissues in mice.... mikania cordataMilaia, Milaka, Milla, Milia... mila
Milagritos, Milagrosa, Miligrosa, Miligritos... milagros
Mildri, Mildrid, Mildryd, Mildrie, Mildree, Mildraed, Millie, Milly, Milley, Milli, Millee, Millea, Mildrea... mildred
Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalayas, in North-east and Central India, eastern coast of Deccan Peninsula.
Ayurvedic: Rshiyaproktaa.Folk: Gandha-Palaasa (Orissa), Kaari (gum).Action: Bark—used in the treatment of gout.... miliusa velutina
Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalaya up to 1,200 m from Kashmir to Bhutan and in Assam and Central and Southern India.
Folk: Godaar (Bihar).Action: Root—vermifuge, pestici- dal, kills lice and ticks.
The roots, leaves and stems gave iso- flavones (including iso-auriculatin, au- ricularin) and a rotenoid, sumatrol.Millettia racemosa Benth.Family: Fabaceae.Habitat: Deccan Peninsula. Folk: Godaar (Bihar).
Action: Insecticidal.
The debarked stem contains isofla- vans, isomillinol, besides behenic acid, beta-amyrin and beta-sitosterol. The isoflavans showed bactericidal and in- secticidal activity. The antibacterial activity was observed against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli.... millettia auriculataHabitat: Cultivated throughout India.
English: Indian Cork tree.Siddha/Tamil: Maramalli.Folk: Aakaasha Neem, Neem- Chameli.Action: Bark—antipyretic. Flowers—used for asthma and sinusitis.
The butanol soluble fraction from aqueous extract of flowers showed bronchial smooth muscle relaxant property. Hispidulin, isolated from the flowers, is reported to exhibit bron- chodilatory and antiphlogistic activities. Hispidulin is found to be more potent than aminophyllin and less toxic than the crude extract. gallic acid. The aerial parts of the plant contain C-glycosylflavones, 2"- O-rhamnosylorientin and 2"-O- rhamnosylisoorientin.Dosage: Whole plant, root—10- 20 ml juice; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.) Whole plant—10-20 g for decoction. (API, Vol. II.)... millingtonia hortensisMiloslavah, Miloslavia, Miloslavea... miloslava
Habitat: Native to tropical America; naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of India.
English: Sensitive-plant, Humble- Plant.Ayurvedic: Lajjaalu, Laajavanti, Namaskaari, Samangaa, Sankochini, Shamipatraa, Khadirkaa, Raktapaadi.Unani: Chhuimui, Sharmili, Laajwanti.Siddha/Tamil: Thottalsurungi.Action: Leaf—astringent, alterative, antiseptic, styptic, blood purifier. Used for diarrhoea, dysentery, haemophilic conditions, leuc- orrhoea, morbid conditions of vagina, piles, fistula, hydrocele and glandular swellings. Root—used in gravel and urinary complaints. A decoction is taken to relieve asthma.
The plant contains mimosine and turgorin. The periodic leaf movements exhibited by the plant are due to presence of derivatives of 4-O- (beta-D-glucopyranosyl-6'-sulphate)Family: Sapotaceae.Habitat: Cultivated in North India, Western Peninsula and South India.
English: Spanish-Cherry, West Indian Medlar, Bullet Wood.Ayurvedic: Bakula, Keshara, Simhakeshara, Sthiraa, Sthira- pushpa, Vishaarada, Dhanvi, Madhupushpa, Madhugandha, Chirpushpa, Maulsiri.Unani: Molsari.Siddha: Magilam.Action: Pulp of ripe fruit—astringent; used in chronic dysentery Flowers, fruit and bark—astringent. Bark—given for promoting fertility in women. Seeds—purgative. The leaves contain sterols, reducing sugars and tannins; roots, a steroidal saponin; stem bark, spinasterol and taraxerol; flowers, D-mannitol, beta-sitosterol and beta-sitosterol- D-glycoside; seeds, pentacyclic triterpene acids, mimusopic and mimusopsic acids.
Essential oil obtained from the plant is reported to be mycotoxic. Antimicrobial activity of the root extract has been reported. Saponins isolated from the seeds have been found to effect the cardiovascular activity in dogs and haemolytic activity in human beings. Spasmolytic activity in isolated ileum of guinea-pigs has also been recorded. Saponins from seeds also showed spermicidal activity.Dosage: Seed, bark—10-20 g paste; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... mimusops elengiMindah, Mynda, Myndah, Menda, Mendah... minda
Minjonett, Minjonete, Minjonette, Minjoneta, Minjonetta... minjonet
Minkah, Mynka, Mynkah, Minna, Minne... minka
Minesota, Minnesoda, Minesoda, Minisota, Minisoda... minnesota
MIS is commonly carried out by means of an operating laparoscope (a type of ENDOSCOPE) that is slipped through a small incision in the skin. MIS now accounts for around 50 per cent
of all operations carried out in the UK. A small attachment on the end of the laparoscope provides an image that can be magni?ed on a screen, leaving the surgeon’s hands free to operate while his assistant operates the laparoscope. Halogen bulbs, ?breoptic cables and rod lenses have all contributed to the technical advancement of laparoscopes. Operations done in this manner include extracorporeal shock-wave LITHOTRIPSY for stones in the gall-bladder, biliary ducts and urinary system; removal of the gall-bladder; appendicectomy; removal of the spleen and adrenal glands; and thoracic sympathectomy. MIS is also used to remove cartilage or loose pieces of bone in the knee-joint.
This method of surgery usually means that patients can be treated on a day or overnight basis, allowing them to resume normal activities more quickly than with conventional surgery. It is safer and lessens the trauma and shock for patients needing surgery. MIS is also more cost e?ective, allowing hospitals to treat more patients in a year. Surgeons undertake special training in the use of MIS, a highly skilled technique, before they are permitted to use the procedures on patients. The use of MIS for hernia repair, colon surgery and repairs of duodenal perforations is under evaluation and its advantages will be enhanced by the development of robotic surgical techniques.... minimally invasive surgery (mis)
Mirah, Mirana, Mireille, Mirella, Mirelle, Miri, Miriana, Mirielle, Mirilla, Mirka, Mirra, Myrella, MyrEne, Myrilla, Mir, Mirko, Mirke... mira
Habitat: North-West Himalayas, Bengal and Manipur.
English: Four-O'Clock Plant, Marvel of Peru.Ayurvedic: Trisandhi.Unani: Gul-abbaas.Siddha/Tamil: Andhimalligai.Action: Leaf—used for treating uterine discharge; as poultice for abscesses and boils; fresh juice is applied to body in urticaria, also for inflammations and bruises. Tuber— used as a poultice on carbuncles. Root—mild purgative, spasmolytic.
The tuberous roots were erroneously thought to be the source of jalap.The plant is used for its antitumour and virus-inhibitory activity.The plant contains triterpenes, al- pha-amyrin and its acetate. Mirabilis Antiviral Protein (MAP) was isolated from the tuberous roots. MAP also showed antiproliferative effect on tumour cells. (MAP is abortifacient.)Two Mirabilis jalapa antimicrobial proteins, Mj-AMP-1 and Mj-AMP-2, isolated from seeds, showed broad spectrum antifungal actvity involving a number of pathogenic fungi.Miraxanthins I, II, III and IV, indi- caxanthin and vulgaxanthin have been isolated from flowers.... mirabilis jalapaMaranda, Meranda, Miran, Mirandah, Mirranda, Myranda... miranda
Mirella, Mireile, Mireilla, Mireila, Mireio, Mirei... mireille
Mysae, Misay, Misaye, Mysay, Mysaye, Misai, Mysai... misae
Missourie, Mizouri, Mizourie, Missoury, Mizoury, Missuri, Mizuri, Mizury, Missury... missouri
Mistie, Misti, Mistey, Mistee, Mystee, Mysti, Mystie, Mysty, Mystey, Mystea, Mistea... misty
Misumie, Misumee, Misumy, Misumey, Misumea... misumi
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 This legislation forbids activities relating to the manufacture, sale and possession of particular (controlled) drugs. These are classi?ed into three grades according to their dangers if misused. Any o?ences concerning class A drugs, potentially the most damaging when abused, carry the toughest penalties, while classes B and C attract lesser penalties if abused.
Class A includes: cocaine, dextromoramide, diamorphine (heroin), lysergic acid (LSD), methadone, morphine, opium, pethidine, phencyclidine acid and injectable preparations of class B drugs.
Class B includes: oral amphetamines, barbiturates, codeine, glutethimide, marijuana (cannabis), pentazocine and pholcodine.
Class C includes: drugs related to the amphetamines, anabolic and androgenic steroids, many benzodiazepines, buprenorphine, diethyl propion, human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG), mazindol, meprobamate, pemoline, phenbuterol, and somatropin.
Misuse of Drugs Regulations 1985 These regulations de?ne those people who are authorised in their professional capacity to supply and possess controlled drugs. They also describe the requirements for legally undertaking these activities, such as storage of the drugs and limits on their prescription.
Drugs are divided into ?ve schedules and some examples follow.
I: Almost all are prohibited except in accordance with Home O?ce authority: marijuana (cannabis), LSD.
II: High potential for abuse but have
accepted medical uses: amphetamines, cocaine.
III: Lower potential for abuse: barbiturates, meprobamate, temazepam.
IV: Lower potential for abuse than I to III. Minimal control: benzodiazepines.
V: Low potential for abuse: generally compound preparations containing small amounts of opioids: kaolin and morphine (antidiarrhoeal medicine), codeine linctus (cough suppressant).
(See also CONTROLLED DRUGS.)... misuse of drugs
Mitenah, Mytena, Mitenna, Mytenna... mitena
Mitexie, Mitexee, Mitexy, Mitexey, Mitexa, Mitexea... mitexi
Mitran, Mitrania, Mitrane, Mitrana... mitra
Habitat: All over India, and up to 1,200 m in the outer Himalaya.
English: Kaim.Ayurvedic: Giri-kadamba, Kadamba (var.).Siddha: Chinna-Kadambu.Action: Bark—used for muscular pain. Bark and root—febrifuge, antispasmodic.
Both indole and oxindole alkaloids have been isolated from the plant. (The composition of alkaloids varies with season and from place to place.) The main indole alkaloid reported is akuammigine and oxindole alkaloids have been identified as mitra- phylline, isomitraphylline, pteropo- dine, isopteropodine, speciophylline and uncarine F. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. is the accepted source of Kadamba.... mitragyna parvifoliaMoanie, Moany, Moaney, Moanee, Moanea... moani
Mokie, Mokei, Moky, Mokey, Mokee, Mokea... moke
Habitat: Upper Gangetic Plains, Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka.
Ayurvedic: Parpata (substitute). Grishma-Sundara.Siddha/Tamil: Parpaatakam.Folk: Jeem Shaak.Action: Plant—stomachic, aperient, febrifuge, antiseptic, blood purifier (used for venereal diseases), emmenagogue. Root—used in rheumatism and gout.
Flowers and shoots—diaphoretic, given in fevers. An infusion of the plant is given to promote lochial discharge.The plant contains orientin (leteo- lin-8-C-glucoside), vitexin (apigenin- 8-C-glucoside) and their 2"-O-gluco- sides. The plant is cardiostimulant, also antibacterial.... mollugo cervianaHabitat: Greater part of India, especially in Assam, Bengal and Deccan Peninsula.
Ayurvedic: Grishma-sundara, Parpata (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil: Thurapoondu.Folk: Jala-papr (Bihar), Jeem Shaak.Action: Plant—stomachic, aperient and antiseptic. Used as a bitter tonic for liver disorders.
Aerial parts gave vitexin, vitexin-7- glucoside and 2"-p-coumaroylvitexin- 7-glucoside.Mollugo stricta Linn., synonym M. pentaphylla Linn. (throughout the plains and Ghats of India), is also known as Parpatakam in the South, Jala-papr in Bihar and Kharas in Maharashtra. The plant is stomachic, aperient, emmenagogue and antiseptic. Its biological activity is spermiostatic.... mollugo spergulaHabitat: Punjab, Gujarat, Dehra Dun and Andhra Pradesh.
English: Balsam Apple.Ayurvedic: Jangali Karelaa.Folk: Mokhaa. Chhochhidan (Gujarat).Action: Fruit—applied to burns, haemorrhoids and chapped hands. Internally, cathartic, hypoglycaemic.
The plant contains a ribosome inactivating protein, momordin II. Metha- nolic extract of the aerial parts contains phenylpropanoid esters, verbas- coside, calceolarioside and rosmarinic acid. The esters exhibited antihyper- tensive, analgesic and antibacterial activities.... momordica balsaminaHabitat: Cultivated all over India for its fruits.
English: Bitter Gourd, Blsam Pear, Carilla.Ayurvedic: Kaaravellaka, Kaaravella, Kaathilla, Sushaavi.Unani: Karelaa.Siddha/Tamil: Paakal, Paharkai.Action: Seed/fruit—improves diabetic condition. Fruit—stomachic, laxative, antibilious, emetic, anthelmintic. Used in cough, respiratory diseases, intestinal worms, skin diseases, also for gout and rheumatism. Powdered fruit—applied to wounds and ulcers. Leaf— emetic, antibilious, purgative. Fruit, leaf and root—abortifacient. Leaf and seed—anthelmintic. Root— astringent; appled to haemorrhoids.
Immature fruits gave several nonbitter and bitter momordicosides. Fruits, seeds and tissue culture gave a polypeptide containing amino acids. Fruits also gave 5-hydroxytryptamine, charantin (a steroidal glucoside), dios- genin, cholesterol, lanosterol and beta- sitosterol. Bitter principles are cucur- bitacin glycosides.Hypoglycaemic effects of the fruit have been demonstrated by blood tests in both humans and animal studies.Researchers have warned that the fruit extract leads to a false negative test for sugar in the urine (due to its ability to maintain the indicator dye in the glucose oxidase strips and the alkaline copper salts in a reduced state).Chronic administration of the fruit extract (1.75 g/day for 60 days) to dogs led to testicular lesions with mass atrophy of the spermatogenic elements. The extract reduced the testicular content of RNA, protein and sialic acid as also the acid-phosphatase activity. (Medicinal Plants of India, Vol. 2,1987, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi.)The fruits and seeds yielded a poly- peptide, p-insulin, which was considered similar to bovine insulin. (Fitoter- apia, 60,1989; Chem Abstr 112,1990.)The seed and fruit contain an inhibitor of HIV, MAP-30 (Momordi- ca anti-HIV-protein) which exhibited antiviral and antitumour activity in vitro. (Chem Abstr, 113, 1990; ibid, 117, 1992.) Another protein, MRK-29, found in the seed and fruit of a smaller var. of Bitter Gourd found in Thailand, was found to inhibit HIV reverse transcriptase and to increase tumour necrosis factor (TNF). (Planta Med, 67, 2001; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)The seeds yield alpha-and beta- momorcharins (glycoproteins). When these glycoproteins were co-cultured with isolated hepatocytes, morphological changes in hepatocytes were observed, indicating hepatotoxicity. Another principle with antilipolytic and lipogenic activities, found along with the alpha-and beta-momorcharin in the seed extract, did not show toxic effect.Vicine is the hypoglycaemic constituent in the seed. Pure vicine has been found to possess 32.6% hypogly- caemic activity as against 22.2% shown by fresh juice, when tested on albino rats. The vicine is non-haemolytic.Dosage: Fresh fruit—10-15 ml juice (API, Vol. II); 10-20 ml juice (CCRAS.)... momordica charantiaMoniqua, Moneeque, Moneequa, Moneeke, Moeneek, Moneaque, Moneaqua, Moneake... monique
Habitat: Cultivated throughout the country, especially found in Assam, Bengal, South India and Andaman Islands.
Ayurvedic: Karkataka, Kaaravella- jalaja.Folk: Kakrol (Maharashtra), Bhat-karelaa, Gulkakraa.Action: Leaf and fruit—used externally for lumbago, ulceration, fracture of bone. Seed—bechic, aperient, emmenagogue, anti- inflammatory, deobstruent. (Used for obstructions of liver and spleen).
The tuberous root contains saponins belonging to the pentacyclic tri- terpene glycoside series. Seeds contain momordica saponins I and II (ester glycosides of gypsogenin and quilla- ic acid respectively), the diterpenoid columbin, oleanolic acid, its derivative momordic acid and bessisterol.The seeds contain the glycoprotein, momorcochin S, which exhibits RNA N-glycosidase activity.... momordica cochinchinensisHabitat: Throughout India, up to 1,500 m in the Himalaya.
English: Small Bitter Gourd, Bur Cucumber.Ayurvedic: Karkotikaa, Karkotikaa- vandhyaa, Karkotaka, Karkota.Siddha/Tamil: Tholoo-pavai, Paluppakai, Kaattupaagala.Folk: Jangali Karelaa, Ban-Karelaa, Bhat-Karelaa, Dhar-Karelaa.Action: Tuberous root—astringent, febrifuge, antiseptic, anthelmintic, spermicidal. Used in bleeding piles, urinary affections; smeared over body in high fever with delirium (as a sedative). A paste, prepared with the root of male plant, is applied externally for pain in the breast.
The root extract exhibited significant anti-allergic activity comparable with standard drugs used against allergy and bronchial asthma (in experimental animals).... momordica dioicaHabitat: Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, in bushes along the banks of water courses. (It is not cultivated.)
Ayurvedic: Kaarali-Kanda, Kudu- hunchi.Siddha/Tamil: AthalaikaiFolk: Kakrol (Maharashtra).Action: Tuberous root—emmena- gogue, abortifacient; acrid; contains a bitter glycoside.... momordica tuberosa
An excessive accumulation of monoamines can induce a dangerous reaction characterised by high blood pressure, palpitations, sweating and a feeling of su?ocation. Hence the care with which MAOI drugs are administered. What is equally important, however, is that in no circumstances should a patient receiving any MAOI drug eat cheese, yeast preparations such as Marmite, tinned ?sh, or high game. The reason for this ban is that all these foodstu?s contain large amounts of tyramine which increases the amount of certain monoamines such as noradrenaline in the body. (See MENTAL ILLNESS.)
There are also certain drugs, such as AMPHETAMINES and PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE, which must not be taken by a patient who is receiving an MAOI drug. The MAOIs of choice are phenelzine or isocarboxazid because their stimulant effects are less than those of other MAOIs, making them safer.... monoamine oxidase inhibitors (maois)
Habitat: Throughout India in ponds, tanks, ditches, as a weed common in rice fields.
Ayurvedic: Indivara (Kerala). Kakapola (Malyalam), Nirkancha (Telugu).Siddha/Tamil: Senkzhuneer- kizhangu.Folk: Nukha, Nanda (Bengal).Action: Leaves—juice is given for coughs. Roots—prescribed for stomach and liver complaints.
Bark—prescribed with sugar for asthma.... monochoria vaginalisEPSTEIN BARR VIRUS, which causes MONONUCLEOSIS.... monospot
Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Himachal Pradesh to Bhutan and in Khasi Hills at 1,800-2,400 m.
English: Indian Pipe.Action: Root—sedative, nervine, antispasmodic.
The plant gave sitosterol, campes- terol and traces of cholesterol. The oil contained linolenic, palmitic, linoleic and hexadecenoic acids.... monotropa unifloraMoraikah, Morayka, Moraykah, Moraeka, Moraekah... moraika
Morgaine, Morgana, Morgance, Morgane, Morganica, Morgann, Morganne, Morgayne, Morgen, Morgin, Morgaen, Morgaene, Morgaena... morgan
Moraia, Moraiah, Moria, Morit, Moriel, Morice, Morise, Moriya... moriah
Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tracts, Darjeeling, Konkan and the Andamans.
English: Indian Mulberry.Ayurvedic: Ashyuka, Akshi, Atchy.Siddha/Tamil: Nunaa, Togaru.Action: Fruit—emmenagogue, antileucorrhoeic, antidysenteric, anticatarrhal (used in throat infections and asthma). Root and leaf—cathartic, febrifuge, anti-inflammatory (used in gout). Root—anticongestive, hypotensive. A decoction is given to regulate menstruation.
The heartwood yielded anthraqui- nones—alizarin and its glycosides, nor- damnacanthol. Leaves contain ursolic acid and beta-sitosterol. Fruits gave asperuloside and caproic acid.The lyophilized aqueous extract of roots was evaluated for analgesic and behavioural effects in mice; positive results were observed confirming a sedative property without exhibiting any toxic effects.Ethanolic extract of the plant showed significant antimicrobial activity.Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham., M. tinctoria Roxb. (dry forests throughout the greater part of India) is considered as the wild form or a varient of Morin- da citrifolia and is known by the same vernacular nemes. The root bark gave the insecticidal glycoside, morindin-6- primeveroside, which was found lethal on cockroaches and houseflies topically.Morinda umbellata L. (Bihar, Khasi Hills and Peninsular India) is also known as Nunaa in Tamil Nadu.A decoction of root and leaves is used for diarrhoea and dysentery. The root bark contains a considerable amount of rubichloric acid and small quantities of anthraquinones.... morinda citrifoliaHabitat: Rajasthan and Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Shigru (Red var.). Siddha/Tamil: Kaatumurungai.Action: See M. pterygosperma.... moringa concanensis
Action: All parts of the tree are reported to be used as cardiac and circulatory stimulant. Pods—antipyretic, anthelmintic; fried pods are used by diabetics. Flowers—cholagogue, stimulant, diuretic. Root juice—cardiac tonic, antiepileptic. Used for nervous debility, asthma, enlarged liver and spleen, deep-seated inflammation and as diuretic in calculus affection. Decoction is used as a gargle in hoarseness and sore throat. Root and fruit—antiparalytic. Leaf—juice is used in hiccough (emetic in high doses); cooked leaves are given in influenza and catarrhal affections. Root-bark—antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic. Bark—antifungal, antibacterial. Stem-bark and flower—hypo- glycaemic. Seeds—an infusion, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic and diuretic; given in venereal diseases.
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the dried root bark in goitre, glycosuria and lipid disorders (also dried seeds), and leaf, seed, root bark and stem bark in internal abscess, piles and fistula-in-ano.The plant contains antibacterial principles, spirochin and pterygosper- min which are effective against both Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative bacteria.The leaves contain nitrile glycosides, niazirin and niazirinin and mustard oil glycosides. The mustard oil glycosides showed hypotensive, bradycardiac effects and spasmolytic activity, justifying the use of leaves for gastrointestinal motility disorders.The roots possess antibacterial, anti- choleric and antiviral properties due to the presence of pterygospermin, Spiro chin and benzylisothiocyanate. The root extract exhibited significant anti- inflammatory activity in carrageenan- induced paw-oedema in rats.The leaves exhibited hypoglycaemic activity, although the plasma insulin level did not alter much.The root and bark showed antifer- tility activity through biphasic action on the duration of the estrous cycle of female rats.Dosage: Leaf—10-20 ml. juice. (API, Vol. III); root bark—2-5 g powder; stem bark—2-5 g powder; seed—5-10 g powder (API, Vol. IV). Leaf, flower, fruit, seed, bark, root— 1-3 g powder; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... moringa pterygospermaHabitat: Native to China; cultivated in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Kashmir and North-Western Himalayas. English: Chinese White-Mulberry. Unani: Shahtuut, Tuut.
Action: Fruit—cooling, mild laxative. Used for sore throat, dyspepsia and melancholia. Leaves and root bark—expectorant, diuretic, hypotensive. Bark extract—hypoglycaemic. Leaf— anti-inflammatory, emollient, diaphoretic. Used as a gargle in inflammations of the throat.
The plant is rich in phenolics. The leaves gave flavonoids (including rutin, moracetin); anthocyanins (cyanidin and delphinidin glucosides); artocarpin, cycloartocarpin and analogues. The root bark contained fla- vonoids including the kuwanons, san- gennons, mulberrosides and mulber- rofurans.Hot water extract of the dried mulberry leaves fed to rabbits on 1% cholesterol diet exhibited significant hypolip- idaemic or hypocholesterolaemic effect. In addition, suppression of hepatic enlargement and fat deposition in the hepatic cells was also observed.An aqueous methanol extract of the root bark significantly reduced plasma sugar levels in mice.The extract also showed anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity in exudative, proliferative and chronic phases of inflammation.Aqueous and alkali extracts of leaves and stems are active against GramPositive bacteria and yeast.... morus albaHabitat: Native to West Asia; cultivated in Kashmir, also grown in Darjeeling.
English: Black Mulberry.Unani: Tuut Siyaah.Action: Berries and root bark— mild laxative and used in the treatment of respiratory catarrh. Berries—refrigerant, given during convalescence.
The fruit contains invert sugar, pectin, fruit acids (including malic and citric acid), ascorbic acid, and fla- vonoids (including rutin). Leaves contain flavonoids, including rutin (26%). Root bark contains calcium malate; the bark of branches contains tannins, phlobaphenes, a sugar, a phy- tosterol, ceryl alcohol, fatty acids and phosphoric acid.An infusion of leaves causes a drop in blood sugar, sometimes diuresis and a reduction in arterial pressure. It shows no effect on glucosuria.Morus acidosa Griff., M. australis Poir and Morus indica L. have also been equated with Tuut Siyaah of Unani medicine.... morus nigraMorwena, Morwina, Morwinna, Morwyn, Morwynna, Morwyna, Morwen, Morwenne... morwenna
Mosell, Mosele, Mosel, Mosella, Mosela, Mosette, Moiselle, Moisella... moselle
Depression, giddiness, nausea and vomiting are the most prominent.
Causes Although the vast majority of people appear to be liable to this ailment at sea, they do not all suffer alike. Many endure acute distress, whilst others are simply conscious of transient feelings of nausea and discomfort. A smaller proportion of people suffer from air and car sickness. The symptoms are a result of over-stimulation of the organs of balance in the inner EAR by continuous changes in the body’s position. The movements of the horizon worsen this situation.
Symptoms The symptoms generally show themselves soon after the journey has started, by the onset of giddiness and discomfort in the head, together with a sense of nausea and sinking at the stomach, which soon develops into intense sickness and vomiting. Most people recover quickly when the motion stops.
Treatment Innumerable preventives and remedies have been proposed. Cinnarizine 30 mg orally is useful 2 hours before travel, then 15 mg every 8 hours during the journey if necessary. Dimenhydrinate and promethazine are also commonly taken for motion sickness.... motion (travel) sickness
Habitat: Banks and dry pastures.
Features ? Stem 6-8 inches, creeping, slightly hairy. Leaves form small rosettes around stem, elongate-lanceolate, hairy; given common name owing to imagined resemblance to a mouse's ear in form. Flowers lemon-coloured, outer petals tinted red underneath.Part used ? Herb.Action: Astringent, expectorant.
The ounce to pint infusion, taken in wineglass doses, makes quite a useful medicine for whooping and other coughs.... mouseearThrush is characterised by the presence of white patches on the mucous membrane which bleeds if the patch is gently removed. It is caused by the growth of a parasitic mould known as Candida albicans. Antifungal agents usually suppress the growth of candida. Candidal in?ltration of the mucosa is often found in cancerous lesions.
Leukoplakia literally means a white patch. In the mouth it is often due to an area of thickened cells from the horny layer of the epithelium. It appears as a white patch of varying density and is often grooved by dense ?ssures. There are many causes, most of them of minor importance. It may be associated with smoking, SYPHILIS, chronic SEPSIS or trauma from a sharp tooth. Cancer must be excluded.
Stomatitis (in?ammation of the mouth) arises from the same causes as in?ammation elsewhere, but among the main causes are the cutting of teeth in children, sharp or broken teeth, excess alcohol, tobacco smoking and general ill-health. The mucous membrane becomes red, swollen and tender and ulcers may appear. Treatment consists mainly of preventing secondary infection supervening before the stomatitis has resolved. Antiseptic mouthwashes are usually su?cient.
Gingivitis (see TEETH, DISEASES OF) is in?ammation of the gum where it touches the tooth. It is caused by poor oral hygiene and is often associated with the production of calculus or tartar on the teeth. If it is neglected it will proceed to periodontal disease.
Ulcers of the mouth These are usually small and arise from a variety of causes. Aphthous ulcers are the most common; they last about ten days and usually heal without scarring. They may be associated with STRESS or DYSPEPSIA. There is no ideal treatment.
Herpetic ulcers (see HERPES SIMPLEX) are similar but usually there are many ulcers and the patient appears feverish and unwell. This condition is more common in children.
Calculus (a) Salivary: a calculus (stone) may develop in one of the major salivary-gland ducts. This may result in a blockage which will cause the gland to swell and be painful. It usually swells before a meal and then slowly subsides. The stone may be passed but often has to be removed in a minor operation. If the gland behind the calculus becomes infected, then an ABSCESS forms and, if this persists, the removal of the gland may be indicated. (b) Dental, also called TARTAR: this is a calci?ed material which adheres to the teeth; it often starts as the soft debris found on teeth which have not been well cleaned and is called plaque. If not removed, it will gradually destroy the periodontal membrane and result in the loss of the tooth. (See TEETH, DISORDERS OF.)
Ranula This is a cyst-like swelling found in the ?oor of the mouth. It is often caused by mild trauma to the salivary glands with the result that saliva collects in the cyst instead of discharging into the mouth. Surgery may be required.
Mumps is an acute infective disorder of the major salivary glands. It causes painful enlargement of the glands which lasts for about two weeks. (See also main entry for MUMPS.)
Tumours may occur in all parts of the mouth, and may be BENIGN or MALIGNANT. Benign tumours are common and may follow mild trauma or be an exaggerated response to irritation. Polyps are found in the cheeks and on the tongue and become a nuisance as they may be bitten frequently. They are easily excised.
A MUCOCOELE is found mainly in the lower lip.
An exostosis or bone outgrowth is often found in the mid line of the palate and on the inside of the mandible (bone of the lower jaw). This only requires removal if it becomes unduly large or pointed and easily ulcerated.
Malignant tumours within the mouth are often large before they are noticed, whereas those on the lips are usually seen early and are more easily treated. The cancer may arise from any of the tissues found in the mouth including epithelium, bone, salivary tissue and tooth-forming tissue remnants. Oral cancers represent about 5 per cent of all reported malignancies, and in England and Wales around 3,300 people are diagnosed annually as having cancer of the mouth and PHARYNX.
Cancer of the mouth is less common below the age of 40 years and is more common in men. It is often associated with chronic irritation from a broken tooth or ill-?tting denture. It is also more common in those who smoke and those who chew betel leaves. Leukoplakia (see above) may be a precursor of cancer. Spread of the cancer is by way of the lymph nodes in the neck. Early treatment by surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapy will often be e?ective, except for the posterior of the tongue where the prognosis is very poor. Although surgery may be extensive and potentially mutilating, recent advances in repairing defects and grafting tissues from elsewhere have made treatment more acceptable to the patient.... mouth, diseases of
Mubeena, Mubinah, Mubyna, Mubeana, Mubiena... mubina
Habitat: Nepal, Khasi Hills, Deccan Peninsula and the Andamans.
Ayurvedic: Kaakaandolaa.Siddha/Tamil: Periyattalargai.Folk: Kaagadolia (Gujarat).Action: Seeds—sedative, restorative, expectorant; used in coughs, asthma.... mucuna monosperma
Habitat: Throughotu India, including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
English: Cowhage, Horse-eye Bean.Ayurvedic: Aatmaguptaa, Kapikac- chuu, Rshabhi, Adhigandhaa, Ajadaaa, Kacchuraa, Laan- guli, Rshyaproktaa, Svaguptaa, Shyaamguptaa, Markati, Kanduraa, Kevaanch, Shuukashimbi.Unani: Konchh.Siddha/Tamil: Poonaikkaali.Action: Seed—astringent, nervine tonic, local stimulant, used in impotence, spermatorrhoea, urinary troubles, leucorrhoea, traditionally used for male virility. Also used in depressive neurosis. Hair on fruit— vermifuge, mild vesicant; used for diseases of liver and gallbladder. Leaf—applied to ulcers. Pod— anthelmintic. Root and fruit—spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic. Root— CNS active.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the seed in impotence and paralysis agitans; the root in vaginal laxity.The seeds contain the alkaloids, mu- cunine, mucunadine, mucunadinine, prurieninine, pruriendine and nicotine, besides beta-sitosterol, gluthione, lecithin, vernolic and gallic acids. They contain a number of bioactive substances including tryptamine, alky- lamines, steroids, flavonoids, cou- marins and cardenolides. L-DOPA is present in the seed as well as in the stem, leaves and roots.Major constituents of the hairs on the pod are amines such as 5-hydroxy- tryptamine (serotonin), and a proteolytic enzyme mucuanain. (Serotonin was present only in pods.)Prurieninine slowed down heart rate, lowered blood pressure and stimulated intestinal peristalsis in experiments carried out on frogs. The spas- molysis of smooth muscles was caused by indole bases.Seed diet produced hypoglycaemic effect in normal rats, however, such diet had insignificant effect on alloxan- treated rats.There is some evidence that Cow- hage might be useful for chlorproma- zine-induced hyperprolactinemia in men. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.) (Males with hy- perprolactinemia frequently face im- potency.) (Cured seeds are used in Indian medicine for male sexual dysfunction.)Mucuna cochinchinensis Cheval.; synonym M. nivea (Roxb.) DC.; Sti- zolobium niveum Kuntze (cultivated in Bengal and Bihar for edible pods and seeds) is known as Lyon Bean (Khamach in Bengal). The pod yielded L-DOPA (0.06%).Dosage: Cured seed—3-6 g (API, Vol. III); root—3-6 g powder for decoction (API, Vol. IV.)... mucuna pruritaMudane, Mudana, Mudayne, Mudaine, Mudann, Mudaen, Mudaena... mudan
Mufeeda, Mufeyda, Mufyda, Mufeida, Mufieda, Mufeada... mufidah
Mugayne, Mugaine, Mugane, Mugayn, Mugaen, Mugaene, Mugaina, Mugayna, Mugaena... mugain
Mulana, Mulania, Mulane, Mulann, Mulanna, Mulanne... mulan
Mujeeba, Mujibah, Mujeebah, Mujeaba, Mujeabah... mujiba
Mukarama, Mukaramma, Mukkarama... mukarramma
In recent years, however, the position has been altered by the introduction of the so-called fertility drugs, such as CLOMIPHENE, and human menopausal gonadotrophin which, through the medium of the PITUITARY GLAND, stimulate the production of ova (see OVUM). Their wide use in the treatment of INFERTILITY has resulted in an increase in the number of multiple births, a recognised hazard of giving too large a dose.
Twins may be binovular or uniovular. Binovular, or fraternal, twins are the result of the mother’s releasing two ova within a few days of each other and both being fertilised by separate spermatozoa (see SPERMATOZOON). They both develop separately in the mother’s womb and are no more alike than is usual with members of the same family. They are three times as common as uniovular, or identical, twins, who are developed from a single ovum fertilised by a single spermatozoon, but which has split early in development. This is why they are usually so remarkably alike in looks and mental characteristics. Unlike binovular twins, who may be of the same or di?erent sex, they are always of the same sex.
So far as fraternal, or binovular, twins are concerned, multiple pregnancy may be an inherited tendency; it certainly occurs more often in certain families, but this may be partly due to chance. A woman who has already given birth to twins is ten times more likely to have another multiple pregnancy than one who has not previously had twins. The statistical chance of a third pair of twins is 1:512,000. Identical twins do not run in families.
The relative proportion of twins of each type varies in di?erent races. Identical twins have much the same frequency all over the world: around 3 per 1,000 maternities. Fraternal twins are rare in Mongolian races: less than 3 per 1,000 maternities. In Caucasians they occur two or three times as often as identical twins: between 7 (Spain and Portugal) and 10 (Czech and Slovak Republics and Greece) per 1,000 maternities. They are more common in Afro-Caribbeans, reaching 30 per 1,000 maternities in certain West African populations.
Rarely, uniovular twins may not develop as separate individuals, being physically joined in some way. They are called conjoined or (traditionally) Siamese twins. Depending on the extent of common structures shared by the infants – this ranges from a common umbilical cord to twins with conjoined heads or a common liver – the infants may be successfully separated by surgery. (See CONJOINED TWINS.)
Parents of twins, triplets, etc. can obtain advice and help from the Twins and Multiple Births Association (TAMBA).... multiple births
A variation of the syndrome – Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, better termed ‘fabricated and induced illness’ – has been identi?ed, in which the persons affected in?ict damage upon others, usually children (or even animals) in their care. Factitious illness refers to simulating symptoms, such as stating that the child has blood in its urine when it is actually the parent’s blood. Induced illness includes such events as injecting dirty water into a baby’s muscles, dropping mild caustic into their eyes, adding salt to a baby’s milk or diluting it 50–50 with water, and so on. Much debate has ensued about the suggestion that some sudden infant deaths are due to smothering rather than natural causes, as a type of induced illness. As a consequence of two successful appeals against conviction for murder in 2004, the UK attorney general ordered a review of all criminal and family court cases in which disputed medical evidence had formed the basis of the decision. Paediatricians are concerned that one result is likely to be an increase in undetected child abuse.... munchausen’s syndrome
Munine, Munyn, Munyne, Munina, Munyna... munin
Muneera, Munirah, Muneira, Muniera, Munyra, Munawwara, Munawara, Muneara... munira
Cause Although this is one of the most common diseases of the central nervous system in Europe – there are around 50,000 affected individuals in Britain alone – the cause is still not known. The disease comes on in young people (onset being rare after the age of 40), apparently without previous illness. The ratio of women-to-men victims is 3:2. It is more common in ?rst and second children than in those later in birth order, and in small rather than big families. There may be a hereditary factor for MS, which could be an autoimmune disorder: the body’s defence system attacks the myelin in the central nervous system as if it were a ‘foreign’ tissue.
Symptoms These depend greatly upon the part of the brain and cord affected by the sclerotic patches. Temporary paralysis of a limb, or of an eye muscle, causing double vision, and tremors upon exertion, ?rst in the affected parts, and later in all parts of the body, are early symptoms. Sti?ness of the lower limbs causing the toes to catch on small irregularities in the ground and trip the person in walking, is often an annoying symptom and one of the ?rst to be noticed. Great activity is shown in the re?ex movements obtained by striking the tendons and by stroking the soles of the feet. The latter re?ex shows a characteristic sign (Babinski sign) in which the great toe bends upwards and the other toes spread apart as the sole is stroked, instead of the toes collectively bending downwards as in the normal person. Tremor of the eye movements (nystagmus) is usually found. Trembling handwriting, interference with the functions of the bladder, giddiness, and a peculiar ‘staccato’ or ‘scanning’ speech are common symptoms at a later stage. Numbness and tingling in the extremities occur commonly, particularly in the early stages of the disease. As the disease progresses, the paralyses, which were transitory at ?rst, now become con?rmed, often with great rigidity in the limbs. In many patients the disease progresses very slowly.
People with multiple sclerosis, and their relatives, can obtain help and guidance from the Multiple Sclerosis Society. Another helpful organisation is the Multiple Sclerosis Resources Centre. Those with sexual or marital problems arising out of the illness can obtain information from SPOD (Association to Aid the Sexual and Personal Relationships of People with a Disability). (See APPENDIX 2: ADDRESSES: SOURCES OF INFORMATION, ADVICE, SUPPORT AND SELFHELP.)
Treatment is di?cult, because the most that can be done is to lead a life as free from strain as possible, to check the progress of the disease. The use of INTERFERON beta seems to slow the progress of MS and this drug is licensed for use in the UK for patients with relapsing, remitting MS over two years, provided they can walk unaided – a controversial restriction on this (expensive) treatment. CORTICOSTEROIDS may be of help to some patients.
The NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL EXCELLENCE (NICE) ruled in 2001 that the use of the drugs interferon beta and glatiramer acetate for patients with multiple sclerosis was not cost-e?ective but recommended that the Department of Health, the National Assembly for Wales and the drug manufacturers should consider ways of making the drugs available in a cost-e?ective way. Subsequently the government said that it would consider funding a ‘risk-sharing’ scheme in which supply of drugs to patients would be funded only if treatment trials in individuals with MS showed that they were e?ective.
The Department of Health has asked NICE to assess two CANNABIS derivatives as possible treatments for multiple sclerosis and the relief of post-operative pain. Trials of an under-thetongue spray and a tablet could, if successsful, lead to the two drugs being available around 2005.
It is important to keep the nerves and muscles functioning, and therefore the patient should remain at work as long as he or she is capable of doing it, and in any case should exercise regularly.... multiple sclerosis (ms)
Munazzah, Munaza, Munazah... munazza
Habitat: Throughout India, in moist and marshy places; common in West Bengal.
Ayurvedic: Koshapushpi.Folk: Kanshura.Action: Plant—used in burns, boils and sores.... murdannia nudiflora
Habitat: Temperate and tropical Himalaya, upper Gangetic plains and Peninsular India.
Folk: Siyaah Musli; Sismulia (Gujarat); Kureli.Action: Root—astringent, febrifuge; used in headache, giddiness, jaundice. Root bark—diuretic, antispasmodic, (used in asthma, colic, infantile convulsions.)... murdannia scapiflora
Murphi, Murphie, Murphey, Murphee, Murfi, Murfy, Murfie, Murphea, Murfea... murphy
Habitat: Throughout India and Andaman Islands up to an altitude of1,500 m.
Siddha/Tamil: Konji.Folk: Kaamini; Aanthil (Bihar).Action: Leaves—astringent; used in diarrhoea and dysentery (sap, squeezed from leaves, is administered). Root—antipyretic.
The plant is rich in coumarins, car- bazole alkaloids and flavonoids. The leaves contain a number of coumarins, the major ones being murrangatin and phebalosin. Murrangatin, derived from the precursor phebalosin, is reported to possess antithyroid property. The root contains a bis-indole alkaloid, yuehchukene, with potent antiimplantation activity.Mexolide (dimeric coumarin), isolated from the stem bark is antibacterial. The steam distillate of leaves exhibit antifungal and antibacterial activity.... murraya exoticaHabitat: Cultivated in Tamil Nadu; Maharashtra and North India.
English: Curry-Leaf tree.Ayurvedic: Surabhini-nimba.Unani: Karipattaa.Siddha/Tamil: Karuveppilei, Karivempu, Kattuveppilei.Folk: Mithaa Neem, Kathneem, Gandhela, Barsanga.Action: Leaf—stomachic, antiprotozoal, spasmolytic; promotes appetite and digestion, destroys pathogenic organism, antidysen- teric. Externally, used against skin eruptions.
All parts of the plant, especially the leaves, are rich in carbazole alkaloids (several carbazole bases have been isolated). The leaves also gave a coumarin glucoside, scopolin.The beta-carotene content of curry leaves was found decreased on cooking; deep frying resulted in maximum loss.Inclusion of curry leaves in the diet of diabetic patients reduced the blood glucose level appreciably (it did not produce any insulin response).The steam distillate of the leaves is reported to exhibit antifungal and in- secticidal activities.The ethanolic extract of the stem bark showed anti-inflammatory effect in carrageenan-induced inflammation in rats.... murraya koenigiiCramp Painful spasm of a muscle usually caused by excessive and prolonged contraction of the muscle ?bres. Cramps are common, especially among sportsmen and women, normally lasting a short time. The condition usually occurs during or immediately following exercise as a result of a build-up of LACTIC ACID and other chemical by-products in the muscles
– caused by the muscular e?orts. Cramps may occur more frequently, especially at night, in people with poor circulation, when the blood is unable to remove the lactic acid from the muscles quickly enough.
Repetitive movements such as writing (writer’s cramp) or operating a keyboard can cause cramp. Resting muscles may suffer cramp if a person sits or lies in an awkward position which limits local blood supply to them. Profuse sweating as a result of fever or hot weather can also cause cramp in resting muscle, because the victim has lost sodium salts in the sweat; this disturbs the biochemical balance in muscle tissue.
Treatment is to massage and stretch the affected muscle – for example, cramp in the calf muscle may be relieved by pulling the toes on the affected leg towards the knee. Persistent night cramps sometimes respond to treatment with a drug containing CALCIUM or QUININE. If cramp persists for an hour or more, the person should seek medical advice, as there may be a serious cause such as a blood clot impeding the blood supply to the area affected.
Dystrophy See myopathy below.
In?ammation (myositis) of various types may occur. As the result of injury, an ABSCESS may develop, although wounds affecting muscle generally heal well. A growth due to SYPHILIS, known as a gumma, sometimes forms a hard, almost painless swelling in a muscle. Rheumatism is a vague term traditionally used to de?ne intermittent and often migratory discomfort, sti?ness or pain in muscles and joints with no obvious cause. The most common form of myositis is the result of immunological damage as a result of autoimmune disease. Because it affects many muscles it is called POLYMYOSITIS.
Myasthenia (see MYASTHENIA GRAVIS) is muscle weakness due to a defect of neuromuscular conduction.
Myopathy is a term applied to an acquired or developmental defect in certain muscles. It is not a neurological disease, and should be distinguished from neuropathic conditions (see NEUROPATHY) such as MOTOR NEURONE DISEASE (MND), which tend to affect the distal limb muscles. The main subdivisions are genetically determined, congenital, metabolic, drug-induced, and myopathy (often in?ammatory) secondary to a distant carcinoma. Progressive muscular dystrophy is characterised by symmetrical wasting and weakness, the muscle ?bres being largely replaced by fatty and ?brous tissue, with no sensory loss. Inheritance may take several forms, thus affecting the sex and age of victims.
The commonest type is DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, which is inherited as a sex-linked disorder. It nearly always occurs in boys.
Symptoms There are three chief types of myopathy. The commonest, known as pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy, affects particularly the upper part of the lower limbs of children. The muscles of the buttocks, thighs and calves seem excessively well developed, but nevertheless the child is clumsy, weak on his legs, and has di?culty in picking himself up when he falls. In another form of the disease, which begins a little later, as a rule at about the age of 14, the muscles of the upper arm are ?rst affected, and those of the spine and lower limbs become weak later on. In a third type, which begins at about this age, the muscles of the face, along with certain of the shoulder and upper arm muscles, show the ?rst signs of wasting. All the forms have this in common: that the affected muscles grow weaker until their power to contract is quite lost. In the ?rst form, the patients seldom reach the age of 20, falling victims to some disease which, to ordinary people, would not be serious. In the other forms the wasting, after progressing to a certain extent, often remains stationary for the rest of life. Myopathy may also be acquired when it is the result of disease such as thyrotoxicosis (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), osteomalacia (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF) and CUSHING’S DISEASE, and the myopathy resolves when the primary disease is treated.
Treatment Some myopathies may be the result of in?ammation or arise from an endocrine or metabolic abnormality. Treatment of these is the treatment of the cause, with supportive physiotherapy and any necessary physical aids while the patient is recovering. Treatment for the hereditary myopathies is supportive since, at present, there is no cure – although developments in gene research raise the possibility of future treatment. Physiotherapy, physical aids, counselling and support groups may all be helpful in caring for these patients.
The education and management of these children raise many diffculties. Much help in dealing with these problems can be obtained from Muscular Dystrophy Campaign.
Myositis ossi?cans, or deposition of bone in muscles, may be congenital or acquired. The congenital form, which is rare, ?rst manifests itself as painful swellings in the muscles. These gradually harden and extend until the child is encased in a rigid sheet. There is no e?ective treatment and the outcome is fatal.
The acquired form is a result of a direct blow on muscle, most commonly on the front of the thigh. The condition should be suspected whenever there is severe pain and swelling following a direct blow over muscle. The diagnosis is con?rmed by hardening of the swelling. Treatment consists of short-wave DIATHERMY with gentle active movements. Recovery is usually complete.
Pain, quite apart from any in?ammation or injury, may be experienced on exertion. This type of pain, known as MYALGIA, tends to occur in un?t individuals and is relieved by rest and physiotherapy.
Parasites sometimes lodge in the muscles, the most common being Trichinella spiralis, producing the disease known as TRICHINOSIS (trichiniasis).
Rupture of a muscle may occur, without any external wound, as the result of a spasmodic e?ort. It may tear the muscle right across – as sometimes happens to the feeble plantaris muscle in running and leaping – or part of the muscle may be driven through its ?brous envelope, forming a HERNIA of the muscle. The severe pain experienced in many cases of LUMBAGO is due to tearing of one of the muscles in the back. These conditions are usually relieved by rest and massage. Partial muscle tears, such as occur in sport, require more energetic treatment: in the early stages this consists of the application of an ice or cold-water pack, ?rm compression, elevation of the affected limb, rest for a day or so and then gradual mobilisation (see SPORTS MEDICINE).
Tumours occur occasionally, the most common being ?broid, fatty, and sarcomatous growths.
Wasting of muscles sometimes occurs as a symptom of disease in other organs: for example, damage to the nervous system, as in poliomyelitis or in the disease known as progressive muscular atrophy. (See PARALYSIS.)... muscles, disorders of
Habitat: Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Jalgaon district (Maharashtra), West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
English: Banana, Plantain.Ayurvedic: Kadali, Rambhaa, Sakrtphala, Vaaranaa, Mochaa, Ambusaara, Anshumatiphal.Unani: Kelaa, Mouz.Siddha/Tamil: Vaazhai.Action: Fruit—mild laxative, combats diarrhoea and dysentery, promotes healing of intestinal lesions in ulcerative colitis. Unripe fruit considered useful in diabetes. Fruit powder—used as a food supplement in sprue and other intestinal disorders. Root— anthelmintic.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the fresh rhizome in dysuria, polyuria (in females) and menstrual disorders; the flower in asthma, bleeding disorders, vaginal discharges and leucorrhoea.The pulp of ripe fruit (50 g/rat per day) given daily with standard food pellets prevented increase in blood pressure in deoxycorticosterone-in- duced hypertension in rats. This was found partially related to increased serotonin levels triggered by the high carbohydrate and tryptophan content of the fruit.Dietary fibre prepared from unripe banana exerted an antiatherogenic effect, keeping the levels of cholesterol in serum and aorta low, as also the level of LDL cholesterol in rats fed on cholesterol diet.An anti-ulcerogenic acylsterylgly- coside, sitoindoside IV, has been isolated from unripe banana.A pectin containing hexoses (32.4%) and uronic acid (52.5%) has been isolated from the pith of the stem. The pectin was found to exhibit significant hypolipidaemic and hypoglycaemic activity in rats.The flower extract exhibited hypo- glycaemic activity in rabbits.The pseudostem is reported to possess lithotriptic and antilithic properties. The extract reduced the precursor of oxalate formation, the liver glycolic acid content in hyperoxaluric rats.The benzene extract of the root exhibited significant antibacterial and an- tifungal activity.Dosage: Dried flower—10-20 g. (API, Vol. IV.)... musa paradisiacaHabitat: Tropical Himalayas, Khasi Hills, Deccan Peninsula and the Andamans.
English: White Lady, White Rag Plant.Ayurvedic: Shrivati.Siddha/Tamil: Vellai-yilai, Velli- madandai.Folk: Shrivara, Bedina, Bebina, Bhutakesha (Maharashtra), Naagaballi (Bengal)Action: Flower—diuretic, anti- asthmatic, antiperiodic. Leaves and flowers—used in external applications for ulcers. Root—used in the treatment of white leprosy. White petiolate bract—prescribed in jaundice.
The flowers contain anthocyanins, hyperin, quercetin, rutin, ferulic and sinapic acids; beta-sitosterol glucoside.Mussaenda glabra Vahl (tropical Himalayas from Nepal eastwards, Bihar, Bengal and Assam) is known as Son- aaruupaa in Assam. An infusion of the leaves is used for cough, asthma, recurrent fevers; also as a diuretic in dropsy.... mussaenda frondosaMutiah, Mutiya, Mutiyah, Mutea, Muteah, Mutya, Mutyah... mutia
Mushanah, Mushania, Mushanna, Mushane... mushana
Habitat: Garhwal, Tibet.
Folk: Dimok (Tibet), Ratanjot (Garhwal).Action: Topically antiseptic.
National Formulary of Unani Medicine has equated Onosma echioides Linn. (Boraginaceae) with Ratanjot. Geranium wallichianum D. Don. (Geraniaceae); Clausena pentaphylla DC. (Rutaceae); and Anemone obtusilo- ba D. Don. (Ranunculaceae) are also known as Ratanjot.Ratanjot should be equated with the root of Alkanna tinctoria (Boraginaceae), known as Dyer's or Spanish Bugloss.... mycrotomia benthamiMyesha, Myeisha, Myeshia, Myiesha, Myeasha... myisha
Habitat: Subtropical Himalayas from the Ravi eastwards at 9002,100 m.
English: Box Myrtle.Ayurvedic: Katphala, Kushb- hikaa, Shriparnikaa, Mahaavalkal, Bhadraa, Bhadravati.Unani: Kaayaphal.Siddha/Tamil: Marudam.Action: Bark—carminative, antiseptic. Used in fever, cough and asthma; also as a snuff in catarrh with headache. Fruit wax— used externally for ulcers. Fruit— pectoral, sedative.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the stem bark and fruit in anaemia and polyuria.The stembarkgave myricanol, a pro- anthocyanidin. The root bark yielded beta-sitosterol, taraxerol and myricadi- ol. The stem bark exhibited analgesic, spasmolytic, hypotensive and antiar- rhythmic activity.Dosage: Fruit—3-5 g, stem bark— 3-5 g. (API, Vol. III.)... myrica nagiMyrtia, Myrtice, Mytra, Merta, Merte, Merteh... myrta
Habitat: Native to the Moluccas Islands; grown in the Nilgiris, Kerala, Karnataka and West Bengal.
English: Nutmeg, Mace.Ayurvedic: Jaatiphala, Jaatishasya, Maalatiphala (seed kernel).Jaatipatri, Jaatipatra, Jaatipatraka, Jaatikosha (mace).Unani: Jauzbuwaa (seed), Bisbaasaa (mace).Siddha/Tamil: Jaathikkai, Saadikai (nutmeg); Saadippatthiri, Jaadip- patiri (mace).Action: Nutmeg—carminative, spasmolytic, antiemetic, orexi- genic; topically anti-inflammatory. Mace—stimulant carminative. Narcotic in high doses.
Nutmeg is used in flatulency, diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting. Mace is used in rheumatism, chronic bowel complaints and asthma. When roasted, both nutmeg and mace are used for diarrhoea, colic, flatulence and dyspepsia.Key application: Dried seed and aril—included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E. Following actions have been considered: antispasmodic, MAO inhibition, inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the kernel of the fruit in spermatorrhoea.An aqueous extract of nutmeg is reported to show anti-secretory activity against E. coli heat-labile enterotoxin; the hexane soluble fraction of the alcoholic extract inhibited the heat-labile and heat-stable-enterotoxin-induced secretory response in animal studies.The hexane extract contains myris- ticin, an anti-inflammatory principle, and licarin-B and dehydro di- isoeugenol which exhibited CNS depressant properties. The extracts of nutmeg decreased kidney prostaglan- din levels in rats. They also inhibited platelet aggregation (due to eugenol and isoeugenol). The anti-inflammatory activity observed in carrage- enan-induced oedema in rats and enhanced vascular permeability in mice, are attributed to myristicin present in mace.Mace also activates hepatic detoxification process. Monomeric and dimer- ic phenyl propanoids (myristicin, de- hydro diisoeugenol) from mace, on p.o. administration in mice, produced suppression of lipid peroxidation in liver.Seeds contain about 0.24% myris- ticin, whereas volatile oil about 3.12%.The resorcinols, malabaricones B and C, isolated from the seed coat (mace) exhibited strong antibacterial and antifungal activities. Neoplasm inhibitors, phenylpropyl derivatives, have been isolated from pulverized mace.Dosage: Endosperm of dried seed (kernel of fruit)—0.5-1.0 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... myristica fragransHabitat: Western Ghats, Kanara and Malabar.
English: Malabar Nutmeg, False Nutmeg, Bombay Nutmeg, Bombay Mace.Ayurvedic: Paashikaa, Raamapatri, Ku-Jaavitri. Pashupaashi (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil: Pathiri, Kattu Jhadi.Action: Topically stimulant; applied to indolent ulcers.
The fruit rind yielded diarylno- nanoids and a lignin, malabaricanol. Leaves gave beta-sitosterol, myristic acid and its triglyceride, trimyristin.Fat and resin are the major constituents of the Bombay mace. The crude fat (Pundi oil) is used as an embrocation in rheumatism. The bark yields a kino. Ripe fruits form the source of Bombay Nutmeg and Bombay Mace, used as adulterant of Myristica fragrans.Dosage: Seed kernel—1.5 g powder; oil—1-3 drops. (CCRAS.)... myristica malabaricaHabitat: Indigenous To Venezuela, Columbia And Peru;. Grown In Lal Bagh Botanic Garden (Bangalore) And Kallar (Nilgiris).
English: Tolu Balsam Tree.Action: Balsam—Antiseptic, Stimulant And Expectorant. Used As An Ingredient In Cough Mixtures, Also Used As An Inhalant In Cases Of Obstinate Catarrh.
Key Application ? Externally For Poorly Healing Wounds, For Burns, Decubitus Ulcers, Frost Bite, Ulcus Cruris, Bruises Caused By Prostheses, Haemorrhoids; As Antibacterial, Antiseptic And Antiparasitic (Especially For Scabies). (German Commission E.)Balsam Contains Cinnamic Acid, Benzoic Acid And Their Esters.Myroxylon Pereirae Kolotzsch (Lal Bagh Botanic Garden, Bangalore), Is The Source Of Peru Balsam. Used Externally In The Form Of An Ointment Or Tincture, As A Parasiticide In Scabies, Ringworm And Pediculosis And For Bed Sores And Chilblains. It Enters Into Suppositories Used In Hemorrhoids.... myroxylon balsamumMystica, Mistique, Mysteek, Misteek, Mystiek, Mistiek, Mysteeque, Misteeque... mystique
Habitat: Western Ghats.
Folk: Chathuravalli, Chathuramulla (Kerala). Hem-maalati.Action: Leaves—used with clarified butter in cough, asthma, chest diseases; also in nervous complaints and rheumatism. Oil extract of the leaves is used for massage in fever, headache and backaches.... myxopyrum serratulum
Habitat: Outer Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal and in Khasi Hills at 300-2,700 m.
Ayurvedic: Vaayavidanga (substitute). (Embelia ribes is the authentic source of Vidanga.)Folk: Bebrang (Punjab), Kakhum, Shamshaad (according to Unani reference books, Shamshaad is obtained from a Pinaceae tree).Action: Fruit—anthelmintic (used for the expulsion of tape worms; also as a substitute for Emblia ribes); antispasmodic, purgative; used externally against ringworm and other skin affections. Aerial parts—antifertility, abortifacient. (According to Unani medicine, the fruits of Shamshaad show antifertility activity in females.)
Berries and seeds contain embelic acid and quercitol (1%). Embelin (3%) is present in the dried fruit. Seeds also contain embelin.Seeds of M. semiserrata Wall. contain embelin (0.4%) and quercitol (0.8%).Seeds of M. capitellata Wall. contain 1.6% embelin.These related species are found in Nepal, Bhutan, Assam and North Bengal.... myrsine africanaHabitat: Cultivated in gardens of Northwestern India and Tamil Nadu.
English: Myrtle, Clove Myrtle, Spanish Myrtle.Unani: Habb-ul-Aas, Muurad, Muurad-daan.Folk: Vilaayati Mehndi. Sutrasowa (Bengal). Kulinaval (Tamil Nadu).Action: Leaves—antiseptic, antimicrobial, antiparasitic. Used for acute and chronic respiratory tract infections, bladder conditions, urinary infections, and worm infestation.
Key application: As a cough remedy. (German Commission E.)The leaves contain tannins (pyrogal- lol derivative), flavonoids (including myricetin, about 90%, with kaempfer- ol and quercetin glycosides; volatile oil containing alpha-pinene, cineole, myrtenol, nerol, geraniol and dipen- tene.Myrtol, a fraction of myrtenol, is absorbed in the intestines, stimulates the mucous membrance of the stomach and deodorizes the breath.Berry exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the leaves and branches exhibit hypoglycaemic activity in rats.The essential oil and myrtucommu- lone B, isolated from the plant, are antibacterial and antitubercular. (Clove myrtle is used in Homoeopathy for treating lung complication of pleuro- dynia and dry hollow cough.)... myrtus communis3. Myxoviruses, which are one of a group of RNA-containing viruses, have an a?nity for protein receptors in red blood cells.... myxoviruses
Nearly three-quarters of neonatal deaths occur during the ?rst week of life. For this reason, increasing emphasis is being laid on this initial period of life. In Britain, in the last four decades of the 20th century, the number of deaths in the ?rst week of life fell dramatically from 13.2 to just over 2.7 per 1,000 live births. The chief causes of deaths in this period are extreme prematurity (less than 28 weeks’ gestation), birth asphyxia with oxygen lack to the brain, and congenital abnormalities. After the ?rst week the commonest cause is infection.... neonatal mortality
Habitat: South India.
Folk: Granthik Tagar.Action: Sedative, antispasmodic. Used in neurological disorders and colic.
Stalks and leaves—pounded with oil and applied to ulcers.See Limnanthemum cristatum Griseb.... nymphoides macrospermumOccupational health includes both mental and physical health. It is about compliance with health-and-safety-at-work legislation (and common law duties) and about best practice in providing work environments that reduce risks to health and safety to lowest practicable levels. It includes workers’ ?tness to work, as well as the management of the work environment to accommodate people with disabilities, and procedures to facilitate the return to work of those absent with long-term illness. Occupational health incorporates several professional groups, including occupational physicians, occupational health nurses, occupational hygienists, ergonomists, disability managers, workplace counsellors, health-and-safety practitioners, and workplace physiotherapists.
In the UK, two key statutes provide a framework for occupational health: the Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974 (HSW Act); and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA). The HSW Act states that employers have a duty to protect the health, safety and welfare of their employees and to conduct their business in a way that does not expose others to risks to their health and safety. Employees and self-employed people also have duties under the Act. Modern health-and-safety legislation focuses on assessing and controlling risk rather than prescribing speci?c actions in di?erent industrial settings. Various regulations made under the HSW Act, such as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations, the Manual Handling Operations Regulations and the Noise at Work Regulations, set out duties with regard to di?erent risks, but apply to all employers and follow the general principles of risk assessment and control. Risks should be controlled principally by removing or reducing the hazard at source (for example, by substituting chemicals with safer alternatives, replacing noisy machinery, or automating tasks to avoid heavy lifting). Personal protective equipment, such as gloves and ear defenders, should be seen as a last line of defence after other control measures have been put in place.
The employment provisions of the DDA require employers to avoid discriminatory practice towards disabled people and to make reasonable adjustments to working arrangements where a disabled person is placed at a substantial disadvantage to a non-disabled person. Although the DDA does not require employers to provide access to rehabilitation services – even for those injured or made ill at work – occupational-health practitioners may become involved in programmes to help people get back to work after injury or long-term illness, and many businesses see the retention of valuable sta? as an attractive alternative to medical retirement or dismissal on health grounds.
Although a major part of occupational-health practice is concerned with statutory compliance, the workplace is also an important venue for health promotion. Many working people rarely see their general practitioner and, even when they do, there is little time to discuss wider health issues. Occupational-health advisers can ?ll in this gap by providing, for example, workplace initiatives on stopping smoking, cardiovascular health, diet and self-examination for breast and testicular cancers. Such initiatives are encouraged because of the perceived bene?ts to sta?, to the employing organisation and to the wider public-health agenda. Occupational psychologists recognise the need for the working population to achieve a ‘work-life balance’ and the promotion of this is an increasing part of occupational health strategies.
The law requires employers to consult with their sta? on health-and-safety matters. However, there is also a growing understanding that successful occupational-health management involves workers directly in the identi?cation of risks and in developing solutions in the workplace. Trade unions play an active role in promoting occupational health through local and national campaigns and by training and advising elected workplace safety representatives.
Occupational medicine The branch of medicine that deals with the control, prevention, diagnosis, treatment and management of ill-health and injuries caused or made worse by work, and with ensuring that workers are ?t for the work they do.
Occupational medicine includes: statutory surveillance of workers’ exposure to hazardous agents; advice to employers and employees on eliminating or reducing risks to health and safety at work; diagnosis and treatment/management of occupational illness; advice on adapting the working environment to suit the worker, particularly those with disabilities or long-term health problems; and advice on the return to work and, if necessary, rehabilitation of workers absent through illness. Occupational physicians may play a wider role in monitoring the health of workplace populations and in advising employers on controlling health hazards where ill-health trends are observed. They may also conduct epidemiological research (see EPIDEMIOLOGY) on workplace diseases.
Because of the occupational physician’s dual role as adviser to both employer and employee, he or she is required to be particularly diligent with regards to the individual worker’s medical CONFIDENTIALITY. Occupational physicians need to recognise in any given situation the context they are working in, and to make sure that all parties are aware of this.
Occupational medicine is a medical discipline and thus is only part of the broader ?eld of occupational health. Although there are some speci?c clinical duties associated with occupational medicine, such as diagnosis of occupational disease and medical screening, occupational physicians are frequently part of a multidisciplinary team that might include, for example, occupational-health nurses, healthand-safety advisers, ergonomists, counsellors and hygienists. Occupational physicians are medical practitioners with a post-registration quali?cation in occupational medicine. They will have completed a period of supervised in-post training. In the UK, the Faculty of Occupational Medicine of the Royal College of Physicians has three categories of membership, depending on quali?cations and experience: associateship (AFOM); membership (MFOM); and fellowship (FFOM).
Occupational diseases Occupational diseases are illnesses that are caused or made worse by work. In their widest sense, they include physical and mental ill-health conditions.
In diagnosing an occupational disease, the clinician will need to examine not just the signs and symptoms of ill-health, but also the occupational history of the patient. This is important not only in discovering the cause, or causes, of the disease (work may be one of a number of factors), but also in making recommendations on how the work should be modi?ed to prevent a recurrence – or, if necessary, in deciding whether or not the worker is able to return to that type of work. The occupational history will help in deciding whether or not other workers are also at risk of developing the condition. It will include information on:
the nature of the work.
how the tasks are performed in practice.
the likelihood of exposure to hazardous agents (physical, chemical, biological and psychosocial).
what control measures are in place and the extent to which these are adhered to.
previous occupational and non-occupational exposures.
whether or not others have reported similar symptoms in relation to the work. Some conditions – certain skin conditions,
for example – may show a close relationship to work, with symptoms appearing directly only after exposure to particular agents or possibly disappearing at weekends or with time away from work. Others, however, may be chronic and can have serious long-term implications for a person’s future health and employment.
Statistical information on the prevalence of occupational disease in the UK comes from a variety of sources, including o?cial ?gures from the Industrial Injuries Scheme (see below) and statutory reporting of occupational disease (also below). Neither of these o?cial schemes provides a representative picture, because the former is restricted to certain prescribed conditions and occupations, and the latter suffers from gross under-reporting. More useful are data from the various schemes that make up the Occupational Diseases Intelligence Network (ODIN) and from the Labour Force Survey (LFS). ODIN data is generated by the systematic reporting of work-related conditions by clinicians and includes several schemes. Under one scheme, more than 80 per cent of all reported diseases by occupational-health physicians fall into just six of the 42 clinical disease categories: upper-limb disorders; anxiety, depression and stress disorders; contact DERMATITIS; lower-back problems; hearing loss (see DEAFNESS); and ASTHMA. Information from the LFS yields a similar pattern in terms of disease frequency. Its most recent survey found that over 2 million people believed that, in the previous 12 months, they had suffered from an illness caused or made worse by work and that
19.5 million working days were lost as a result. The ten most frequently reported disease categories were:
stress and mental ill-health (see MENTAL ILLNESS): 515,000 cases.
back injuries: 508,000.
upper-limb and neck disorders: 375,000.
lower respiratory disease: 202,000.
deafness, TINNITUS or other ear conditions: 170,000.
lower-limb musculoskeletal conditions: 100,000.
skin disease: 66,000.
headache or ‘eyestrain’: 50,000.
traumatic injury (includes wounds and fractures from violent attacks at work): 34,000.
vibration white ?nger (hand-arm vibration syndrome): 36,000. A person who develops a chronic occu
pational disease may be able to sue his or her employer for damages if it can be shown that the employer was negligent in failing to take reasonable care of its employees, or had failed to provide a system of work that would have prevented harmful exposure to a known health hazard. There have been numerous successful claims (either awarded in court, or settled out of court) for damages for back and other musculoskeletal injuries, hand-arm vibration syndrome, noise-induced deafness, asthma, dermatitis, MESOTHELIOMA and ASBESTOSIS. Employers’ liability (workers’ compensation) insurers are predicting that the biggest future rise in damages claims will be for stress-related illness. In a recent study, funded by the Health and Safety Executive, about 20 per cent of all workers – more than 5 million people in the UK – claimed to be ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ stressed at work – a statistic that is likely to have a major impact on the long-term health of the working population.
While victims of occupational disease have the right to sue their employers for damages, many countries also operate a system of no-fault compensation for the victims of prescribed occupational diseases. In the UK, more than 60 diseases are prescribed under the Industrial Injuries Scheme and a person will automatically be entitled to state compensation for disability connected to one of these conditions, provided that he or she works in one of the occupations for which they are prescribed. The following short list gives an indication of the types of diseases and occupations prescribed under the scheme:
CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME connected to the use of hand-held vibrating tools.
hearing loss from (amongst others) use of pneumatic percussive tools and chainsaws, working in the vicinity of textile manufacturing or woodworking machines, and work in ships’ engine rooms.
LEPTOSPIROSIS – infection with Leptospira (various listed occupations).
viral HEPATITIS from contact with human blood, blood products or other sources of viral hepatitis.
LEAD POISONING, from any occupation causing exposure to fumes, dust and vapour from lead or lead products.
asthma caused by exposure to, among other listed substances, isocyanates, curing agents, solder ?ux fumes and insects reared for research.
mesothelioma from exposure to asbestos.
In the UK, employers and the self-employed have a duty to report all occupational injuries (if the employee is o? work for three days or more as a result), diseases or dangerous incidents to the relevant enforcing authority (the Health and Safety Executive or local-authority environmental-health department) under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (RIDDOR). Despite this statutory duty, comparatively few diseases are reported so that ?gures generated from RIDDOR reports do not give a useful indication of the scale of occupational diseases in the UK. The statutory reporting of injuries is much better, presumably because of the clear and acute relationship between a workplace accident and the resultant injury. More than 160,000 injuries are reported under RIDDOR every year compared with just 2,500 or so occupational diseases, a gross underestimate of the true ?gure.
There are no precise ?gures for the number of people who die prematurely because of work-related ill-health, and it would be impossible to gauge the exact contribution that work has on, for example, cardiovascular disease and cancers where the causes are multifactorial. The toll would, however, dwarf the number of deaths caused by accidents at work. Around 250 people are killed by accidents at work in the UK each year – mesothelioma, from exposure to asbestos at work, alone kills more than 1,300 people annually.
The following is a sample list of occupational diseases, with brief descriptions of their aetiologies.
Inhaled materials
PNEUMOCONIOSIS covers a group of diseases which cause ?brotic lung disease following the inhalation of dust. Around 250–300 new cases receive bene?t each year – mostly due to coal dust with or without silica contamination. SILICOSIS is the more severe disease. The contraction in the size of the coal-mining industry as well as improved dust suppression in the mines have diminished the importance of this disease, whereas asbestos-related diseases now exceed 1,000 per year. Asbestos ?bres cause a restrictive lung disease but also are responsible for certain malignant conditions such as pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma and lung cancer. The lung-cancer risk is exacerbated by cigarette-smoking.
Even though the use of asbestos is virtually banned in the UK, many workers remain at risk of exposure because of the vast quantities present in buildings (much of which is not listed in building plans). Carpenters, electricians, plumbers, builders and demolition workers are all liable to exposure from work that disturbs existing asbestos. OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA is of increasing importance – not only because of the recognition of new allergic agents (see ALLERGY), but also in the number of reported cases. The following eight substances are most frequently linked to occupational asthma (key occupations in brackets): isocyanates (spray painters, electrical processors); ?our and grain (bakers and farmers); wood dust (wood workers); glutaraldehyde (nurses, darkroom technicians); solder/colophony (welders, electronic assembly workers); laboratory animals (technicians, scientists); resins and glues (metal and electrical workers, construction, chemical processors); and latex (nurses, auxiliaries, laboratory technicians).
The disease develops after a short, symptomless period of exposure; symptoms are temporally related to work exposures and relieved by absences from work. Removal of the worker from exposure does not necessarily lead to complete cessation of symptoms. For many agents, there is no relationship with a previous history of ATOPY. Occupational asthma accounts for about 10 per cent of all asthma cases. DERMATITIS The risk of dermatitis caused by an allergic or irritant reaction to substances used or handled at work is present in a wide variety of jobs. About three-quarters of cases are irritant contact dermatitis due to such agents as acids, alkalis and solvents. Allergic contact dermatitis is a more speci?c response by susceptible individuals to a range of allergens (see ALLERGEN). The main occupational contact allergens include chromates, nickel, epoxy resins, rubber additives, germicidal agents, dyes, topical anaesthetics and antibiotics as well as certain plants and woods. Latex gloves are a particular cause of occupational dermatitis among health-care and laboratory sta? and have resulted in many workers being forced to leave their profession through ill-health. (See also SKIN, DISEASES OF.)
Musculoskeletal disorders Musculoskeletal injuries are by far the most common conditions related to work (see LFS ?gures, above) and the biggest cause of disability. Although not all work-related, musculoskeletal disorders account for 36.5 per cent of all disabilities among working-age people (compared with less than 4 per cent for sight and hearing impairment). Back pain (all causes – see BACKACHE) has been estimated to cause more than 50 million days lost every year in sickness absence and costs the UK economy up to £5 billion annually as a result of incapacity or disability. Back pain is a particular problem in the health-care sector because of the risk of injury from lifting and moving patients. While the emphasis should be on preventing injuries from occurring, it is now well established that the best way to manage most lower-back injuries is to encourage the patient to continue as normally as possible and to remain at work, or to return as soon as possible even if the patient has some residual back pain. Those who remain o? work on long-term sick leave are far less likely ever to return to work.
Aside from back injuries, there are a whole range of conditions affecting the upper limbs, neck and lower limbs. Some have clear aetiologies and clinical signs, while others are less well de?ned and have multiple causation. Some conditions, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, are prescribed diseases in certain occupations; however, they are not always caused by work (pregnant and older women are more likely to report carpal tunnel syndrome irrespective of work) and clinicians need to be careful when assigning work as the cause without ?rst considering the evidence. Other conditions may be revealed or made worse by work – such as OSTEOARTHRITIS in the hand. Much attention has focused on injuries caused by repeated movement, excessive force, and awkward postures and these include tenosynovitis (in?ammation of a tendon) and epicondylitis. The greatest controversy surrounds upper-limb disorders that do not present obvious tissue or nerve damage but nevertheless give signi?cant pain and discomfort to the individual. These are sometimes referred to as ‘repetitive strain injury’ or ‘di?use RSI’. The diagnosis of such conditions is controversial, making it di?cult for sufferers to pursue claims for compensation through the courts. Psychosocial factors, such as high demands of the job, lack of control and poor social support at work, have been implicated in the development of many upper-limb disorders, and in prevention and management it is important to deal with the psychological as well as the physical risk factors. Occupations known to be at particular risk of work-related upper-limb disorders include poultry processors, packers, electronic assembly workers, data processors, supermarket check-out operators and telephonists. These jobs often contain a number of the relevant exposures of dynamic load, static load, a full or excessive range of movements and awkward postures. (See UPPER LIMB DISORDERS.)
Physical agents A number of physical agents cause occupational ill-health of which the most important is occupational deafness. Workplace noise exposures in excess of 85 decibels for a working day are likely to cause damage to hearing which is initially restricted to the vital frequencies associated with speech – around 3–4 kHz. Protection from such noise is imperative as hearing aids do nothing to ameliorate the neural damage once it has occurred.
Hand-arm vibration syndrome is a disorder of the vascular and/or neural endings in the hands leading to episodic blanching (‘white ?nger’) and numbness which is exacerbated by low temperature. The condition, which is caused by vibrating tools such as chain saws and pneumatic hammers, is akin to RAYNAUD’S DISEASE and can be disabling.
Decompression sickness is caused by a rapid change in ambient pressure and is a disease associated with deep-sea divers, tunnel workers and high-?ying aviators. Apart from the direct effects of pressure change such as ruptured tympanic membrane or sinus pain, the more serious damage is indirectly due to nitrogen bubbles appearing in the blood and blocking small vessels. Central and peripheral nervous-system damage and bone necrosis are the most dangerous sequelae.
Radiation Non-ionising radiation from lasers or microwaves can cause severe localised heating leading to tissue damage of which cataracts (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF) are a particular variety. Ionising radiation from radioactive sources can cause similar acute tissue damage to the eyes as well as cell damage to rapidly dividing cells in the gut and bone marrow. Longer-term effects include genetic damage and various malignant disorders of which LEUKAEMIA and aplastic ANAEMIA are notable. Particular radioactive isotopes may destroy or induce malignant change in target organs, for example, 131I (thyroid), 90Sr (bone). Outdoor workers may also be at risk of sunburn and skin cancers. OTHER OCCUPATIONAL CANCERS Occupation is directly responsible for about 5 per cent of all cancers and contributes to a further 5 per cent. Apart from the cancers caused by asbestos and ionising radiation, a number of other occupational exposures can cause human cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer regularly reviews the evidence for carcinogenicity of compounds and industrial processes, and its published list of carcinogens is widely accepted as the current state of knowledge. More than 50 agents and processes are listed as class 1 carcinogens. Important occupational carcinogens include asbestos (mesothelioma, lung cancer); polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons such as mineral oils, soots, tars (skin and lung cancer); the aromatic amines in dyestu?s (bladder cancer); certain hexavalent chromates, arsenic and nickel re?ning (lung cancer); wood and leather dust (nasal sinus cancer); benzene (leukaemia); and vinyl chloride monomer (angiosarcoma of the liver). It has been estimated that elimination of all known occupational carcinogens, if possible, would lead to an annual saving of 5,000 premature deaths in Britain.
Infections Two broad categories of job carry an occupational risk. These are workers in contact with animals (farmers, veterinary surgeons and slaughtermen) and those in contact with human sources of infection (health-care sta? and sewage workers).
Occupational infections include various zoonoses (pathogens transmissible from animals to humans), such as ANTHRAX, Borrelia burgdorferi (LYME DISEASE), bovine TUBERCULOSIS, BRUCELLOSIS, Chlamydia psittaci, leptospirosis, ORF virus, Q fever, RINGWORM and Streptococcus suis. Human pathogens that may be transmissible at work include tuberculosis, and blood-borne pathogens such as viral hepatitis (B and C) and HIV (see AIDS/HIV). Health-care workers at risk of exposure to infected blood and body ?uids should be immunised against hapatitis B.
Poisoning The incidence of occupational poisonings has diminished with the substitution of noxious chemicals with safer alternatives, and with the advent of improved containment. However, poisonings owing to accidents at work are still reported, sometimes with fatal consequences. Workers involved in the application of pesticides are particularly at risk if safe procedures are not followed or if equipment is faulty. Exposure to organophosphate pesticides, for example, can lead to breathing diffculties, vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal cramps, and to other neurological effects including confusion and dizziness. Severe poisonings can lead to death. Exposure can be through ingestion, inhalation and dermal (skin) contact.
Stress and mental health Stress is an adverse reaction to excessive pressures or demands and, in occupational-health terms, is di?erent from the motivational impact often associated with challenging work (some refer to this as ‘positive stress’). Stress at work is often linked to increasing demands on workers, although coping can often prevent the development of stress. The causes of occupational stress are multivariate and encompass job characteristics (e.g. long or unsocial working hours, high work demands, imbalance between e?ort and reward, poorly managed organisational change, lack of control over work, poor social support at work, fear of redundancy and bullying), as well as individual factors (such as personality type, personal circumstances, coping strategies, and availability of psychosocial support outside work). Stress may in?uence behaviours such as smoking, alcohol consumption, sleep and diet, which may in turn affect people’s health. Stress may also have direct effects on the immune system (see IMMUNITY) and lead to a decline in health. Stress may also alter the course and response to treatment of conditions such as cardiovascular disease. As well as these general effects of stress, speci?c types of disorder may be observed.
Exposure to extremely traumatic incidents at work – such as dealing with a major accident involving multiple loss of life and serious injury
(e.g. paramedics at the scene of an explosion or rail crash) – may result in a chronic condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is an abnormal psychological reaction to a traumatic event and is characterised by extreme psychological discomfort, such as anxiety or panic when reminded of the causative event; sufferers may be plagued with uncontrollable memories and can feel as if they are going through the trauma again. PTSD is a clinically de?ned condition in terms of its symptoms and causes and should not be used to include normal short-term reactions to trauma.... occupational health, medicine and diseases
Habitat: From Konkan to Kerala at 1,500-2,000 m.
Ayurvedic: Shailaja, Kiraatatikta (related species).Action: A substitute for S. chirayita and Gentiana lutea L.
The leaves and flowers contain xan- thone—swartinin, triterpenes, oleano- lic acid and beta-sitosterol. Decussatin is also present in the flowers and root.... ophelia multifloraHabitat: Khasi Hills up to 600700 m, in Western Ghats and the Andaman Islands.
English: Mongoose Plant.Ayurvedic: Sarpaakshi. (Gandha- naakuli is a wrong synonym. It is equated with Aristolochia indica.)Siddha/Tamil: Keerippundu.Folk: Sarahati. Mungus-vel (Maharashtra).Action: Root—bitter tonic. Leaves— used for dressing ulcers.
The roots contain starch, a resin and small amounts of a bitter amorphous alkaloid. Beta-sitosterol, 5- alpha-ergost-7-en-3-beta-ol and 5- alpha-ergost-8 (14)-en-3 beta-ol (as an ester) have been identified in the root. Leaves and stems contain traces of hydrocyanic acid.... ophiorrhiza mungosHabitat: Kashmir to Nepal at altitudes of 2,500-5,000 m in damp places.
English: Orchis, Salep.Ayurvedic: Munjaataka, Saalam- misri, Saalam-panjaa. (Eulophia campestris Wall. is also equated with Munjaataka.)Unani: Saaleb, Khusyaat-us-Saalab, Saalab Misri.Siddha: Silamishri.Action: Considered aphrodisiac and nervine tonic by Unani physicians. Tuber—nutritive, demulcent, restorative. Given
Synonym: Majorana hortensis Moench.Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat: Native to Europe and Great Britain.
English: Sweet Marjoram. (Origanum vulgare Linn., Wild Marjoram, occurs in Simla hills and in Kashmir valley.)Ayurvedic: Sukhaatmaka, Maruba- ka, Phanijjaka. (Ocimum basilicum is used as a substitute for Phanijjaka.)Unani: Marzanjosh.Folk: Maruae. Santhraa. Jangali Maruaa (Origanum vulgare Linn.).... origanum majoranaCleft palate and hare-lip should be recti?ed by operation, because both are a serious drawback to feeding in early life – while later, harelip is a great dis?gurement, and the voice may be affected. The lip may be dealt with at any time from the neonatal period to a few weeks, depending on the individual surgeon’s view of when the best result is likely to be achieved. Prior to operation, special techniques may be necessary to ensure adequate feeding such as the use of special teats in formula-fed babies. The closure of a large cleft in the palate is a more formidable operation and is better performed when the face has grown somewhat, perhaps at 6–12 months. The operations performed vary greatly in details, but all consist in paring the edges of the gap and drawing the soft parts together across it.
Further operations may be required over the years to improve the appearance of the nose and lip, to make sure that teeth are even, and to improve speech.
Parents of such children can obtain help and advice from the Cleft Lip and Palate Association (CLAPA).... palate, malformations of
Habitat: Throughout drier parts of India.
Unani: Kanochaa, Isfahaan Marv.Siddha/Tamil: Mela-nelli.Action: Leaves—an infusion is used in headache. Seeds—carminative, diuretic.
Whole plant revealed antispasmod- ic action in isolated guinea-pig ileum, CNS depressant and hypothermic effects in mice.... phyllanthus maderaspatensisHabitat: Bengal, Chhota Nagpur, Ranchi, Purnea, Vishakhapatnam and Tamil Nadu.
Ayurvedic: Vajrakanda.Folk: Kharhar (Uttar Pradesh).Action: Anti-inflammatory (well- ground tubers are rubbed on swellings of the extremities). Seeds—externally applied to bruises. The tubers are poisonous (can be eaten after several boilings).... plesmonium margaritiferum
Habitat: Cultivated mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
English: Common Millet, Proso Millet, Hog Millet.Ayurvedic: Chinaaka, Cheenaa.Unani: Chinaa Ghaas, Faaluudaa.Siddha/Tamil: Panivaragu.Folk: Chenaa, Chi-Tibet.Action: Seeds (grains)—demul- cent; used in diarrhoea. Plant— antigonorrhoeal.
The seedlings contain an alkaloid hordenine (beta-p-hydroxyphenethyl dimethylamine). Saponins afforded diosgenin and yamogenin isolated from the leaves.The grains contain 10-18% of proteins which include prolamin, glutelin and smaller amounts of albumin and globulin. The protein has a biological value of 56% and a digestibility coefficient of 91% at 10% level of protein intake.In Indian medicine, Chinaaka and Kangu (Setaria italica L. Beauv.) are synonyms.(0.015%). The capsules contain morphine, thebine and narcotine and me- conic acid.Other species, commonly grown in Indian gardens, are P. nudicaule Linn. (Iceland Poppy) and P. orientale (Oriental Poppy). P. nudicaule plants with yellow flowers are more cyanogenetic than those with red or white flowers. P. orientate contains 0.16% alkaloids, which include the- baine, isothebaine, protopine, glauci- dine and oripavine. Isothebaine stimulates and later depresses the central nervous system.... panicum miliaceumHabitat: Throughout the plains of India.
English: Caltrops (bigger var.).Ayurvedic: Brihatgokshura, Kshouraka, Trikantaka, Gokantaka, Swaadukantaka, Bhakshantaka.Unani: Khaar-e-khasak Kalaan, Gokharu Kalaan.Siddha/Tamil: Peru-neranji, Annai- neringi.Action: Fruit—used for spermatorrhoea, nocturnal emissions, menstrual irregularities, puerperal diseases, genitourinary disorders, difficult micturition, chronic cystitis, renal calculus. Root— antibilious.
The stem and fruits contain flavo- noids pedalitin and its glucoside (ped- aliin), diometin, dinatin and its derivatives. The fruits contain nonaco- sane, tritriacontane, triacontanoic acid, sitosterol-beta-D-glucoside, rubusic acid, luteolin as major constituents. Leaves and fruits yield phenolic acids which include caffeic, protocatechuic, p-coumaric and ferulic acids. Flowers gave dinatin, quercetin and quercetin- 7-glucoside.Aqueous extract of the fruit is reported to produce in vitro inhibitory effect on crystallization in urinary lithi- asis. The solubility of uric acid in aqueous extract is reported to be 45% more than in water alone.The plant extracts exhibit diuretic activity.Dosage: Fruit, root—3-5 g powder; 50-100 ml. decoction. (CCRAS.)... pedalium murexHabitat: A climber found in Punjab, Delhi, Upper Gangetic Plain, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Ayurvedic: Kaakanaasaa (related species).Folk: Ambarvel, Vanaveri (Punjab).Action: Root—astringent, antigon- orrhoeic, alterative. Plant—emetic, purgative.
An acyclic diterpene ester, cis-phy- tyl-l-palmitate, together with the triter- penes, squalene, n-taraxasterol and taraxasterol, has been isolated from the plant.... pentatropis microphyllaThe causes of perinatal mortality include extreme prematurity, intrapartum anoxia (that is, di?culty in the birth of the baby, resulting in lack of oxygen), congenital abnormalities of the baby, and antepartum anoxia (that is, conditions in the terminal stages of pregnancy preventing the fetus from getting su?cient oxygen).
The most common cause of perinatal death is some complication of placenta, cord or membranes. The next most common is congenital abnormality. Intrauterine hypoxia and birth asphyxia comprise the third most common cause.... perinatal mortality
Habitat: Bihar and Peninsular India, up to 2,100 m.
English: Machilus.Action: Bark—antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, purgative.
The root gave phytosterols, glyco- sides and alkaloids, the major one being machiline, shown to be identical with dl-coclaurine. Machiline exhibits hypotensive activity.The leaves are used in external applications for ulcers.... persea macranthaAction: Used as a pulse. In the form of a confection, used for leucorrhoea and seminal debility. Oil extracts of the pulse is used externally in rheumatism, contracted knee, stiff shoulder. Root—used as a poultice for inflammations and abscesses. Narcotic.
Teramnus labialis Spreng. (grows wild): The whole plant is used in rheumatism, paralysis, nervous diseases, haemoptysis and catarrh of respiratory tract.... phaseolus mungoHabitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated in Indian gardens.
Family: Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat: Native to the Mediterranean region; cultivated in Uttar Pradesh., Punjab, Assam and Orissa.
English: Anise, Aniseed.Unani: Anisoon, Baadiyaan-roomi.Action: Carminative, diuretic, anticholerin, antispasmodic, expectorant. Used for flatulence, dry coughs, whooping cough, bronchitis.
Key application: Internally in dyspeptic complaints; internally and externally in catarrhs of the respiratory tract. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO, The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The fruit gave volatile oil consisting mainly of trans-anethole (70-90%), with estragole, anise ketone, anisic acid, beta-caryophyllene, anisaldehyde, linalool. The fruit contained traces of furocoumarins; seeds gave benzoic acid, caffeic acid, containing protein and myristicin. Roots afforded sterols, coumarins and flavone glyco- sides. Aniseed has been demonstrated to increase the mucociliary transport in vitro and to significantly increase liver-regeneration in rats.Aniseed is also used as a galacta- gogue. This property is thought due to the presence of polymers of anethole, dianethole and photoanethole.Aqueous extract of roasted aniseed is reported to show cholinomimetic effect on rat blood pressure, rat jejunum and frog rectus abdominis preparations.Alcoholic extract of aniseeds possesses antimicrobial and fungicidal activity.Anethole has a structure similar to catecholamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine and to the hallucinogenic compound myris- ticin as well. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... pilocarpus microphyllusHabitat: Eastern Himalayas, Khasi, Jaintia and Lushai Hills.
Siddha/Tamil: Kalpakku.Folk: Kachloraa.Action: Leaf—used externally as a mostrum for leprosy; also applied for promoting growth of hair. Seed—hypoglycaemic. Aerial parts—diuretic, spasmolytic.
The seeds contain 18.3% protein; major amino acids are aspartic acid 13.2, glutamic acid 10.9, alanine 9.7, leucine 8.3, glycine 8.2, serine 7.4%. Seeds contain a poisonous principle pithecolobine. They are used after repeated boiling and discarding of water.... pithecellobium monadelphumPseudomonas Aeruginosa
A pathogenic bacterium of the genus pseudomonas – rod-like, motile gram-negative bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN) – that occurs in pus from wounds and is associated with urinary tract infections. The bacteria mostly live in soil and decomposing organic matter and help to recycle nitrogen in nature. Most of the bacteria in this genus are harmless to humans.... pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy
Habitat: The temperate and alpine Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan at altitudes of 600-3,500 m.
English: Broadleaf Plantain.Ayurvedic: Ashvagola (var.).Folk: Isabgol.Action: Plant—haemostatic, antihistaminic, antibacterial, wound-healing in burns and inflammation of tissues. Leaves— cooling, astringent, diuretic, vulnerary, febrifuge. Used for diarrhoea, bacillary dysentery, hepatitis, urinary diseases, piles, ulcers and skin diseases. Leaves are used for cystitis with blood, haematuria and other bladder disorders.
The aqueous extract of the leaves showed anti-inflammatory activity in mice.The aerial parts contain an iridoid glucoside, majoroside. The leaves contain a phenylpropanoid glycoside, plantamajoside, exhibiting antibacterial activity against several pathogenic bacteria including E. coli and Staphy- lococcus aureus. (The glycoside is less inhibitory than the free acids, caffeic, ferulic, and rosmarinic and esculetin.)... plantago majorHabitat: Temperate Himalayas from Simla to Sikkim and in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Western Ghats.
Folk: Laal-Aghaadaa (Maharashtra).Action: Leaves—styptic, febrifuge.
The aerial parts yielded an essential oil (0.35%) containing piperitenone oxide (45.01) and cis-pipestone oxide (35.70%) as major constituents.The antimicrobial activity of 10 mg of the oil was found to be the same as that of 10 units of penicillin G. sodium. The essential oil also exhibited cardiac depressant, respiratory stimulant and vasoconstrictor action. The leaves and flowering tops, in addition to the oil, also contain resin and tannin.... plectranthus mollisHabitat: Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon and in Manipur.
English: Solomon's Seal.Ayurvedic: Mahaa-medaa, Medaa (var.). (Substitute: Asparagus racemosus.)Action: Anti-inflammatory, nervine, astringent. Used as an infusion for pulmonary complaints; as a poultice for piles and bruises.
The root and herb gave diosgenin and its glycosides.Dosage: Root—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... polygonatum multiflorumHabitat: Native to Europe and West Asia, introduced in India and grown as an ornamental.
English: Mahaleb Cherry.Ayurvedic: Gandha-priyangu. (Priyangu is equated with Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.)Unani: Mahlib, Habb-ul-Mihlab.Folk: Ghaulaa (Maharashtra).Action: Kernel—paste applied externally for treating freckles and blemishes. Contains coumarin, salicylic acid, amygdalin and hydrocyanic acid as major constituents; the oil gave alpha-elecsteric acid.... prunus mahaleb
Habitat: Throughout the tropical zones of India in the hilly regions.
English: Indian Kino tree, Malabar Kino tree.Ayurvedic: Asana, Bijaka, Priyaka, Pitashaala.Unani: Bijaysaar.Siddha/Tamil: Vengai.Action: Bark-kino—astringent, antihaemorrhagic, antidiarrhoeal. Flowers—febrifuge. Leaves—used externally for skin diseases.
Key application: Heartwood— in anaemia, worm infestation, skin diseases, urinary disorders, lipid disorders and obesity. Stem bark—in diabetes. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)The heartwood and roots contain isoflavonoids, terpenoids and tannins. Tannins include the hypoglycaemic principle (-)-epicatechin. Stilbenes, such as pterostilbene; flavonoids, including liquiritigenin, isoliquiritige- nin, 7-hydroxyflavanone, 7,4-dihy- droxyflavanone, 5-deoxykaempferol and pterosupin; a benzofuranone mar- supsin and propterol, p-hydroxy-ben- zaldehyde are active principles of therapeutic importance.The gum-kino from the bark provides a non-glucosidal tannin, Kino tannic acid (25-80%).The (-)-epi-catechin increases the cAMP content of the islets which is associated with the increased insulin release, conversion of proinsulin to insulin and cathepsin B activity.Oral administration of ethylacetate extract of the heartwood and its fla- vonoid constituents, marsupin, ptero- supin and liquiritigenin, for 14 consecutive days to rats exhibited a significant reduction of serum triglycerides, total cholesterol and LDL- and VLDL-cholesterol levels, but it did not exert any significant effect on HDL- cholesterol.The ethanolic and methanolic extracts of the heartwood exhibited significant in vitro antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria and some strains of fungi.Kino is powerfully astringent. The therapeutic value of kino is due to Kino tannic acid.Dosage: Heartwood—50-100 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I); stem bark—32-50 g for decoction (API, Vol. III).... pterocarpus marsupiumPhysiological changes, such as a fall in temperature and blood pressure, take place just before sleep and continue during the early stages of NREM sleep. There is an intrinsic rhythm of sleep which in most subjects has a periodicity of around 25 hours. This can be modi?ed by external factors to bring it into line with the 24-hour day. Two peaks of a tendency to sleep have been identi?ed, and these usually occur between around 14.00–18.00 hours, and 02.00–06.00 hours. There are, however, di?erences according to age, in that, for instance, infants sleep for most of the 24 hours; during adolescence there is also an increase in the duration of sleep. Sleep requirements fall later in life, but there are wide genetic di?erences in the amount of sleep that people require and also the time at which they fall asleep most readily.
The internal clock can be disturbed by a variety of external factors which include irregular sleeping habits due, for instance, to shift work or jet lag. Sleep is also more likely to occur after physical exertion, reading and social activity. The duration and intensity of exposure to light can also modify sleep profoundly. Light promotes wakefulness and is the main factor that adjusts the 25-hour internal rhythm to the 24hour daily cycle. Neural connections from the retina of the EYE act on an area in the brain called the supra-chiasmatic nucleus which stimulates the pineal gland which produces MELATONIN. This is thought to trigger the range of neurological and metabolic processes that characterise sleep.... rapid-eye-movement (rem) sleep
Habitat: Northwestern Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,0003,000 m.
Folk: Kaali-jarri (Punjab).Action: Root—bechic. Leaves— antitussive; applied as poultice to boils and chronic skin affections. Seeds—antispasmodic, emetic. Used for colic, dysentery, also for haemorrhoids; applied to boils.
The root gave a diterpene quinone.... salvia moorcroftianaIn 1997 the Royal College of Psychiatrists in the UK produced a comprehensive report which was sceptical about the notion that the awareness of recurrent severe sexual abuse in children could be pushed entirely out of consciousness. The authors did not believe that events could remain inaccessible to conscious memory for decades, allegedly provoking vague non-speci?c symptoms to be recovered during psychotherapy with resolution of the symptoms. Supporting evidence pointed to the lack of any empirical proof that unconscious dissociation of unpleasant memories from conscious awareness occurred to protect the individual. Furthermore, experimental and natural events had shown that false memories, created through suggestion or in?uence, could be implanted. Many individuals who had claimed to have recovered memories of abuse subsequently withdrew and, often, non-speci?c symptoms allegedly linked to suppression worsened rather than improved as therapy to unlock memories proceeded. The conclusion is that recovered memory therapy should be viewed with great caution.... repressed memory therapy
0.1 and 1 per cent. A ?gure of 1 per cent means that, in the United Kingdom at any one time, maybe 30 studies are being conducted, or their results published, which could contain false information. Examples include forged ethics-committee approval, patient signatures and diary cards; fabricated ?gures and results; invention of non-existent patient subjects; or sharing one electrocardiogram or blood sample amongst many subjects.
Research fraud should be ?rst suspected by a clinical-trial monitor who recognises that data are not genuine, or by a quality-assurance auditor who cannot reconcile data in clinical-trial report forms with original patient records. Unfortunately, it often comes to light by chance. There may be suspicious similarities between data ostensibly coming from more than one source, or visits may have been recorded when it was known that the clinic was shut. Statistical analysis of a likely irregularity will frequently con?rm such suspicion. The motivation for fraud is usually greed, but a desire to publish at all costs, to be the original author of a medical breakthrough, to bolster applications for research grants, or to strengthen a bid for more departmental resources are other recognised reasons for committing fraud.
In the USA, those proved to have committed fraud are debarred from receiving federal funds for research purposes or from undertaking government-funded therapeutic research. The four Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) have committees on research dishonesty that investigate all cases of suspected research misconduct. In the United Kingdom, an informal system operated by the pharmaceutical industry, using the disciplinary mechanism of the General Medical Council (GMC), has led to more than 16 doctors in the past ten years being disciplined for having committed research fraud. Editors of many of the world’s leading medical journals have united to form the Committee on Publishing Ethics, which advises doctors on proper practice and assists them in retracting or refusing to publish articles found or known to be false. (See ETHICS; ETHICS COMMITTEES.) Where an author does not o?er a satisfactory explanation, the matter is passed to his or her institution to investigate; where an editor or the committee is not satis?ed with the result they may pass the complaint to the appropriate regulatory body, such as the GMC in Britain.... research fraud and misconduct
Habitat: The Deccan peninsula from Mahabaleshwar southwards, and Orissa.
Folk: Cheemaat (Gujarat, Maharashtra); Tuvadi (Tamil Nadu); Gariki (Andhra Pradesh).Action: Fruit—astringent. Leaf— used in an ointment applied locally to hasten parturition.... scutia myrtina
Habitat: The Sunderbans and along the Coromandel Coast and the Andamans.
English: True Mangrove.Siddha/Tamil: Peykkandal, Kandal, Sorapinnai.Folk: Kamo (Bengal), Kandal (Maharashtra).Action: Bark—astringent. Used in the treatment of haemorrhages, haematuria.
The leaves contain 9.1, unripe fruits 12.0, ripe fruits 4.2, twig bark 9-12, and wood 7-14% tannins.The leaves gave campesterol, cholesterol, 28-isofucosterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol and stigmast-7-en-3 betaol. The plant gave alpha-and beta- amyrins, betulin, lupeol, oleanolic and ursolic acids; gibberellins have also been reported.Honey collected from the flowers is reported to be poisonous.R. apiculata Blume, also known as Kandal, is found mixed up with R. mucronata in the tidal marshes of India and the Andamans.... rhizophora mucronataHabitat: All over plains and in the Himalayas up to 1,200 m.
Folk: Raan-ghevaraa (smaller var.) (Maharashtra); Jhinki, Kammervel (Gujarat); Chittavarai (Tamil Nadu).Action: Leaves—abortifacient. Seeds—bitter, toxic.
The leaves afforded isovitexin and apigenin derivatives.Aerial parts gave steroidal glyco- sides, along with ergosterol peroxide, stigmasterol and lupeol; bergapten, isopimpinellin, umbelliferone and beta-sitosterol have also been isolated.The seed coat and pericarp contained gallic and protocatechuic acid, prodelphinmidine and hydroquinone diacetate and C-glycosyl flavones.The extract of seeds shows agglutinating activity with certain type of human red blood cells.R. bracteata Benth. ex Baker (upper Gangetic plains) and R. jacobii Chandra & Shetty (Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu) contain vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, iso-orientin and apigenin derivatives.... rhynchosia minimaHabitat: Central and Western Himalayas, ascending to 3,000 m.
English: Himalayan Musk Rose. (Flowers—white, fruit—orange red or dark brown.)Ayurvedic: Kubjaka (non-classical).Folk: Kujai, Kuujaa.Action: Plant—used in bilious affections, irritation of the skin and eye diseases. Rose water and otto is extracted from the flowers in Himachal Pradesh.... rosa moschata
Habitat: Cultivated in Kulu. Occasionally found in hedges and abandoned coffee plantations in Upper Ghats.
Ayurvedic: Rakta-Taruni (non- classical).Action: Fruit—antiseptic, applied to wounds, injuries, sprains and foul ulcers.
The fruityieldedbeta-sitosterol, sco- parone, salicylic and gallic acid. Fruits contained multiflorin; flower petals gave astragalin. A purgative compound, multinoside A acetate, has been isolated from the fruit. Quercetin-3- O-xyloside, isoquercitrin and hyperin were also isolated.Floral absolute oil contains eugenol (22.8), phenylethanol (18.1) and hene- icosane (10.2%).The root gave a triterpenoid, tor- mentic acid.The plant extract, along with kojic acid or its derivatives, produced excellent skin-lightening and sun-burn preventing effects.... rosa multifloraHabitat: Western parts of the Peninsula, from Konkan southward and in West Bengal and Assam.
Folk: Kal-vidhaaraa, Vaakeri (Maharashtra), Vardaar.Action: Roots and twigs—bitter tonic; prescribed in rheumatism, pulmonary complaints, scurvy, diabetes; externally for ulcers and skin diseases. Wood—a decoction is administered after parturition and as a febrifuge. Wood, roots and fruits—poisonous.
The plant is credited with antiseptic and antitubercular properties.The roots contain beta-D-glucoside of beta-sitosterol, hentriacontane and meso-inositol.... rourea minorHabitat: The temperate Himalayas, Assam, Bengal, Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.
English: Golden Dock.Ayurvedic: Kunanjara.Unani: Seeds—Beejband, (siyah or safed), Jangali Paalak.Action: Leaves—catharitic; externally applied to burns. Seeds— incorporated in sex-tonics as aphrodisiac. (Seeds of Sida cordifolia and Abutilon indicum are also used as Beejband.) Roots are used as a substitute for rhubarb.
The leaves contain anthraquinones both in free and bound forms. The fruits contain rumarin (0.12%) rutin and hyperin. The seeds contain 5.1% tannin.The roots are purgative; contain chrysophanic acid, saccharose and tannin (6%).The seeds and leaves contain ru- marin, rutin, hyperin, chrysophanic acid, charose, tannin, emodin and its monoethyl ether, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside.Habitat: The temperate Himalayas, Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.
Folk: Kulli (Kumaon).Action: Root—purgative. A substitute for Rheum palmatum. Leaves— an infusion is given in colic, externally applied to syphilitic ulcers.
The roots contain nepodin, chryso- phanic acid, also 12.8% tannin.... rumex maritimusHabitat: Throughout the plains and low hills of India.
Ayurvedic: Munja, Bhadramuja, Vaana, Shara, Sara, Raamshara.Siddha/Tamil: Munjipul, Munjap- pullu.Folk: Sarpata.Action: Refrigerant. Useful in burning sensation, thirst, dyscrasia, erysipelas and urinary complaints.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of the root in dysuria, giddiness and vertigo.The stem is a good source of furfural (yield 5.67%, dry basis). It yields 19.5% (on dry weight) of reducing sugars when digested with sulphuric acid; glucose, xylose, galactose and rhamnose have been identified in the hydrolysate which contains 34.5% fermentable sugars. (It can be used as a potential source of alcohol.)In Kerala, Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. is used as Shara for dysuria, diseases due to vitiated blood, erysipelas, leucorrhoea and piles. The grass is known as Raamshara in North India. It can also be used for the production of furfural (yield 5.1% dry basis) and yields 24.1% of reducing sugars when digested with sulphuric acid. The hy- drolysate contains 65% of fermentable sugars, viz. glucose, xylose, galactose and rhamnose.Dosage: Root—20-50 g for decoction; 6-10 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... saccharum munjaSafe use of medicines All medicines can have unwanted effects (‘side-effects’ or, more strictly, adverse effects) that are unpleasant and sometimes harmful. It is best not to take any medicine, prescribed or otherwise, unless there is a clear reason for doing so; the possible adverse effects of treatment, and the risk of their occurring, have to be set against any likely bene?t. Remember too that one treatment can affect another already being taken. Many adverse events depend upon the recommended dose being exceeded. Some people – for example, those with allergies (see ALLERGY) to a particular group of drugs, or those with kidney or liver disease – are more likely to suffer adverse effects than otherwise healthy people.
When an individual begins a course of treatment, he or she should take it as instructed. With ANTIBIOTICS treatments especially, it is important to take the whole course of tablets prescribed, because brief exposure of bacteria to an antibiotic can make them resistant to treatment. Most drugs can be stopped at once, but some treatments can cause unpleasant, and occasionally dangerous, symptoms if stopped abruptly. Sleeping tablets, anti-EPILEPSY treatment, and medicines used to treat ANGINA PECTORIS are among the agents which can cause such ‘withdrawal symptoms’. CORTICOSTEROIDS are a particularly important group of medicines in this respect, because prolonged courses of treatment with high doses can suppress the ability of the body to respond to severe stresses (such as surgical operations) for many months or even years.... safe disposal of unwanted medicines
Habitat: The Western Ghats, from Konkan southwards.
Folk: Lendaphala (Maharashtra), Anakoranti (Kerala).Action: Root—decoction is given after parturition. Leaves—applied to eczema.
A decoction of the roots of S. grandiflora Kurz, synonym S. longifolia Hook. (the Andamans) and S. macrophylla Blume, synonym S.flavescens Kurz and S. ovalis M. Laws. (Konkan and the An- damans) is also given after parturition.... salacia macrospermaHabitat: The hotter parts of India, up to 1,350 m.
Ayurvedic: Shaalmali, Mochaa, Mochaahva, Pichhila, Raktapushpa, Sthiraayu, Kankataadhya, Tuulini. Shaalmali-veshtaka (gum).Unani: Semal. Mochras (gum).Siddha: Mul Ilavam. Ielavampisin (gum).Folk: Semar.Action: Young roots (Semul- musali)—astringent, (used for dysentery) stimulant, demulcent. Fruits—stimulant, diuretic, expectorant. Used for chronic inflammation of bladder, kidney also for calculus affections. Flowers— astringent and cooling, applied to cutaneous affections. Leaves— anti-inflammatory. Stem bark— demulcent, styptic. Aqueous extract with curd is given for blood- dysentery. Bark—paste is applied to skin eruptions, boils, acne, pimples. Seeds used for chickenpox, smallpox, catarrhal affections, chronic cystitis and genitourinary diseases. Gum—astringent, demulcent, styptic. Used for diarrhoea, dysentery, haemoptysis, bleeding piles, menor- rhagia, spermatorrhoea. Root and pod—used for the treatment of low vitality and debility.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the stem bark in bleeding disorders and in acne vul- garis.All parts of the plant gave beta- sitosterol and its glucosides; seeds, bark and root bark, lupeol; flowers, hentri- acontane, hentriacontanol; root bark, in addition, gave 7-hydroxycadalene. The seed oil yields arachidic, linoleic, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids; seeds contain carotenes, n-hexacosanol, et- hylgallate and tocopherols; the gum contains gallic and tannic acids, yields L-arbinose, D-galactose, D-galacturo- nic acid and D-galactopyranose.Younger roots contain more sugars (arabinose and galactose 8.2%) and peptic substances (6.0%) than the older ones. They contain mucilage, starch (71.2%), mineral matter (2.1%), tannins 0.4 and non-tannins 0.1%, along with other constituents.The Musali compares favourably with the nutritive value of Pueraria tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Ipomoea digitata and Butea monosperma (all used in sexual debility).A related species, Salmalia insig- nis (Wall.) Schott & Endl., synonym Bombax insigne Wall. (Assam, Western Ghats and the Andamans); is known as Semul; Dumboil (Assam), Didu (Andamans) and Kal-ilavu (Tamil Nadu).Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. III.) Flower, bark root— 3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... salmalia malabaricaHabitat: Native to China and Japan; distributed in the Himalayas from Himachal Pradesh eastwards and in Assam.
English: Chinese Soap Berry, Soap Nut tree of North India.Ayurvedic: Arishtaka, Phenila.Folk: Reethaa.Action: Fruits—emetic and expectorant; used in excessive salivation, chlorosis and epilepsy. The plant yielded triterpenoid glycosides, sapindosides, derived from hederagenin. Saponins exhibit hypotensive, anticholesterolemic, spermicidal and antimicrobial properties.
Saponin A and C sapindoside A and B, extracted from the fruit rind, showed antifungal activity. Hederagenin, isolated from the fruit rind or pericarp, is used in skin-lightening and anti- inflammatory cosmetics.Other constituents from the plant are flavonoids—quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and rutin.... sapindus mukorossiA rationalisation of the metric system is now used, known as the International System of Units (SI – see APPENDIX 6: MEASUREMENTS IN MEDICINE).... weights and measures
Habitat: East Bengal, Bhutan and Assam.
Folk: Muraa (var.).Action: Fruits—extracts used for osteoporosis, gynaecological problems and stress-related disorders. Seeds—prescribed in rheumatism and renal diseases.
In Japan, the plant is mainly used for the treatment of swelling of women's genitals.The aerial parts contain the chromo- nes, cnidimol and karenin. The fruits contain the benzofurans, cnidioside A, B and C, cnidiol b and C; besides fura- nocoumarins, imperatorin, bergapten, xanthotoxin, osthol and several ter- penoids. The seeds and volatile oil from the fruits also contain osthol and other coumarins.The coumarins prevented glucocor- ticoid-induced osteoporosis in rats; they also reversed bone loss at early menopausal stage. Osthol showed antiallergic activity. Cnidioside A and B and cnidiol b alleviate physiological disorders caused by physical and mental stress; enhancement of sexual activity has also been observed.... selinum monnieriHabitat: Western Himalayas at 1,800 and Kashmir at 2,400 m, also grown in gardens.
English: Holy Thistle, Milk Thistle.Action: Seeds—liver protective, gallbladder protective, antioxidant. Used in jaundice and other biliary affections, intermittent fevers, uterine trouble, also as a galactagogue. Alcoholic extract used for haemorrhoids and as a general substitute for adrenaline. Seeds are used for controlling haemorrhages. Leaves—sudorific and aperient. Young leaves and flowering heads are consumed by diabetics.
Key application: In dyspeptic complaints. As an ingredient of formulations for toxic liver damage; chronic inflammatory liver disease and hepatic cirrhosis induced by alcohol, drugs or toxins. (Expanded Commission E Monographs, WHO.)The seeds gave silymarin (flavanol lignin mixture), composed mainly of silybin A, silybin B (mixture known as silibinin), with isosilybin A, isosilybin B, silychristin, silydianin. In Germany, Milk Thistle has been used extensively for liver diseases and jaundice. Sily- marin has been shown conclusively to exert an antihepatotoxic effect in animals against a variety of toxins, particularly those of death cap mushroom, Amanita phalloides. Silybin, when given by intravenous injection to human patients up to 48 hours after ingestion of the death cap, was found to be highly effective in preventing fatalities.Silymarin has been used successfully to treat patients with chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis; it is active against hepatitis B virus, and lowers fat deposits in the liver in animals.(For hepatic cirrhosis: 420 mg per day; for chronic active hepatitis 240 mg twice daily—extract containing 7080% silimarin.)... silybum marianumHabitat: Native to India; cultivated throughout India.
English: Eggplant, Brinjal.Ayurvedic: Bhantaki, Bhantaa, Vaartaaka, Vaartaaku, Vaartaakini, Vrintaaka.Unani: Baingan.Siddha/Tamil: Kathirikai.Folk: Baingan, Bhantaa.Action: Fruit—recommended in liver complaints and for amenorrhoea. The fruit is reported to stimulate the intrahepatic metabolism of cholesterol, produces a marked drop in blood cholesterol level. Aqueous extract of fruit is reported to inhibit choline esterase activity of human plasma. Root—anti- asthmatic. Leaves—toxic; used mostly externally for the treatment of burns, cold sores and abscesses. Seeds—anticholesterolemic.
Steroidal saponins, melongosides were isolated from seeds; tigogenin, diosgenin were also obtained. Querce- tin, 3-O-rhamnoside and kaempferol- 3-O-rutinoside have been isolated from the leaves. The ethanol extract (80%) showed anti-inflammatory activity in paw oedema and cotton pellet method in rats. Crude extract of fruits showed diuresis and dose-dependent hypotensive response in normotensive rats. Ether-soluble methanolic extract exhibited strong inhibitory activity on lipoxygenase, involved in atherosclerotic processes and platelet aggregation in rats.Solanum melongena Linn. var. incanum Kuntze, synonym S. coagulans Forsk. is known as Bana-bhantaa (also a synonym of Solanum ferox) and is used as Brihati in Kerala. Air-dried fruits and leaves from coimbatore contain 1.05 and 0.97% of alkaloids respectively. The fruits contain solaso- dine, campesterol and beta-sitosterol. Solamargine, solasodine, ursolic acid and its derivatives exhibited significant cytotoxic effects against human P2C/PRF/5 cells in vitro.... solanum melongenaHabitat: Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal, up to an altitude of 2,100 m.
English: Himalayan Laburnum.Action: Seeds—used for destroying vermin. Root—used for promoting hair growth.
The seeds contain an alkaloid cyti- sine. The root imparts dark colour to hair.The seeds of S. secundiflora Lag. ex DC., known as Mescal-or Coral-Bean (Native to America, grown in Indian gardens) also contain substantial amounts of cytisine.The alkaloid, (-)-N-methylcytisine, isolated from the seeds, exhibited hy- poglycaemic activity in mice.... sophora mollisFormula. Echinacea 1; Goldenseal half; Poke root quarter. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Thrice daily, in water.
Poke root tablets/capsules. As recommended. ... arthritis – from attack of mumps
Habitat: Throughout India at 6001,650 m.
English: Common Chickweed.Folk: Kokoon (Jammu); Safed Fulki, Buchbuchaa (Delhi).Action: Antirheumatic, anti- inflammatory, astringent, refrigerant, demulcent, emollient, vulnerary, antipruritic. Dispels excessive body heat, relieves irritation. Used internally for rheumatism, externally in the form of ointment for chronic skin conditions, varicose ulcers and abscesses. Applied as a plaster for broken bones and swellings.
The plant contains saponin glyco- sides, coumarins, flavonoids (including rutin), carboxylic acid. The leaves contain vitamin C and carotene.The plant also contains mucilage and is rich in potassium and silicon. The aerial parts, in post-flowering period, contain 44 mg/100 g of vitamn E.... stellaria mediaHabitat: Native to Central America; cultivated in South India.
English: West Indian Mahogany.Siddha/Tamil: Ciminukku.Folk: Mahaagani.Action: Bark—astringent and antipyretic. Used as a substitute for cinchona bark is the West Indies. The bark contains 15% tannin, the wood 6%.
The seeds have been reported to contain a bitter substance; mahoganin, 7- deactyl-7-oxogedunin, cyclomahoge- nol and 6-hydroxymethyl angolensate are also present.Tetranortriterpenoids have been isolated from cotyledons and seeds. The ether extract of the leaves inhibits platelet activity factor (PAF)-induced platelet aggregation.... swietenia mahagoniHabitat: Cultivated in Bengal and South India, chiefly in gardens.
English: Malay Apple, Mountain Apple.Action: Leaves—dried and powdered, used against stomatitis. Bark—astringent; used for making a mouthwash for thrush.
The extracts of seeds, fruits, leaves, stem and bark show varying degree of antibiotic activity against Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus. An extract of fruits (without seeds) is moderately effective against E. coli and those of bark and leaves against Shigella paradys.The extracts of the plant, excluding root, affect the rate and amplitude of respiration and also blood pressure.... syzygium malaccenseHabitat: Eastern Himalayas, from North Bengal eastwards to Assam, Khasi Hills and Arunachal Pradesh.
English: Hollock.Ayurvedic: Kakubha (also a synonym of Arjuna tree).Action: Bark—cardiac stimulant, mild diuretic.
The bark gave beta-sitosterol, and about 18% tannins. Ellagic, gallic, che- bulinic and chebulagic acids—main constituents of ellagitannins, and leu- co-cyanidin, an important precursor to flavonoid tannins, have been isolated.... terminalia myriocarpaTea. Rosemary. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose – half-1 cup thrice daily. Tea. Sage. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose – half-1 cup thrice daily. Old hospital remedy: Epsom’s salts. ... breasts, milk excessive
Symptoms. Irritable bowel, respiratory troubles (asthma), skin disorders (eczema) and behavioural problems. Symptoms disappear when dairy products are discontinued but re-appear when they re-enter the diet.
Treatment and prevention. Garlic, for reduction of symptoms. A switch from cow’s to goat’s milk proves effective. Cases are on record of goat’s milk checking irritable bowel and the spread of eczema. ... cow’s milk allergy (cma)
Symptoms. Stiffness and severe muscle pain.
Treatment. Formula. Echinacea 2; Burdock 1; Yarrow 1; Poke root quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 2-3 teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Thrice daily. ... eosinophilic myalgia syndrome (ems)
Habitat: Throughout India, ascending to an altitude of 1,000 m.
Ayurvedic: Kandodbhava-guduchi, Vatsaadani, Padma-Guduuchi.Folk: Gurch.Action: Fresh leaves and stem are used in chronic rheumatism. Known as "muscle-relaxing vine" in China.
Used as a substitute for T. cordifolia. The plant is an inferior substitute as it contains less of carbohydrates, sterols, alkaloids and tannins.Alkaloid magnoflorine shows hy- potensive as well as curare-like effect in animals.... tinospora malabaricaHabitat: Native to South America; grown as an ornamental and salad herb.
English: Garden Nasturtium, Indian Cress, Climbing-Nasturtium.Action: Leaves—an infusion increases resistance to bacterial infections, reduces catarrh formation and expels phlegm. Juice of the plant—given internally for treating scrofula. Flowers—used for healing wounds. Seeds— purgative.
Common Nasturtium contains glu- cocyanates (including glycotropeo- line), spilanthol, myrosin (an enzyme), oxalic acid and vitamin C. The leaves from the young plant showed greater antibiotic activity than the stems; roots were inactive.Extracts and preparations of T. majus are found efficacious in the infections of urinary and respiratory tract, but have no effect on infections of the biliary tract or in typhoid fever.... tropaeolum majusSymptoms: low blood pressure, skin lesions, toxaemia, collapse.
Treatment. Same as for ERYTHEMA NODOSUM. Local antipruritics to relieve irritation. ... erythema multiform
Dose: One dissolved on the tongue daily. (Burroughs Wellcome during World War I) ... forced march tablet
Constituents: flavonoids, furocoumarins, oil.
Action: antispasmodic, carminative, gastric stimulant, aromatic, expectorant, bitter, diaphoretic.
Uses: Indigestion and flatulence, loss of appetite, asthma, bronchial catarrh, menstrual pain, migraine relief.
Preparations: Thrice daily.
Tea. 1oz to 1 pint boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Dose, half-1 cup, thrice daily.
Liquid Extract: 1-2 teaspoons in water. MASTITIS. See: BREAST. ... masterwort
Tea: equal parts, Agnus Castus and Balm. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; 1 cup 2-3 times daily or when necessary.
Liquid Extract. Blue Cohosh BHP (1983) 1:1 in 70 per cent alcohol; dose 7-15 drops. ... mastodynia
Constituents: resins, tannins, camphor oil.
Action: stimulant, astringent, anti-haemorrhage, urinary antiseptic, styptic, diuretic.
Uses: Copious mucous discharge, diarrhoea, piles, leucorrhoea. Bleeding from lungs, bowel or bladder. Externally: styptic for healing wounds.
Preparations: Thrice daily.
Tea: 2-3 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose, half-1 cup.
Liquid Extract: 1-2 teaspoons in water. Powder: dose, 2-8g.
Tincture BPC 1923: dose: 4-8ml. ... matico
M.E. Myalgic encephalomyelitis. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. See: MYALGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS. ... maytenus
Habitat: UK, Europe and North America. (About 21 species of Vaccinium are found in India.)
English: Bilberry, Blueberry.Action: Astringent, diuretic, refrigerant.
Key application: Fruit—in non- specific,acute diarrhoea; topically in mild inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat (German Commission E); anthocyanine enriched extracts of the fruit, in symptomatic treatment of problems related to varicose veins, such as heavy legs. (ESCOP.) Cranberry (Vaccinium sp.) is used in urinary incontinence and for UTI prevention. (Sharon M. Herr.)The main constituents of the Bilberry fruit are anthocyanosides 0.5%. Other constituents include tannins, hy- droxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids, flavonol glycosides, flavan-3-ols, iridoids, terpenes, pectins and organic plant acids. (ESCOP.)In India, V. symplocifolium Alston, syn. V. leschenaultH Wight, known as Kilapalam in Tamil Nadu, is abundantly found in the mountains of South India up to an altitude of 2,400 m V. neil- gherrense Wight, known as Kalavu in Tamil Nadu and Olenangu in Karnata- ka, is commonly found in the hills of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu at altitudes of 600-2,000 m.... vaccinium myrtillusAlternatives: to improve concentration.
Teas, Liquid extracts, tinctures or powders: Ginseng, Gotu Kola, Hawthorn (berries or blossoms), Holy Thistle, Horsetail, Kola nuts, Periwinkle (minor), Rosemary, Skullcap, Vervain, Ginkgo.
Ginkgo: impressive results reported.
Practitioner. Ephedra.
Supplements. B-complex, B6, B12, E. Phosphorus, Zinc. ... memory, weak
Valsalva’s manoeuvre is involuntarily performed when a person strains to open his or her bowels: in these circumstances the passage of air to the lungs is blocked by instinctive closure of the vocal cords in the LARYNX. The resultant raised abdominal pressure helps to expel the bowel contents. The manoeuvre is also used in the study of cardiovascular physiology because the rise in pressure in the chest restricts the return of venous blood to the right atrium of the HEART. Pressure in the peripheral VEINS is raised and the amount of blood entering and leaving the heart falls. This drop in cardiac output may cause the subject to faint because the supply of oxygenated blood to the brain is reduced.... valsalva’s manoeuvre
Habitat: Maharashtra and South India.
Ayurvedic: Taamravalli, Kaivartikaa, Vaamataruni.Siddha/Tamil: Pappili-chaka, Vempadam, Sural-pattai.Folk: Kevati.Action: Root bark—carminative, stomachic, febrifuge; used in atonic dyspepsia, debility and skin diseases. The plant is used against scabies.
The roots contain anthraquinones, ventinones A and B, physcion and chrysophanol. The root bark afforded naphthalene derivatives and several naphthaquinones, anthraquinones— islandicin, emodin, xanthorin and its 5-methyl ether.In South India, V. bombaiensis Dalz. is found in Mukkali forest, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu, and V. goughii in Coorg, Nilgiris and Kurnool.... ventilago madraspatanaHabitat: Native to Europe. Found in the Himalayas, West Bengal and Palni Hills.
English: Green Periwinkle, Greater Periwinkle.Action: Astringent, antihaemor- rhagic, hypotensive. Used to treat menorrhagia and leucorrhoea.
The herb contains indole alkaloids; majdine, isomajdine, majoridine, aku- ammine, akuammigine, carpanaubine, irvine, reserpine, serpentine, sarpagi- ne, tetrahydroalstonine, vincamajine and vincamajoreine; and tannins.The cytotoxic dimeric alkaloids present in Vinca rosea L., used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, have not been found in Vinca major.... vinca majorHabitat: Grown in Indian gardens as an ornamental.
English: Lesser Periwinkle.Action: Astringent and circulatory stimulant (contain alkaloid vin- camine). Used for gastric catarrh, chronic dyspepsia; restlessness, headache, dizziness, and for the prevention of premature aging of brain cells, as a geriatic support.
The herb contains indole alkaloids (0.15-1.4%). The major constituent in vincamine; others include vinic, apovincamine, vincadifformin.Vincamine is hypotensive; increases blood flow and oxygen supply to the brain. The vincamine content in the herb is low and fluctuates greatly. Overdose of the extract brings about a severe drop in blood pressure.Vincamine, as a pure substance is available for therapeutic administration.... vinca minorHabitat: Sikkim, a parasite of Strychnos nux-vomica tree.
Ayurvedic: Katukavalli, Pashu- mohanikaa.Siddha/Tamil: Pulluri, Pullurivi.Folk: Kuchleikaa-malang, Kuchle- kaa-baandaa.Action: Properties more or less similar to Strychnos nux-vomica. Used as a substitute for strychnine and brucine. (The plant is also parasitic on Albizia amara, A. odoratissima, Pongamia pin- nata and Ziziplus oenoplia.)... viscum monoicum
See: MENORRHAGIA. ... menstruation, prolonged
Habitat: Native to South Africa; occurring throughout India.
Folk: Tosad kesari, Dudma Saaga.Action: Root—used in pulmonary infections. Herb—used externally for strengthening the loose teeth, also for skin diseases.
The flower contains delphinidin- chloride-3, 5-diglucoside. The roots contain glucose, sucrose, methyl 9, 12-octadecadienoate, beta-sitosterol, beta-sitosterol glucoside and lupenone.... wahlenbergia marginataBen: Bakul
Mal: Ilanji, ElanjiTam: Magilam, IlanciTel: PogadaKan: PagademaraGuj: Barsoli, BolsariImportance: Spanish cherry, West Indian Medlar or Bullet wood tree is an evergreen tree with sweet- scented flowers having ancient glamour. Garlands made of its flowers are ever in good demand due to its long lasting scent. Its bark is used as a gargle for odontopathy, ulitis and ulemorrhagia. Tender stems are used as tooth brushes. It is also useful in urethrorrhoea, cystorrhoea, diarrhoea and dysentery. Flowers are used for preparing a lotion for wounds and ulcers. Powder of dried flowers is a brain tonic and is useful as a snuff to relieve cephalgia. Unripe fruit is used as a masticatory and will help to fix loose teeth. Seeds are used for preparing suppositories in cases of constipation especially in children (Warrier et al,1995). The bark and seed coat are used for strengthening the gum and enter into the composition of various herbal tooth powders, under the name of “Vajradanti”, where they may be used along with tannin-containing substances like catechu (Acacia catechu), pomegranate (Punica granatum) bark, etc. The bark is used as snuff for high fever accompanied by pains in various parts of the body. The flowers are considered expectorant and smoked in asthma. A lotion prepared from unripe fruits and flowers is used for smearing on sores and wounds. In Ayurveda, the important preparation of Mimusops is “Bakuladya Taila”, applied on gum and teeth for strengthening them, whereas in Unani system, the bark is used for the diseases of genitourinary system of males (Thakur et al, 1989).Distribution: It is cultivated in North and Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. It is grown as an avenue tree in many parts of India.Botany: Mimusops elengi Linn. belongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is an evergreen tree with dark grey fissured bark and densely spreading crown. Leaves are oblong, glabrous and leathery with wavy margins. Flowers are white, fragrant, axillary, solitary or fascicled. Fruits are ovoid or ellipsoid berries. Seeds are 1-2 per fruit, ovoid, compressed, greyish brown and shiny (Warrier et al, 1995). Other important species belonging to the genus Mimusops are M. hexandra Roxb. and M. kauki Linn. syn. Manilkara kauki Dub.(Chopra et al, 1980).Agrotechnology: Mimusops prefers moist soil rich in organic matter for good growth. The plant is propagated by seeds. Fruits are formed in October-November. Seeds are to be collected and dried. Seeds are to be soaked in water for 12 hours without much delay and sown on seedbeds. Viability of seeds is less. After germination they are to be transferred to polybags. Pits of size 45cm cube are to be taken and filled with 5kg dried cowdung and top soil. To these pits, about 4 months old seedlings from the polybags are to be transplanted with the onset of monsoon. Addition of 10kg FYM every year is beneficial. Any serious pests or diseases do not attack the plant. Flowering commences from fourth year onwards. Bark, flowers, fruit and seeds are the economic parts.Properties and activity: -sitosterol and its glucoside, -spina-sterol, quercitol, taraxerol and lupeol and its acetate are present in the aerial parts as well as the roots and seeds. The aerial parts in addition gave quercetin, dihydroquercetin, myricetin, glycosides, hederagenin, ursolic acid, hentriacontane and -carotene. The bark contained an alkaloid consisting largely of a tiglate ester of a base with a mass spectrum identical to those of laburinine and iso-retronecanol and a saponin also which on hydrolysis gave -amyrin and brassic acid. Seed oil was comprised of capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, oleic and linoleic acids.Saponins from seed are spermicidal and spasmolytic. The aerial part is diuretic. Extract of flower (1mg/kg body weight) showed positive diuretic action in dogs. Bark is tonic and febrifuge. Leaf is an antidote for snakebite. Pulp of ripe fruit is antidysenteric. Seed is purgative. Bark and pulp of ripe fruit is astringent (Husain et al, 1992).... west indian medlarTreatment. See: HEART – LEFT VENTRICULAR FAILURE. ... mitral disease
Deficiency. Sexual impotence in aged men. Decayed teeth, allergy, palpitation.
Believed to be linked with cancer of the gullet in China where soil is deficient in this element.
Body effects. Male sexual libido, dental health, iron metabolism, function of some enzymes.
Sources. Most foods. Liver, oats, buckwheat, barley, wholegrains, lima beans, sunflower seeds, pulses, Soya beans and flour.
Note: High levels of uric acid (a cause of gout and gravel) have been linked with a high content of the element in some native soils – especially in Armenia. ... molybdenum
Habitat: Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Imported into India.
English: Wild Thyme.Unani: Saatar Faarsi, Al-Saatar, Origanon.Action: Herb—stimulant, anti- inflammatory, anodyne, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, antilithic. Detoxifies liver, stomach and intestines. Used for inflammatory conditions of the liver.
Essential oil contained phenols 69% (consisted mainly of carvacrol and traces of thymol) and nonphenols 31% (including p-cymene, cineol, borneol, zatarinol). Besides essential oil, the drug contains alkanes, beta-sitosterol, betulin, fatty acids and triterpenic ke- tones.... zataria multifloraHabitat: Native to South America. Grown as a food crop mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
English: Maize, Corn, Indian Corn.Ayurvedic: Mahaa-Kaaya.Unani: Makkaa, Zurraa Makkaa.Action: Corn Silk—diuretic, urinary demulcent, antilithic. Used for cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis, irritation of the urinary tract by phosphatic and uric acids, nephritis, uncontrollable bladder, retention, pus in the urine, bed-wetting.
The corn silk gave saponins; alan- toin; sterols, especially beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol; alkaloid hordenine; polyphenols; mucilage; potassium; vitamin C and K; cryptoxanthin, antho- cyanins, plant acids, tannin.The glycoproteins, seperated from corn silk, inhibited IgE antibody formation and enhanced IgG and IgM formation; they showed antiviral and antitumour activities.... zea maysConstituents: isoquinoline alkaloids (berberine, hydrastine, etc).
Action: cholagogue, hepatic, alterative, anti-diarrhoeal.
Uses: similar to those of Barberry (Barberry vulgaris). Dyspepsia. Blood impurities. Skin diseases: especially eczema, psoriasis.
Preparations: Thrice daily.
Decoction. Quarter to half a teaspoon to each cup water simmered 20 minutes. Dose: half a cup.
Liquid extract: 10-30 drops in water. Powder: 1-2g. ... mountain grape
Monoclonal antibodies are produced in a laboratory by stimulating the growth of a large number of antibody-producing cells that are genetically identical. In effect, this process enables antibodies to be tailor-made so that they will react with a particular antigen.
Monoclonal antibodies are used in the study of human cells, hormones, microorganisms, and in the development of vaccines. They are also being used in the diagnosis and treatment of some forms of cancer.... antibody, monoclonal
Prescriptions. While specimen combinations appear for each specific disease in this book, medicines from the dispensary may be varied many times during the course of treatment. The practitioner will adapt a prescription to a patient’s individual clinical picture by adding and subtracting agents according to the changing basic needs of the case. For instance, a first bottle of medicine or blend of powders may include a diuretic to clear the kidneys in preparation for the elimination of wastes and toxins unleashed by active ingredients.
The reader should never underestimate the capacity of herbal medicine to regenerate the human body, even from the brink of disaster.
Acknowledgements. I am indebted to my distinguished mentor, Edgar Gerald Jones, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, England, to whom I owe more than I could ever repay. I am indebted also to the National Institute of Medical Herbalists, and to the British Herbal Medicine Association, both of which bodies have advanced the cause of herbal medicine. I have drawn heavily upon the British Herbal Pharmacopoeias 1983 and 1990, authentic publications of the BHMA, and have researched major works of ancient and modern herbalism including those pioneers of American Eclectic Medicine: Dr Samuel Thomson, Dr Wooster Beach, Dr Finlay Ellingwood and their British contemporaries. All made a vital contribution in their day and generation. I have endeavoured to keep abreast of the times, incorporating the latest scientific information at the time of going to press. For the purposes of this book I am especially indebted to my friend Dr John Cosh for checking accuracy of the medical material and for his many helpful suggestions.
A wealth of useful plants awaits further investigation. Arnica, Belladonna and Gelsemium are highly regarded by European physicians. It is believed that these plants, at present out of favour, still have an important role in medicine of the future. The wise and experienced clinician will wish to know how to harness their power to meet the challenge of tomorrow’s world.
Perhaps the real value of well-known alternative remedies lies in their comparative safety. Though largely unproven by elaborate clinical trials, the majority carry little risk or harm. Some have a great potential for good. The therapy is compatible with other forms of treatment.
The revival of herbal medicine is no passing cult due to sentimentality or superstition. It indicates, rather, a return to that deep devotion to nature that most of us have always possessed, and which seems in danger of being lost in the maze of modern pharmacy. It is an expression of loyalty to all that is best from
the past as we move forward into the 21st century with a better understanding of disease and its treatment. I believe the herbal profession has a distinguished and indispensible contribution to make towards the conquest of disease among peoples of the world, and that it should enjoy a place beside orthodox medicine.
Who are we to say that today’s antibiotics and high-tech medicine will always be available? In a world of increasing violence, war and disaster, a breakdown in the nation’s health service might happen at any time, thus curtailing production of insulin for the diabetic, steroids for the hormone-deficient, and anti-coagulants for the thrombotic. High-technology can do little without its specialised equipment. There may come a time when we shall have to reply on our own natural resources. It would be then that a knowledge of alternatives could be vital to survival. ... self medication
Steiner equated these planes with the doctrine of the elements earth, fire, air and water as understood by the Ancient World. In health all four work together in one “harmonious integrated whole”. Bad health was a sign that the balance between these states had been disrupted.
The school of thought believes that disease may be a preparation for future life towards which reincarnation is a feature. It is not possible to be an anthroposophical doctor without a fundamental relationship with the plant kingdom. It is believed that to heal the four-fold dimensions of man demands a high level spiritual awareness which is not always acquired through the usual channels of medical education. The movement has its international centre at the Goetheanum, Dornach, Switzerland. See: RUDOLF STEINER. ... anthroposophical medicine
forearm. The biceps femoris at the back of the thigh bends the leg at the knee and extends the thigh.... biceps muscle
Alternatives. Agnus Castus, Alfalfa, Black Cohosh, Blue Cohosh, Cramp bark, Hawthorn, Hops, Liquorice, Sage, Sarsaparilla, Wild Yam, Yarrow.
Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Alfalfa, Hops, Sage. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes; 1 cup freely.
Chinese medicine: Sage tea.
Formula. Agnus castus 2; Black Cohosh 1; Valerian half; Juniper quarter. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons, in water, or cup of Nettle tea.
Nettle tea. Favourable results reported.
Evening Primrose oil.
Diet. Oily fish. Low fat, Low salt. High fibre.
Supplements. Vitamins A, B6, B-complex, C, E. Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc. ... arthritis – menopausal
Ayur (“life”) and veda (“science”), the science of life, is part of the Hindu writings – the Artharva- veda. By 500BC many of these writings, including a vast collection of ‘Materia medica’ gravitated to the University of Benares, to be joined 700 years later with another huge volume of medical literature which together formed the basis of the Ayurveda system. In rural India where Western medicine is absent it is still practised by 80 per cent of the population. Like the medical culture of China, that of India is among the oldest in the world. Today, its practitioners are skilled in gynaecology, obstetrics and other specialties.
It is a branch of Holistic medicine whereby body imbalances are restored by a natural regime, baths, fasting, enemas, cleansing diets and herbs. Time is given up to meditation and prayer for which many mantras exist. Those who practise it support the role of preventive medicine, insisting it is not only a system of cure but a metaphysical way of life touching body, mind and spirit. A strict daily discipline embraces yoga and special foods to maintain a sound and wholesome life. Ayurvedic medicine regards the herb Valerian as important for epilepsy.
Important Ayurvedic medicines include Borage, Liquorice, Cinnamon, Garlic, Gotu Kola and Wild Yam, renowned for their versatility. Of special importance to this system of medicine is the hypoglycaemic plant, Gymnema sylvestre, used since the 6th century for a condition known as “honey urine”, which today grows in popularity in the West for the treatment of diabetes. ... ayurveda medicine
Alternatives. Tea. Equal parts: Marigold petals, St John’s Wort, Mullein. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup 3 or more times daily.
Tissue regeneration. Fenugreek tea.
Capsules. Oil of Evening Primrose: 2 × 250mg, 3 times daily.
Liquid Extract Blue Cohosh BHP (1983) 7-15 drops (0.5-1ml).
Topical. Oil of Evening Primrose. Comfrey dusting powder. Aloe Vera juice. Vitamin E cream. Diet. Lacto-vegetarian.
Information. BCC, Free Help Line. UK telephone: 0500 245345. ... breasts, mastectomy
The gastrocnemius muscle starts behind the knee and forms the bulky part of the calf; under it is the soleus muscle which starts at the back of the tibia (shin).
The 2 muscles join to form the Achilles tendon, which connects them to the heel.
Contraction of the calf muscles pulls the heel up and is important in walking, running, and jumping.
Pain in these muscles occurs because of cramp, sciatica, or, more rarely, deep vein thrombosis.
The calf muscles may be affected by claudication (pain caused by walking and relieved by rest).... calf muscles
Symptoms. Local tenderness, feverishness, general agitation. Pain following mumps. Nipple discharge. Alternatives. Where there is feverishness add Elderflowers (one part).
Tea. Combine equal parts: Comfrey leaves. Wild Thyme. German Chamomile. Red Clover. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. Drink freely.
Tablets/capsules. Poke root. Red Clover. Echinacea.
Powders. Formula: Echinacea 2; Red Clover 1; Poke root 1. Mix. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Tinctures. Formula. Echinacea 2; Marigold 1; Agnus Castus 2; Poke root 1. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily, in water.
Poultice: (1) Fresh Plantain leaves beaten in pestle and mortar, applied cold. (2) Comfrey powder or Slippery Elm powder (or both) sprinkled on suitable material wrung out in boiling water and applied. (3) German Chamomile and Comfrey leaves. (Arthur Hyde, MNIMH) (4) Bring to boil, equal parts Chamomile flowers and Marshmallow leaves in milk and water. Remove when boiling point is reached. Saturate linen or suitable material. Apply every 12 hours. (Rev. John Wesley) (6) Bathe with juice of Houseleek. (Traditional, Norfolk villages)
Evening Primrose oil: internally and externally.
Poke root. An important ingredient of prescription for acute condition. ... breasts, mastitis
Formula (2). Equal parts: Goat’s Rue, Raspberry leaves. Mix. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes. Dose: 1 cup 3 or more times daily.
Tablets/capsules. Agnus Castus, Fenugreek, Borage. ... breasts, milk scanty
Gerard tea. Equal parts: Raspberry leaves, Lemon Balm leaves, Agrimony leaves. Mix. Made as ordinary tea: 2-3 teaspoons to small teapot; infuse few minutes. Drink freely.
Fenugreek tea: consume seeds as well as liquor.
Gentian root. 2 teaspoons to cup cold water left to steep overnight. Half-1 cup before meals.
Pollen..
Diet. Oatmeal porridge. Honey.
Supplements. Multivitamins, B-complex, B6, B12. ... breasts, nursing mother exhaustion
The BHMA is recognised by the Medicines Control Agency as the official representative of the profession and the trade. Its objects are (a) to defend the right of the public to choose herbal remedies and be able to obtain them; (b) to foster research in herbal medicine and establish standards of safety which are a safeguard to the user; (c) to encourage the dissemination of knowledge about herbal remedies, and (d) do everything possible to advance the science and practice of herbal medicine, and to further recognition at all levels.
Membership is open to all interested in the future of herbal medicine, including herbal practitioners, herbal retailers, health food stores, wholesalers, importers, manufacturers, pharmacists, doctors and research workers.
The BHMA produces the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. Its Scientific Committee is made up of senior herbal practitioners, university pharmacologists and pharmacognosists. Other publications include: BHMA Advertising Code (1978), Medicines Act Advertising guidelines (1979), the Herbal Practitioner’s Guide to the Medicine’s Act (F. Fletcher Hyde), and miscellaneous leaflets on ‘Herbs and Their Uses’.
The BHMA does not train students for examination but works in close co-operation with the National Institute of Medical Herbalists, and with the European Scientific Co-operative on Phytotherapy.
Chairmen since its inception: Frank Power, 1964-1969; Fred Fletcher-Hyde, 1969-1977; Hugh Mitchell 1977-1986; James Chappelle 1986-1990; Victor Perfitt 1990-.
During the years the association has secured important advantages for its membership, particularly continuity of sale of herbal medicines in health food shops. It continues to maintain vigilance in matterss British and European as they affect manufacturing, wholesaling, retailing, prescribing and dispensing.
See: BRITISH HERBAL PHARMACOPOEIA and BRITISH HERBAL COMPENDIUM. ... british herbal medicine association
Sheila E. Drew BPharm PhD MRPharms. Deputy Head of Technical Services, William Ransom & Son plc.
Fred Fletcher-Hyde BSc FNIMH. President Emeritus, British Herbal Medicine Association. President Emeritus, National Institute of Medical Herbalists.
Simon Y. Mills MA FNIMH. Director, Centre for Complementary Health Studies, University of Exeter. Hugh W. Mitchell MNIMH (Hon). President, British Herbal Medicine Association. Managing Director, Mitchfield Botanics Ltd.
Edward J. Shellard BPharm PhD DSc(Hon) (Warsaw Medical Academy) FRPharmS CChem FRSC FLS. Emeritus Professor of Pharmacognosy, University of London.
Arnold Webster CChem MRSC. Technical Director, English Grains Ltd.
Peter Wetton BSc LRSC. G.R. Lane Health Products Ltd.
Hein Zeylstra FNIMH. Principal. School of Phytotherapy, Sussex. ... british herbal medicine association, scientific committee, 1995
Causes: occupational hazards, contact with toxic metals and minerals.
A Health Department’s committee found an increased risk of developing mouth cancer from “snuff- dipping”, the practice of sucking tobacco from a small sachet, “tobacco teabags”.
Of possible value:– Fresh plant juices, Houseleek, Aloe Vera.
Teas: Chickweed, Mullein, Comfrey. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose – 1 cup thrice daily, increasing to as much as well tolerated.
Condurango Liquid extract. 10-30 drops in water before meals.
Goldenseal Liquid extract. 3-5 drops in water before meals.
George Burford MD. Condurango and Goldenseal.
E.H. Ruddock MD 1925. “Several cases of cancer of the lips have been cured by Goldenseal.”
Topical. Wipe area with Liquid Extract Condurango, Goldenseal, Thuja, Poke root or fresh plant juices of above. Slippery Elm paste: powdered Slippery Elm in few drops milk or water.
Mouthwash. Equal parts: Liquid Extract Goldenseal, Liquid Extract Bayberry, Tincture Myrrh and Glycerine. Some may be swallowed as internal medicine. Comfrey, Mullein or Chickweed cream.
Diet. See: DIET – CANCER.
Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital oncologist. ... cancer – mouth and lips
Founder groups: The National Institute of Medical Herbalists, College of Osteopaths, British Naturopathic and Osteopathic Association, The British Chiropractic Association, The Society of Homoeopaths, The British Acupuncture Association, The Traditional Acupuncture Society and the Register of Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Objects: to provide vital unified representation to contest adverse legislation; to promote the interests of those seeking alternative treatments; to maintain standards of competent primary health care; to protect the practice of alternative medicine if Common Law is encroached upon. The Council prefers to work in harmony with the orthodox profession in which sense it is complementary. Council’s first chairman: Simon Mills, FNIMH. Address: 10 Belgrave Square, London SW1X BPH. ... council for complementary and alternative medicine
These drugs suppress ovulation and make cervical mucus thick and impenetrable to sperm.
They also cause thinning of the endometrium (lining of the uterus), which reduces the chance of a fertilized egg implanting successfully.
The best-known form of hormonal contraception is the contraceptive pill (see oral contraceptives).
The hormones can also be given as contraceptive implants under the skin, by injection (see contraceptives, injectable), or be released by IUDs.... contraception, hormonal methods of
Red blood cells from one person are combined with serum from the other.
Clumping of red blood cells indicates the presence of antibodies, showing the blood is not compatible.... cross-matching
Action: Astringent, antitussive, antiseptic, anti-catarrhal, anti-inflammatory.
Uses: Quinsy, sore throat, tonsillitis, pharyngitis (tea used as a gargle every 2 hours). Inflammation of the parotid gland (mumps). Bleeding from respiratory mucous surfaces. Whooping cough, croup. Lice infestation (wash hair with tea). High blood pressure. (Russia)
Preparations: Thrice daily.
Tea. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes, half cup freely, acute cases; thrice daily, chronic. Addition of 2 drops Tincture Myrrh enhances action.
Powder: dose, 2-4g.
Liquid Extract: half-1 teaspoon in water.
Tincture BHP (1983) 1 part to 5 parts 45 per cent alcohol. Dose: 1-4ml (15-60 drops). ... cudweed, marsh
The average macrobiotic diet is made up approximately of the proportions: whole grains 45 per cent; vegetables 25 per cent; beans, legumes and seeds 10 per cent; nuts 5 per cent; fruit 5 per cent; seaweeds 5 per cent; poultry 2.5 per cent; fish 2.5 per cent.
Whole grains: wheat, barley, rye, oats, brown rice, buckwheat, millet, corn. Vegetables: green leaves and roots – grown organically. Beans, legumes and seeds: all beans, aduki, lentils, chickpeas. Seeds: sesame, sunflower, etc. Seaweeds: hiziki, wakama, dulse, Carragheen moss, kelp. Very low sugar. Moderate fats and oils. ... diet - macrobiotic
A preliminary therapeutic trial in patients with ageing macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy showed that supplementation with Beta-carotene, Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Selenium halted the progression of degenerative changes and in some cases even brought some improvement. (Age and Ageing 1991, 20(1) 60-9). Bilberries.
Referral to a consultant ophthalmologist. ... eyes - macular degeneration
Constituents: tannins.
Action: powerful styptic and astringent because of its high tannin content. Haemostatic. Alterative. Drying and binding. Menstrual regulator.
Uses: Excessive menstruation. Non-menstrual bleeding of the womb between periods. Children’s summer diarrhoea, colitis with bleeding. Gastric and duodenal ulcer. Children’s convulsions. (Swedish traditional)
Not used in pregnancy.
Combinations. (1) with Avens for gastritis and mucous colitis. (2) with Agnus Castus for menstrual disorders.
Preparations: Average dose: 2-4g. Thrice daily. Tea: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. One cup.
Liquid extract BHP (1983) 1:1 in 25 per cent alcohol. Dose: 2-4ml.
Powdered root. Dose, 2-4g.
Vaginal douche: 2oz to 2 pints (60g to 1 litre) boiling water. Infuse 30 minutes. Inject warm for leucorrhoea, Candida, inflammation; or as a lotion for pruritus.
Decoction (roots) offer a powerful deterrant to passive bleeding. ... lady’s mantle
and plays an important role in breathing. There are openings in the diaphragm for the oesophagus and major nerves and blood vessels. To inhale, the diaphragm’s muscle fibres contract, pulling the whole diaphragm downwards and drawing air into the lungs. (See also breathing.)... diaphragm muscle
It may be needed if the woman’s breasts are overfull (see engorgement).
A woman may want to express milk so that it can be given to the baby in her absence, or so that an infant unable to feed at the breast, due to prematurity, for example, can benefit from breast milk.
Milk can be expressed by hand or with a breast pump.... expressing milk
The simplest form of fetal heart monitoring involves the use of a special fetal stethoscope. Cardiotocography, a more sophisticated electronic version, makes a continuous paper recording of the heartbeat together with a recording of the uterine contractions. The heartbeat is picked up either externally by an ultrasound transducer strapped to the mother’s abdomen or, as an alternative during labour, internally by an electrode attached to the baby’s scalp that passes through the vagina and cervix.... fetal heart monitoring
A heart–lung machine consists of a pump (to replace the heart’s function) and an oxygenator (to replace the lung’s function). It bypasses the heart and lungs, and the heart can be stopped.
Use of a heart–lung machine tends to damage red blood cells and to cause blood clotting. These problems can be minimized, however, by the administration of heparin, an anticoagulant drug, beforehand.heart–lung transplant A procedure in which the heart and lungs of a patient are removed, and replaced with donor organs. This surgery is used to treat diseases in which the lung damage has affected the heart, or vice versa. Such diseases include cystic fibrosis, fibrosing alveolitis, and some severe congenital heart defects (see heart disease, congenital). A heart–lung machine is used to take over the function of the patient’s heart and lungs during the operation, which is no more dangerous than a heart transplant.
heart-rate The rate at which the heart contracts to pump blood around the body. Most people have a heart-rate of between 60 and 100 beats per minute at rest. This rate tends to be faster in childhood and to slow slightly with age. Very fit people may have a resting rate below 60 beats per minute.
The heart muscle responds automatically to any increase in the amount of blood returned to it from active muscles by increasing its output. During extreme exercise, heart-rate may increase to 200 contractions per minute and the output to almost 250 ml per beat.
The heart-rate is also regulated by the autonomic nervous system. The parts of this system concerned with heart action are a nucleus of nerve cells, called the cardiac centre, in the brainstem, and 2 sets of nerves (the parasympathetic and sympathetic).
At rest, the parasympathetic nerves – particularly the vagus nerve – act on the sinoatrial node to maintain a slow heart-rate. During or in anticipation of muscular activity, this inhibition lessens and the heart-rate speeds up.
Sympathetic nerves release noradrenaline, which further increases the heart-rate and force of contraction. Sympathetic activity can be triggered by fear or anger, low blood pressure, or a reduction of oxygen in the blood.
Release of adrenaline and noradrenaline by the adrenal glands also acts to increase heart-rate.
The rate and rhythm of the heart can be measured by feeling the pulse or by listening with a stethoscope; a more accurate record is provided by an ECG.
A resting heart-rate above 100 beats per minute is termed a tachycardia, and a rate below 60 beats per minute a bradycardia. (See also arrhythmia, cardiac.)... heart–lung machine
infarction Death of an area of tissue due to ischaemia (lack of blood supply). Common examples include myocardial infarction, which is also known as heart attack, and pulmonary infarction, which is lung damage caused by a pulmonary embolism – a blood clot that has moved into a vessel in the lung and is obstructing the flow of blood. (See also necrosis.)... infant mortality
(See also genetic disorders.)... laurence–biedl–moon syndrome
The firm was founded in Bonn in 1919 by the brothers Dr Gerhard Madaus, Friedemund Madaus and Hans Madaus, as a result of a personal family experience. As a child one of the brothers was seriously ill and his recovery was greatly aided by treatment with medicinal plants and herbs. Impressed by this experience the eldest brother studied medicine. After the First World War the three brothers began the manufacture of medicaments on a small scale.
In 1936 the first Biological Institute was established, in which the effects of constituents were examined. Intensive research work induced Dr Gerhard Madaus to publish, in 1938, a three volume work entitled “Manual of Biological Medicine” which, even today, still enjoys a high reputation in the professional world.
The House of Madaus has its own research departments in pharmacology, pathology, botany and immunisation biology.
Their preparation of Convallaria (Lily of the Valley) in natural compound form has outstandingly proved itself in heart failure. Work on Horse Chestnut, Echinacea and Agnus Castus has advanced herbal pharmacy worldwide. ... madaus
Constituents: terpenoids, flavonoid glycosides.
Action: demulcent expectorant, pectoral stimulant, anti-tussive, mucilaginous, galactagogue, anti- dandruff.
Uses: detoxicant for alcoholism; coughs, sore throat, bronchitis.
Preparations: Average dose, half-2 grams. Thrice daily.
Tea. quarter-1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half a cup. Liquid Extract BHP (1983) 1:1 in 25 per cent alcohol. Dose, half-2ml.
Powder: half-2 grams. ... maidenhair fern
Herbal preparations are required to meet the same high pharmaceutical standards as conventional medicine.
Today’s exacting standards ensure an absence of sugar, yeast, gluten, milk derivatives, cornstarch, wheat, artificial colours, flavours, and preservatives.
The Department of Health expects manufacturers to standardise active constituents where possible and to ensure purity by eliminating from crude material pesticide residues, aflatoxins and heavy metal contaminants. Chromotography, in one of its forms (thin-layer, gas or high-pressure liquid) are used to assess purity, potency, accurate identity and contamination by lead, cadmium, etc. A Geiger-counter reveals the presence or absence of radio-activity. Each plant has its own signature or ‘fingerprint’ showing density and other important characteristics.
Failure to meet Government requirements empowers a purchaser to return the whole consignment to the supplier. Thus, a high standard of manufacturing practice is maintained.
See: Medicines Act leaflet 39, Revised Guidelines DHSS Nov 1985 ... manufacturing
Glioblastoma multiforme is a type of glioma that often develops in the cerebrum.
The cause is unknown.
Treatment may include surgery, radiotherapy, and/or chemotherapy.... glioblastoma multiforme
The gluteus maximus is responsible for moving the thigh sideways and backwards.... gluteus maximus
National drink of Paraguay and Brazil. Less astringent and contains less tannin than ordinary tea. Contains caffeine, but regarded as a good substitute for ordinary tea.
Action: stimulant to the brain and nervous system. Anti-rheumatic, diuretic. General tonic, mild antispasmodic, assists elimination of uric acid.
Uses: Physical exhaustion from stress. Rheumatism, gout. Nervous headache (Fletcher Hyde). Preparations. Average dose, 1-4 grams. Thrice daily.
Tea: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 10 minutes. Freely.
Liquid Extract (seldom used): 1 teaspoon in water, as necessary. ... mate tea
continuously for 24 hours or longer.
The monitor records by means of electrodes attached to the chest and allows the detection of intermittent arrhythmias.... holter monitor
Common macrolides include azithromycin and erythromycin.... macrolide drugs
Medicines fall into three categories: POM (Prescription Only Medicines), P (Pharmacy Only), and OTC (Over The Counter). POM and P medicines must be prescribed by a registered medical practitioner and dispensed by a pharmacist. P medicines can be sold only by a registered pharmacist. Health stores are concerned with the OTC products, the sale of which is governed by S.I. Medicines General Sales List, Order 1980, No 1922.
All medicines and substances used as medicine bearing a medicinal claim on label or advertising material must be licenced. Without a licence it is not lawful for any person, in his business, to manufacture, sell, supply, export, or import into the United Kingdom any medicinal products unless some exemption is provided in the Act or subsequent regulations. The prefix ML, followed by the Manufacturer’s number must appear on the label together with the product licence number prefixed by the capitals PL. For example, if any person other than a pharmacist sells a medicinal product which claims to relieve indigestion or headache, but the label of which bears no licence number, that shopkeeper (and the manufacturer) will be breaking the law.
All foods are exempt from licencing provided no claims are made of medicinal benefits.
A special licence (manufacturer’s) is required by any person who manufactures or assembles a medicinal product. (Section 8) He must hold a Product Licence for every product he manufactures unless some special exemption is provided by the Act. He may of course act to the order of the product licence holder. (Section 23)
“Manufacture” means any process carried on in the course of making a product but does not include dissolving or dispersing the product in, or diluting or mixing it with some other substance used as a vehicle for the purpose of administering it. It includes the mixture of two or more medicinal products.
“Assembly” means enclosing a medicinal product in a container which is labelled before the product is sold or supplied, or, where the product is already enclosed in a container in which it is supplied, labelling the container before the product is sold or supplied in it. (Section 132)
From the practitioner’s point of view, herbal medicines are exempt from the Act and no licence is required.
The consulting herbalist in private practice who compounds his own preparations from medicinal substances may apply to the Medicines Control Agency, 1 Nine Elms Lane, London SW8 5NQ for a manufacturer’s licence to authorise mixture and assembly, for administration to their patients after he has been requested in their presence to use his own judgement as to treatment required. Products thus sold, will be without any written recommendation and not advertised in any way.
The “assembly” aspect of his licence refers to his ability to buy in bulk, repackage and label. Where he uses prepackaged products and does not open the packet, or relabel, a licence is not required. He will not be able to use terms, “Stomach mixture”, “Nerve mixture”, etc, implying cure of a specific condition.
It is necessary for the practitioner to have a personal consultation with his patient before making his prescription. Subsequent treatment may be supplied by a third person or by post at the discretion of the practitioner.
A licence is required where one or more non-herbal ingredients (such as potassium iodide, sodium citrate, etc) are included. Dispensing non-herbal remedies constitutes “manufacture” for which a licence is required. (MAL 24 (3))
The main thing the licensing authority looks for before granting a licence is evidence of safety. The manufacturers’ premises must be licenced. A wholesaler or distributor, also, must have a licence.
Where a product is covered by a Product Licence certain medicinal claims may be made. Where claims are made, the Act requires a warning to appear on the label worded: “If you think you have the disease to which this product refers, consult a registered medical practitioner before taking this product. If you are already receiving medical treatment, tell your doctor you are also taking this product.” (SI 41, s.5)
Labels of all medicines, tablets, etc, must carry the words: “Keep out of the reach of children”.
Under the Act it is illegal for medicines to be offered for sale for cancer, diabetes, epilepsy, glaucoma, kidney disease, locomotor ataxy, paralysis, sexually transmitted diseases and tuberculosis; these diseases to be treated by a registered medical practitioner only.
Definition of a herbal remedy. A “herbal remedy” is a medicinal product consisting of a substance produced by subjecting a plant or plants to drying, crushing or any other process, or of a mixture whose sole ingredients are two or more substances so produced, or of a mixture whose sole ingredients are one or more substances so produced and water or some other inert substances. (Section 132)
No licence is required for the sale, supply, manufacture or assembly of any such herbal remedy in the course of a business in which the person carrying on the business sells or supplies the remedy for administration to a particular person after being requested by or on behalf of that person, and in that person’s presence, to use his own judgement as to the treatment required. The person carrying on the business must be the occupier of the premises where the manufacture or assembly takes place and must be able to close them so as to exclude the public. (Section 12 (1))
No licence is required for the sale, supply, manufacture or assembly of those herbal remedies where the process to which the plant or plants are subjected consists only of drying, crushing or comminuting and the remedy is sold or supplied under a designation which only specifies the plant or plants and the process and does not apply any other name to the remedy; and without any written recommendation (whether by means of a labelled container or package or a leaflet or in any other way) as to the use of the remedy. (Section 12 (2)) This exemption does not apply to imported products. Except where a herbal product is supplied for a medicinal use, legally it is not even a medicinal product.
The 1968 Act has been a great step forward in the history of herbal medicine, The British Herbal Medicine Association and the National Institute of Medical Herbalists fought and won many special concessions. In years following the Act standards rose sharply. Practitioners enjoy a measure of recognition, with power to manufacture and dispense their own medicines and issue official certificates for incapacitation for work.
See: BRITISH HERBAL MEDICINE ASSOCIATION. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL HERBALISTS. ... medicine’s act, 1968.
Treatment. Uterine restoratives, nerve relaxants. Formula. Tea. Equal parts: Raspberry leaves; Skullcap; Agnus Castus. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes; drink freely. Alternative formula. Agnus Castus 2; Black Cohosh 1. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures:
2-3 teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Feverfew: good results reported.
Evening Primrose oil capsules. 500mg thrice daily.
Sleep. One in two patients find relief in ‘sleeping it off’ any time of the day or night. Hot bath. Passion flower tea or tablets.
Diet. High fibre, low fat, low salt. Hot soup. A cooked meal but not with rich fatty or spicy foods. Oatmeal porridge.
Supplements. Vitamin B6, 50mg daily. Magnesium, Zinc.
Preventative: Raspberry leaf tea 3 days before periods. ... menstrual headache
Traditional. Rub with raw Garlic bulb. Apply juice of Dandelion, Milkweed, Greater Celandine, or Jojoba oil over a long period.
Linda Clark. Moles have been known to disappear on wiping with Castor oil.
Internally: Liquid Extract, Thuja. 3-5 drops in water, once daily, for 1 month, repeated again after 3 months.
Vitamin E.
Minerals. Silicon, Sulphur. ... moles
Maladjustment can occur as a reaction to stressful situations, such as divorce or moving house.
There may be feelings of depression or anxiety, or behavioural problems in children and in adolescents.
Maladjustment usually disappears when a person is removed from the stressful situation or adapts to it.... maladjustment
Malalignment may also refer to a fracture in which the bone ends are not in a straight line.... malalignment
Malar flush is considered to be a sign of mitral stenosis, which often follows rheumatic fever.
However, malar flush is not always present in mitral stenosis, and many people with this colouring do not have heart disease.... malar flush
Some of these gene defects are harmless, but others are severe enough to result in death or physical or mental handicap. Examples include Tay–Sachs disease, phenylketonuria, Hurler’s syndrome, and Lesch–Nyhan syndrome. Collectively, inborn errors of metabolism affect around 1 child in 5,000.
Symptoms are usually present at or soon after birth. They may include unexplained illness or failure to thrive, developmental delay, floppiness, persistent vomiting, or seizures.
Routine tests are performed on newborn babies for some genetic disorders, such as phenylketonuria.
Treatment is not needed for some inborn errors of metabolism. For others, avoidance of a specific environmental factor may be sufficient. In some cases, the missing enzyme or the protein that it produces can be manufactured using genetic engineering techniques, or a vitamin supplement can help compensate for the defective enzyme. If the enzyme is made in blood cells, a bone marrow transplant may provide a cure.
People with a child or a close relative who is affected may benefit from genetic counselling before planning a pregnancy.... metabolism, inborn errors of
Possible adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and tremor.... mexiletine
Treatment: directed towards stomach, liver and alimentary canal.
Teas: Centuary, Holy Thistle, Meadowsweet, Wormwood, Balmony, Agrimony, Chiretta.
Formula. Tea: equal parts, Agrimony, Meadowsweet, Dandelion root. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Decoction. 1 teaspoon Barberry bark steeped overnight in large cup cold water. One-third cup before meals, thrice daily.
Formula. Equal parts: Meadowsweet, Fringe Tree, Echinacea. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Diet. See: DIET – GENERAL DIET. ... muscae voltantes
Alternatives. Internal. Prickly Ash bark, Plantain, Mullein, Yarrow, White Willow, Black Cohosh, Guaiacum, Feverfew.
Tablets/capsules. Prickly Ash bark, Black Cohosh, Guaiacum.
Formula. White Willow 2; Black Cohosh 1; Guaiacum quarter; few grains Cayenne or drops Tincture Capsicum. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Topical. Castor oil packs. Massage oils. Gold Fire ointment, Epsom salt baths.
Supplements. Niacin, B-complex, B6, Kelp, Dolomite, Calcium, Zinc.
See: RHEUMATIC and other relative disorders for specific treatments. ... muscles
Constituents: sinigrin (black), sinalbin (white), mucilage, sinapine.
Action: diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic, rubefacient, stimulant. As a counter-irritant it induces inflammation causing dilation of blood vessels, thus increasing flow of blood to a specific area, externally.
Uses: Internal. As a tea for colds, influenza and early stage of fevers for profuse sweat to reduce a raised temperature. Hypothermia (quarter of a teaspoon powder in honey, banana mash or tea) to stimulate body heat. Today, rarely used internally.
Emetic: 1 tablespoon powder or seeds in pint tepid water.
Uses: External. As a poultice for painful chests to promote increased circulation for the relief of bronchitis, pleurisy, intercostal neuralgia. Chilblains. Cold, painful joints of old age.
Foot-bath: 1 tablespoon in muslin bag to 2 pints boiling water. Cool, stir well.
Preparations: As necessary. Quarter of a teaspoon powder to each cup boiling water (honey increases palatability).
Powder: sprinkle in boots or shoes for fisherman’s cold feet.
Oil: for cold arthritic joints: 1 part Mustard powder or seeds gently simmered in 20oz vegetable oil half hour. Strain. Bottle. external use only Internal use – practitioner only ... mustard, common
Symptoms: weakened eye muscles producing drooping eyelids (ptosis). Double vision (diplopia). Weakness of neck muscles served by the cranial nerves. Thymus gland abnormality. Difficult swallowing, chewing, slurred speech, fatigue, ‘simply cannot hold her head up’.
Lid-lag test and Tensilon tests establish diagnosis.
Treatment should give support to the thymus gland.
Alternatives. To improve nerve transmission: but not cure. Ephedra tea BHP (1983). 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes, thrice daily.
Formula. Oats 2; Ginseng 1; Sarsaparilla 1; pinch Cayenne or drops Tincture Capsicum. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Practitioner: Ephedrine.
Diet: Gluten-free. ... myasthenia gravis (mg)
An endoscope is passed down the oesophagus to confirm the diagnosis. The tear generally heals within 10 days and no special treatment is usually required. However, a blood transfusion may sometimes be necessary.... mallory–weiss syndrome
Alternative Treatment:– Tea. Combine equal parts Hawthorn flowers and leaves, Lime flowers, Motherwort. 1-2 teaspoons in each cup of boiling water; infuse 10-15 minutes. 1 cup thrice daily.
Alfalfa tea: anti-cholesterol.
Liquid Extracts. Motherwort 1; Hawthorn 2;
Valerian 3. Dose: 30-60 drops thrice daily.
Tinctures: dose, 60-120 drops.
Tincture Lily of the Vally BHP (1983). 1:5 in 40 per cent alcohol; dose: 0.5-1ml, thrice daily.
Diet. See: DIET – HEART AND CIRCULATION.
Supplements. Daily. Vitamin A 7500iu; Vitamin B6 50mg; Vitamin C 200mg; Vitamin E 400iu; Magnesium 300mg; Selenium 200mcg; Zinc 15mg. ... myocardial infarction (mi)
Members are directly involved with patient-care, carrying full responsibility for their recommendations, prescribing medication suitable to the individual biological requirements of each patient. Their role includes patient-counselling, health education and research.
Official recognition of the Institute, indicating its growing importance in the field of medicine came with the historic Grant of Arms by Her Majesty’s College of Heralds. Members regard this as evidence that the Royal Charter of King Henry VIII still stands and that there is no monopoly in healing the sick. See: HENRY VIII, HERBALISTS’ CHARTER.
The Institute played a major role in winning vital concessions for the survival of the herbalist in the passage through Parliament of the Medicine’s Bill. See: MEDICINE’S ACT, 1968.
In connection with the NIMH degree courses in herbal medicine are available at a London University, and Exeter University.
The Institute provides professional indemnity cover for its members, and is engaged in a series of clinical trials to evaluate traditional remedies.
All members are required to adhere to a strict professional Code of Ethics and are entitled to carry after their names the letters of qualification: MNIMH or FNIMH.
Members have a key role in preventative medicine and health promotion in their contribution to improvement of the nation’s health.
Address: 56 Longbrook Street, Exeter EX4 6AH, from which a list of members is obtainable. ... national institute of medical herbalists
Causes: chronic catarrh with obstruction of the Eustachian tubes of dietetic origin. Starchy foods should be severely restricted. The ear is clogged with a sticky fluid usually caused by enlarged adenoids blocking the ventilation duct which connects the cavity with the back of the throat.
Conventional treatment consists of insertion of ‘grommets’ – tiny flanged plastic tubes about one millimetre long – which are inserted into the eardrum, thus ensuring a free flow of air into the cavity.
Fluid usually disappears and hearing returns to normal.
Tre atme nt. Underlying cause treated – adenoids, tonsils, etc. Sinus wash-out with Soapwort, Elderflowers, Mullein or Marshmallow tea. Internal treatment with anti-catarrhals to disperse. Alternatives:– German Chamomile tea. (Traditional German).
Teas. Boneset, Cayenne, Coltsfoot, Elderflowers, Eyebright, Hyssop, Marshmallow leaves, Mullein, Mint, Yarrow.
Powders. Combine: Echinacea 2; Goldenseal quarter; Myrrh quarter; Liquorice half. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon), thrice daily.
Tinctures. Combine: Echinacea 2; Yarrow 1; Plantain 1. Drops: Tincture Capsicum. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily.
Topical. Castor oil drops, with cotton wool ear plugs, Oils of Garlic or Mullein. If not available, use Almond oil. Hopi Indian Ear Candles for mild suction and to impart a perceptible pressure regulation of sinuses and aural fluids.
Diet. Gluten-free diet certain. No confectionery, chocolate, etc. Salt-free. Low-starch. Milk-free. Abundance of fruits and raw green salad materials. Supplements. Vitamins A, B-complex, C. E. ... otitis media – glue ear
Vitamin B12 is found only in foods of animal origin, such as meat and dairy products. It is absorbed from the small intestine after first combining with intrinsic factor, a chemical produced by the stomach lining. The most common cause of vitamin B12 deficiency is failure of the stomach lining to produce intrinsic factor, usually due to an autoimmune disorder; this is called pernicious anaemia. Total gastrectomy (removal of the stomach) prevents production of intrinsic factor, and removal of part of the small intestine prevents B12 absorption, as does the intestinal disorder Crohn’s disease. In a minority of cases, vitamin B12 deficiency is due to a vegan diet.
Folic acid is found mainly in green vegetables and liver. The usual cause of deficiency is a poor diet. Deficiency can also be caused by anything that interferes with the absorption of folic acid from the small intestine (for example Crohn’s disease or coeliac disease). Folic acid requirements are greater than normal in pregnancy.
Many people with mild megaloblastic anaemia have no symptoms. Others may experience tiredness, headaches, a sore mouth and tongue, and mild jaundice. If B12 deficiency continues for a long time, additional symptoms due to nerve damage, including numbness and tingling in the feet, may develop.
Megaloblastic anaemia is diagnosed by blood tests and a bone marrow biopsy. Megaloblastic anaemia due to poor diet can be remedied with a short course of vitamin B12 injections or folic acid tablets and the introduction of a normal diet. A lifelong course of vitamin B12 injections or folic acid tablets is required if the underlying cause of malabsorption is untreatable.... anaemia, megaloblastic
surrounding tissues. Radionuclide scanning detects areas throughout the skeleton in which there is high bone-cell activity. This type of scanning and on the presence of cells foreign to the marrow.
It is useful in the diagnosis of many blood disorders, including leukaemia and anaemia.
It can also show whether bone marrow has been invaded by lymphoma or cells from other tumours.... bone marrow biopsy
The cervical mucus method attempts to pinpoint the fertile period by observing and charting the amount and appearance of cervical mucus during the menstrual cycle.
Recognized changes in the mucus occur before and often at ovulation.
The symptothermal method combines the temperature and cervical mucus methods.... contraception, natural methods of
A symmetrical rash of red, often itchy spots erupts on the limbs and sometimes on the face and the rest of the body. The spots may blister or form raised, pale-centred weals, called target lesions. Those affected may have a fever, sore throat, headache, and/or diarrhoea. In a severe form of erythema multiforme, known as Stevens–Johnson syndrome, the mucous membranes of the mouth, eyes, and genitals are affected and become ulcerated.
Corticosteroid drugs may be given to reduce the inflammation. People with Stevens–Johnson syndrome are also given analgesic drugs and may need intensive care.... erythema multiforme
Damage to the nerve may result from injury to the shoulder, a Colles’ fracture just above the wrist, or pressure on the nerve where it passes through the wrist (carpal tunnel syndrome).
Symptoms of damage include numbness and weakness in areas controlled by the nerve.... median nerve
GMC website: includes the Council’s guide to Good Medical Practice... general medical council
During the chronic phase, symptoms may include fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Visual disturbances, abdominal pain, and priapism may also occur. The symptoms of the more cancerous phase are like those of the acute forms of leukaemia (see leukaemia, acute). The diagnosis is made from blood tests and a bone marrow biopsy. Treatment of the chronic phase includes anticancer drugs. When the disease transforms into the acute phase, treatment is similar to that given for acute leukaemia.... leukaemia, chronic myeloid
Abnormalities in brain biochemistry, or in the structure and/or function of certain nerve pathways within the brain, could underlie manic–depressive illness. An inherited tendency is also an established causative factor.Severe manic–depressive illness often needs hospital treatment. Antidepressant drugs and/or ECT are used to treat depression, and antipsychotic drugs are given to control manic symptoms. Carbamazepine or lithium may be used to prevent relapse.
Group therapy, family therapy, and individual psychotherapy may be useful in treatment. Cognitive–behavioural therapy may also be helpful. With treatment, more than 80 per cent of patients improve or remain stable. Even those with severe illness may be restored to near normal health with lithium.... manic–depressive illness
Maternal deaths may occur as a direct result of complications of pregnancy, or indirectly due to a medical condition worsened by pregnancy. Major direct causes include pulmonary embolism, antepartum haemorrhage, postpartum haemorrhage, hypertension, eclampsia, and puerperal sepsis. Indirect causes include heart disease, epilepsy, and some cancers.
Maternal mortality is lowest for 2nd pregnancies. It rises with age, being greatest for women over 40.... maternal mortality
The discoloration is most common in elderly people and is usually symptomless, clearing up when the laxatives are stopped.
Rarely, it is associated with colon cancer (see colon, cancer of).... melanosis coli
In women, menotrophin may cause multiple pregnancy, abdominal pain, bloating, and weight gain.
In men, it may cause enlargement of the breasts.... menotrophin
Tumours usually develop on exposed skin but may occur anywhere on the body. A melanoma usually grows from an existing mole, which may enlarge, become lumpy, bleed or crust over, change colour, develop an irregular edge, turn into a scab, or become itchy. Occasionally, a melanoma develops in normal skin. The tumour often spreads to other parts of the body. Diagnosis is by a skin biopsy and the melanoma is removed surgically. Radiotherapy or anticancer drugs may also be necessary.... melanoma, malignant
Dysmenorrhoea (painful periods) is the most common type of menstrual disorder. Other types of menstrual disorder are amenorrhoea (absence of menstruation), polymenorrhoea (too frequent menstruation), oligomenorrhoea (infrequent periods or scanty blood loss), and menorrhagia (excessive bleeding).
Some women have extreme variations in the length of menstrual cycles or menstrual periods, or in the amount of blood lost (see menstruation, irregular).... menstruation, disorders of
The most common cause of irregular menstruation is a disturbed balance of oestrogen hormones and progesterone hormone. Other causes include stress, travel, a change in the method of contraception, unsuspected pregnancy, or early miscarriage.
Menstruation is often irregular for the first few years, and for several years before the menopause.... menstruation, irregular
Most admissions to mental hospitals are for acute psychiatric illness.
The majority of admissions are voluntary, but in some cases detention under the Mental Health Act may be necessary.... mental hospital
Menthol is an ingredient of several over-the-counter inhalation preparations used to treat a blocked or stuffy nose.... menthol
Side effects can include prostate problems, headache, and depression.... mesterolone
At least 20 minerals, including potassium, sodium, and calcium, are vital for health.
Some, such as iron and zinc, are needed in only tiny amounts (see trace elements).... minerals
(See also individual mineral entries.)... mineral supplements
It makes the mucus lining the cervix so thick that sperm cannot pass through.
It also has other effects that impede conception.
Possible adverse effects include irregular periods, bleeding between periods, ectopic pregnancy, and ovarian cysts.... minipill
Species causing disorders include the scabies mite, which burrows in human skin causing intense itching; the housedust mite, which can cause asthma when inhaled in dust; and chiggers (American harvest mites), which are found in thick grass and cause an itchy rash when they bite. Mites in grain or fruit may cause skin irritation, sometimes known as grocers’ or bakers’ itch.Certain mites transmit diseases, particularly scrub typhus and rickettsial pox.... mites and disease
The significance of mitochondria having their own is that diseases can be inherited via abnormalities of mitochondrial , and inheritance of the is maternal, directly from the egg.... mitochondrial dna
uterus (an invasive mole). A molar pregnancy that becomes cancerous is called a choriocarcinoma.
If the dead embryo and placenta are not expelled from the uterus after a miscarriage, the dead tissue is called a carneous mole.... molar pregnancy
They work by preventing the breakdown of certain neurotransmitters by the enzyme monoamine oxidase.
The increased levels of neurotransmitters that result are associated with improved mood.
Common drugs include phenelzine and isocarboxazid.
All MAOIs interact with certain other drugs and foods such as cheese and red wine; but moclobemide is known as a reversible , which makes the adverse reactions less likely to occur.... monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Commonly called glandular fever, it is caused by the Epstein–Barr virus and is most common during adolescence or early adulthood. One common mode of transmission is thought to be kissing.
In the body, the virus multiplies in the lymphocytes (also called mononuclear cells), which develop an atypical appearance. The first symptoms are a fever and headache, followed by swollen lymph nodes and a severe sore throat. Rarely, enlargement of the tonsils may obstruct breathing. Mild inflammation of the liver may occur, leading to jaundice.
Diagnosis is often made from the symptoms and a blood test.
Recovery usually takes 4–6 weeks, with rest the only treatment needed.
In rare cases, corticosteroid drugs are given to reduce severe inflammation, particularly if breathing is obstructed.
For 2–3 months after recovery, patients often feel depressed, lack energy, and have daytime sleepiness.... mononucleosis, infectious
As well as being irritating, mosquito bites can also transmit diseases. The main disease-transmitting mosquitoes belong to 3 groups: ANOPHELES (which transmits malaria), AEDES (which carries yellow fever), and CULEX (which transmits filariasis).
Preventive measures should be taken in any area where mosquitoes are rampant. The most effective measures are wearing long sleeves and socks, placing mosquito screens over windows, and using insect-repellent sprays or slowburning coils that release insecticidal smoke. Mosquito nets should be placed over beds. (See also insect bites; insects and disease.)... mosquito bites
Rarely, permanent dry mouth may occur as part of Sjögren’s syndrome or from radiotherapy to treat mouth cancer.
Dryness usually causes difficulty in swallowing and speaking, interference with taste, and tooth decay (see caries, dental).
It may be relieved by spraying the inside of the mouth with artificial saliva.... mouth, dry
Predisposing causes of mouth cancer are poor oral hygiene, drinking alcoholic spirits, tobacco-smoking, chewing tobacco, and inhaling snuff. Irritation from ill-fitting dentures or jagged teeth are other factors. Men are affected twice as often as women; most cases occur in men over the age of 40.
Mouth cancer usually begins with a whitish patch, called leukoplakia, or a small lump. These may cause a burning sensation, but are usually painless. As the tumour grows, it may develop into an ulcer or a deep fissure, which may bleed and erode surrounding tissue.
Diagnosis is based on a biopsy. Treatment consists of surgery, radiotherapy, or both. Extensive surgery may cause facial disfigurement and problems with eating and speaking, which may require reconstructive surgery. Radiotherapy sometimes damages the salivary glands (see mouth, dry).
When mouth cancer is detected and treated early, the outlook is good.... mouth cancer
All voluntary skeletal movements are initiated in the part of the cerebrum (main mass of the brain) called the motor cortex. Signals are sent down the spinal cord along nerve fibres, and from there along separate nerve fibres to the appropriate muscles. Control relies on information supplied by sensory nerve receptors, in the muscles and elsewhere, that record the position of the different parts of the body and the amount of contraction in each muscle. This information is integrated in specific regions of the brain (including the cerebellum and basal ganglia) that control the coordination, initiation, and cessation of movement.
Skeletal movements can also occur as simple reflexes in response to certain sensory warning signals; the movement is automatic and less controlled, involving far fewer nerve connections.
Some body movements do not involve the skeleton. For example, eye and tongue movements are brought about by contractions of muscles that are attached to soft tissues. These movements may be voluntary or reflex.
Movements of the internal organs are involuntary; they include the heartbeat and peristalsis.... movement
Plasma cells are a type of B-lymphocyte that produce immunoglobulins, which help protect against infection. In multiple myeloma, the proliferating plasma cells produce excessive amounts of one type of immunoglobulin, while production of other types is impaired. This makes infection more likely.Proliferation of the abnormal cells causes pain and destroys bone tissue.
Affected vertebrae may collapse and compress nerves, causing numbness or paralysis. Blood calcium levels increase as bone is destroyed, as may the level of one or more immunoglobulins. These changes in the blood may damage the kidneys, leading to kidney failure. There may also be anaemia and a tendency for abnormal bleeding.
The disease is diagnosed by a bone marrow biopsy, by blood tests or urinalysis, and by X-rays. Treatment includes the use of anticancer drugs, radiotherapy, and supportive measures, including blood transfusions, antibiotic drugs, and analgesic drugs.... multiple myeloma
The drugs may cause muscle weakness and drowsiness. In rare cases, dantrolene causes liver damage.... muscle-relaxant drugs
There are more than 600 muscles in the body, classified according to the type of movement they produce.
An extensor opens out a joint, a flexor closes it; an adductor draws a part of the body inwards, an abductor moves it outwards; a levator raises it, a depressor lowers it; and constrictor or sphincter muscles surround and close orifices.... muscular system
The main symptoms of myelosclerosis are those of anaemia. Enlargement of the spleen, night sweats, loss of appetite, and weight loss also commonly occur. In secondary myelosclerosis, the underlying disease may cause other symptoms. Treatment of primary myelosclerosis includes blood transfusions to relieve symptoms. A few patients may develop acute leukaemia. Treatment of secondary myelosclerosis depends on the underlying cause.... myelosclerosis
in the face). Myxoedema is usually due to hypothyroidism; in such cases, the condition is commonly accompanied by weight gain, hair loss, sensitivity to cold, and mental dullness. The term “myxoedema” is sometimes used for adult hypothyroidism.... myxoedema
The condition, also known as Charcot–Marie– Tooth disease, is caused by degeneration of some peripheral nerves.
It is more common in boys, and usually appears in late childhood or adolescence.
Muscle wasting stops halfway up the arms and legs, making them look like inverted bottles; sensation may be lost.
There is no treatment, but the sufferer rarely becomes totally incapacitated because the disease usually progresses very slowly.
Life expectancy is normal.... peroneal muscular atrophy
Twins occur in about 1 in 80 pregnancies, triplets in about 1 in 8,000, and quadruplets in about 1 in 73,000.
Multiple pregnancies are more common in women who are treated with fertility drugs or if a number of fertilized ova are implanted during in vitro fertilization.... pregnancy, multiple
Prescription-only medicines are those whose safe use is difficult to ensure without medical supervision.... prescription-only medicine
There are 2 parts: psoas major and psoas minor.
Psoas major acts to flex the hip and rotate the thigh inwards.
Psoas minor bends the spine down to the pelvis.... psoas muscle
The most common disorder of the quadriceps is a haematoma caused by a direct blow.... quadriceps muscle
Semen travels along 2 ducts to the urethra.
The ducts pass through the prostate gland, which produces secretions that are added to the semen.
At orgasm, semen is ejaculated from the urethra through the erect penis, which is placed in the woman’s vagina during sexual intercourse.... reproductive system, male
Most hazards stem from the pressure increase with depth.
Conditions treated include burst lung and decompression sickness.... scuba-diving medicine
Information on the incidence and prevalence of various conditions is an important aspect of medical statistics.... statistics, medical
Such marks, which may be temporary, are a type of haemangioma and are usually found around the eyes and at the nape of the neck.... stork mark
The accuracy of a test is based on its sensitivity (ability to correctly identify diseased subjects), specificity (ability to correctly identify healthy subjects), and predictive value.
The predictive value is determined by a mathematical formula that involves the number of accurate test results and the total number of tests performed.
The best tests have both high specificity and high sensitivity, and therefore high predictive value.... tests, medical
It is attached to the top and back of the shoulderblade and to the outermost part of the collarbone.
The trapezius helps support the neck and spine and is involved in moving the arm.... trapezius muscle
burr n. see bur.... burns–marshall manoeuvre
Guidance on good medical practice from the website of the General Medical Council... medical ethics
MHRA section of the website... medicines and healthcare products regulatory agency
mode n. see mean.... modality
mole1 n. the *SI unit of amount of substance, equal to the amount of substance that contains as many elementary units as there are atoms in 0.012 kilograms of carbon-12. The elementary units, which must be specified, may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, etc., or a specified group of such entities. One mole of a compound has a mass equal to its molecular weight expressed in grams. Symbol: mol.
mole2 n. a nonmalignant collection of pigmented cells in the skin. Moles are rare in infancy, increase in numbers during childhood and especially in adolescence, but decline in numbers in old age. They vary widely in appearance, being flat or raised, smooth or hairy. Changes in the shape, colour, etc., of moles in adult life should be investigated as this may be an early sign of malignant *melanoma. Medical name: pigmented naevus. See also atypical mole syndrome.... molar solution
os1 n. (pl. ossa) a bone.
os2 n. (pl. ora) the mouth or a mouthlike part.... ortolani manoeuvre
Details of surrogacy at the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority website... surrogate mother
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: O. mixta, Anthemis mixta, Moroccan chamomile.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A handsome plant, 90 to 125 cms high with very hairy leaves and tubular yellow flowers, surrounded by white ligulets.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to north west Africa and southern Spain, having probably evolved from the very common Ormenis species which grows all around the Mediterranean. Also found growing on the plains in Israel. The oil is distilled in Morocco.
OTHER SPECIES: It is distantly related to the German and Roman chamomile botanically, although it does not resemble them physically.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This is one of the more recent oils to appear on the market, and as such it does not have a long history of usage. The oil is often mistaken for a ‘true’ chamomile, though it should more correctly be called ‘Ormenis oil’ since: ‘Chemically and olfactorily, the oil is distinctly different from the German or the Roman chamomile oils, and cannot be considered as a replacement for them.’.
ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, cholagogue, emmenagogue, hepatic, sedative.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: Pale yellow to brownish yellow mobile liquid with a fresh-herbaceous top note and a sweet rich-balsamic undertone. It blends well with cypress, lavender, lavandin, vetiver, cedarwood, oakmoss, labdanum, olibanum and artemisia oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Unknown.
SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic and non-irritant – more specific safety data is unavailable at present.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE ‘Sensitive skin, colic, colitis, headache, insomnia, irritability, migraine, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, menopause, liver and spleen congestion.’. Little is known about its therapeutic history and usage.
OTHER USES: Employed extensively in perfumery work, especially in colognes, chypres and fougère fragrance.... chamomile, maroc
FAMILY: Ericaceae
SYNONYMS: Ledum, Labrador tea, marsh tea, swamp tea, bog Labrador tea, rusty Labrador tea, Hudson’s Bay tea (formerly Ledum groenlandicum).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: This beautiful, hardy plant is a shrub belonging to the heather family, which can reach one metre in height. It is recognizable by its thick, leathery evergreen leaves whose edges coil under and are quite unique, being deep green on top with a downy-fuzz beneath. New leaves have a woolly mat of white hairs underneath; mature leaves have reddish hairs. All leaves are dotted with resinous glands and are fragrant, with a pungent scent, when crushed. The fluffy white flowers, which are borne in spring, are also strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: The plant is native to North America, from Greenland and Labrador across to Alaska, as far north as the treeline. It is absent from the far North and the dry prairies. The Latin name groenlandicum refers to the fact that it grows in Greenland where it is still widespread, often growing in dense colonies.
OTHER SPECIES: Ledum is a genus name, which includes 8 species of evergreen shrubs native to cool temperate and sub-arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere, commonly known as Labrador tea. The common name Ledum is also applied to Rhododendron tomentsum subsp. subarcticum (formerly L. decumbens) which is known as Northern Labrador tea. This species, which is similar but slightly smaller, grows farther north on tundra at up to 1,800 metres and contains toxic alkaloids known to be poisonous to livestock. It lacks the characteristic fuzz on the underside of the mature leaves and the flowers of L. groenlandicum.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This strongly aromatic herb has been used in folk medicine for centuries. Brewed as a medicinal beverage known as Labrador tea, it was used by practically all Canada’s First Nations peoples as a tonic and to treat certain respiratory, digestive and kidney ailments; as a remedy for headaches and various types of rheumatism; and to facilitate childbirth. The herbal tea also served to clean wounds and was applied to insect bites. It is said that the plant was used for over 5,000 years by the native people of North America, to protect themselves from scurvy, and the Cree used it for fevers and colds: indeed it was regarded as a ‘cure-all’ by the indigenous people. In the fur-trading era, the French Canadian coureurs-de-bois used Labrador tea to extend their supplies of black tea: it thus became a substitute for unaffordable Chinese tea during times of economic crisis. However, like other plants in the heather family, Greenland moss contains an andromedo-toxin that can cause poisoning if used in excess.
According to recent clinical trials, Greenland moss essential oil has a natural affinity for the immune system and can be an effective immune system supporter. The oil also helps counteract blood toxicity and aids liver regeneration, valuable in cases of liver intoxication originating from circulation disorders, viral hepatitis, enteritis and cirrhosis (fatty liver). Clinical research suggests that the essential oil functions like an enzyme in the liver, digesting toxic waste and fat molecules. It is also indicated for obesity, oedema, water retention and thyroid regulation. The oil has also been studied at the University of Quebec, and was found to be a strong antioxidant and natural anti-inflammatory: it also showed anticancer activity against colon carcinoma and lung carcinoma cells.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antibacterial, anticancerous, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumoral, antispasmodic, antioxidant, anti-infectious, antiseptic, carminative, cicatrizing, decongestant, digestive tonic, immune support, liver support, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Greenland moss oil is extracted by steam distillation from the leaves.
CHARACTERISTICS: A clear, pale-yellow liquid, with a fresh-herbaceous, medicinal and slightly sweet aroma and earthy-woody undertones.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The main chemical constituents are limonene (up to 35 per cent), sabinene, selinene, bornyl acetate with other monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes.
SAFETY DATA: Possible skin sensitization: always dilute for topical use. Avoid during pregnancy and by children. NB: Abusive consumption of the tea derived from its leaves may cause indigestion, and may even have a toxic effect due to the high level of tannins that it contains.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Allergies, skin problems.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Aching muscles and joints.
Respiratory System: Colds, coughs, bronchitis, hoarseness, influenza, laryngitis.
Digestive System: Addictions, alcoholism, allergies, cellulite, fatty liver, hepatitis (viral), hypothyroid, liver problems (toxic liver, support and detoxifier), lymph nodes (inflamed), obesity, thyroid regulation and water retention.
Immune System: Tonic and immune support.
Nervous System: Anxiety, nervous debility tension.
OTHER USES: The plant is still used as a local ‘tea plant’ in parts of the Northern Hemisphere.... greenland moss
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: C. nobilis, C. madurensis, C. unshiu, C. deliciosa, European mandarin, true mandarin, tangerine, satsuma.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small evergreen tree up to 6 metres high with glossy leaves, fragrant flowers and bearing fleshy fruit. The tangerine is larger than the mandarin and rounder, with a yellower skin, more like the original Chinese type.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern China and the Far East. Brought to Europe in 1805 and to America forty years later, where it was renamed the tangerine. The mandarin is produced mainly in Italy, Spain, Algeria, Cyprus, Greece, the Middle East and Brazil; the tangerine in Texas, Florida, California and Guinea.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many cultivars within this species: the terms tangerine (C. reticulata) and mandarin are used somewhat interchangeably, as is the word satsuma. They could be said to represent different chemotypes since the oils are quite different; see the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name comes from the fruit which was a traditional gift to the Mandarins of China. In France it is regarded as a safe children’s remedy for indigestion, hiccoughs, etc, and also for the elderly since it helps strengthen the digestive function and liver.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by cold expression from the outer peel. A mandarin petitgrain oil is also produced in small quantities by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: Mandarin oil is a yellowy-orange mobile liquid with a blue-violet hint, having an intensely sweet, almost floral citrus scent. It blends well with other citrus oils, especially neroli, and spice oils such as nutmeg, cinnamon and clove. Tangerine oil is an orange mobile liquid with a fresh, sweet, orangelike aroma. It has less body than mandarin and is little used in perfumery work.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Limonene, methyl methylanthranilate, geraniol, citral, citronella!, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Possibly phototoxic, although it has not been demonstrated decisively.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, congested and oily skin, scars, spots, stretch marks, toner.
Circulation muscles and joints: Fluid retention, obesity.
Digestive system: Digestive problems, dyspepsia, hiccoughs, intestinal problems.
Nervous system: Insomnia, nervous tension, restlessness. It is often used for children and pregnant women and is recommended in synergistic combinations with other citrus oils.
OTHER USES: Mandarin oil is used in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially colognes. It is employed as a flavouring agent especially in sweets, soft drinks and liqueurs.... mandarin
FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS: Common melilot, yellow melilot, white melilot, corn melilot, melilot trefoil, sweet clover, plaster clover, sweet lucerne, wild laburnum, king’s clover, melilotin (oleoresin).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A bushy perennial herb up to 1 metre high with smooth erect stems, trifoliate oval leaves and small sweet-scented white or yellow flowers. The scent of the flowers becomes stronger on drying.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and Asia Minor. Other similar species are found in Asia, the USA and Africa. The flowers are mainly cultivated in England, France, Germany and the USSR.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several similar species such as M. arvensis, the oil of which is also used in perfumery and flavouring work.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The leaves and shoots are used on the Continent for conditions which include sleeplessness, thrombosis, nervous tension, varicose veins, intestinal disorders, headache, earache and indigestion. In the form of an ointment or plaster, it is used externally for inflamed or swollen joints, abdominal and rheumatic pain, also bruises, cuts and skin eruptions.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent, emollient, expectorant, digestive, insecticidal (against moth), sedative.
EXTRACTION: A concrete (usually called a resinoid or oleoresin) by solvent extraction from the dry flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS: A viscous dark green liquid with a rich, sweet-herbaceous ‘new mown hay’ scent.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly coumarins – melilotic acid and orthocoumaric acid. Safety data in 1953 in some countries including the USA, coumarin was banned from use in flavourings due to toxicity levels. Some coumarins are also known to be phototoxic.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in high-class perfumery work. Extensively used for flavouring tobacco in countries without the coumarin ban.... melilotus
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: New Zealand tea tree, kahikatoa, red manuka, manex.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The Manuka plant is an elegant, bushy evergreen shrub with deep green small spiky leaves that bears small flowers of white to pink in colour. The blossom is produced from September to February and most profusely in the later months. Its size ranges from a creeping plant to a small tree – trees can reach heights of up to 8 metres, especially when found within dense woodland. The leaves and flowers are strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Manuka is the only Leptospermum species native to New Zealand, where it is widely distributed in various climatic and altitudinal zones. The physical characteristics, such as flower and leaf colour, leaf size and shape, branching habit, and foliage density vary considerably among populations. The plant can now be found in Australia where it seems to acclimatize well to varied terrain from marshland to dry mountain slopes. The essential oil is generally harvested from wild plants, as little farming of Manuka is currently undertaken.
OTHER SPECIES: The family Myrtaceae yields many valuable essential oils including eucalyptus, myrtle and tea tree. Another native tree of New Zealand called kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), sometimes called white or tree manuka, although superficially similar to L. scoparium in that both are collectively known as ‘tea trees’, is actually genetically a very distinct species. Kanuka in its typical form can grow into a tree up to 30 metres tall. It is also used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: For centuries, New Zealand Maori have used manuka to treat a wide range of complaints. Early New Zealand records indicate that the plant’s bark, leaves, sap and seed capsules were used in beverages and medicinal preparations. A decoction of the leaves was drunk for urinary complaints and as a febrifuge. The steam from leaves boiled in water was inhaled for head colds. A decoction was prepared from the leaves and bark and the warm liquid was rubbed on stiff muscles and aching joints. The emollient white gum, called ‘pai manuka’, was given to nursing babies and also used to treat scalds and burns. Chewing the bark is said to have a relaxing effect and enhance sleep. It is said that Captain James Cook used the leaves of the plant as a tea to combat scurvy during long explorations of the southern hemisphere; later, early European settlers of New Zealand adopted Captain Cook’s use of the plant as a tea.
Recently, scientists have confirmed that manuka oil is up to 33 times stronger than tea tree essential oil for protecting against specific strains of bacteria; it is also effective against the MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staph. Aureus) bacteria, which is resistant to normal antibiotics.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antibacterial, antibiotic, antifungal, antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious, antimicrobial, antiseptic, astringent, deodorant, digestive, expectorant, immune stimulant, insecticide, sedative, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves, twigs and branches.
CHARACTERISTICS: A mobile liquid with a distinctive fresh, spicy, herbaceous aroma with a honey-like sweetness. It blends well with bay leaf, bergamot, black pepper, cajuput, cedarwood atlas, cinnamon, clove bud, elemi, ginger, juniper, lavender, nutmeg, peppermint, rose, rosemary, sandalwood, thyme, vetiver and ylang ylang.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The main active constituents of manuka oil are isoleptospermone, ?-pinene, ?-pinene, myrcene, ?-cymene, 1,8-cineole, linalol, methylcinnamate, ?-farnesine, isoleptospermone, leptospermone, sesquiterpenes such as cadina-3, 5-diene and ?-amorphene, and triketones. However, within the species of manuka there are at least nine different chemotypes: oil which contains high levels of triketones, found in the East Cape area of North Island in New Zealand appears to possess the greatest antimicrobial potential. Other chemotypes however are thought to reveal greater anti-inflammatory and analgesic tendencies. It is important to be aware of these various chemotypes when selecting an oil for therapeutic purposes.
SAFETY DATA: Generally it is thought to be non-sensitizing, non-toxic, and non-irritant. It can in some individuals, produce mild irritation but has a low irritancy compared to Australian tea tree oil. Avoid use during pregnancy because of spasmolytic activity.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, abscesses, athlete’s foot skin, bed sores, blisters, boils, burns, carbuncles, cold sores, cracked skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, fungal infections, insect bites and stings, lice, nail infections, oily skin, pimples, ringworm, sores, sunburn, tinea and ulcers.
Circulation, muscles and joints: Aches and pains, muscular tension, sprains and stiffness in joints, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Coughs, cold, ’flu congestion, as well as asthma and hayfever.
Immune system: Tonic
Nervous system: Nervous debility.
OTHER USES: The essential oil is much used in phyto-cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations mainly for its potent antimicrobial properties. Commercial development of the essential oil has led to a range of products for the topical treatment of various conditions including joint pain, eczema and psoriasis. The oil is also used in perfumes and soaps. The scented flowers of the shrub attract bees, which are used for making the popular manuka honey.... manuka
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Marjorana hortensis, knotted marjoram.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender bushy perennial plant (cultivated as an annual in colder climates), up to 60 cms high with a hairy stem, dark green oval leaves and small greyish white flowers in clusters or ‘knots’. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, Egypt and North Africa. Major oil-producing countries include France, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anaphrodisiac, antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cordial, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypotensive, laxative, nervine, sedative, stomachic, tonic, vasodilator, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried flowering herb. An oleoresin is also produced in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or amber coloured mobile liquid with a warm, woody, spicy camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavender, rosemary, bergamot, chamomile, cypress, cedarwood, tea tree and eucalyptus.
OTHER SPECIES: There is a great deal of confusion regarding the various species of marjoram or oregano. The most common types are the pot or French marjoram (Origanum onites or Marjorana onites), which is a hardier plant than the sweet marjoram and of a spreading nature; the Spanish marjoram or oregano (Thymus mastichina) and the wild or common marjoram or oregano (Origanum vulgare) which is used to produce the so-called ‘oregano oil’. See entries on common oregano, Spanish oregano and also the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional culinary herb and folk remedy. It was used by the ancient Greeks in their fragrances, cosmetics and medicines; the name oregano derives from a Greek word meaning ‘joy of the mountains’. lt is a versatile herb which has a soothing, fortifying and warming effect; it aids digestive and menstrual problems, as well as nervous and respiratory complaints.
It is ‘comforting in cold diseases of the head, stomach, sinews and other parts, taken inwardly or outwardly applied ... helps diseases of the chest, obstructions of the liver and spleen.’. It is also very helpful for muscular and rheumatic pain, sprains, strains, stiff joints, bruises, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinenes, terpineol, sabinenes, linalol, carvacrol, linalyl acetate, ocimene, cadinene, geranyl acetate, citral, eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Not to be used during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains, bruises, ticks.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, lumbago, muscular aches and stiffness, rheumatism, sprains, strains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, PMT.
Immune system: Colds.
Nervous system: Headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: The oil and oleoresin are used as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed in most major food categories, especially meats, seasonings and sauces, as well as soft drinks and alcoholic beverages such as vermouths and bitters.... marjoram, sweet
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Field mint, Japanese mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A rather fragile herb with leafy stems up to 60 cms high, lance-shaped leaves and lilac-coloured flowers borne in clustered whorls in the axils of the upper leaves.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Japan and China); naturalized in North America. Major producers of the oil include China, Brazil, Argentina, India and Vietnam.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties and chemotypes of this herb, which is used for large-scale oil production, such as the Chinese type M. arvensis var. glabrata, and the Japanese species M. arvensis var. piperascens.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is used therapeutically in many of the same ways as peppermint; the bruised leaves are applied to the forehead to relieve nervous headache. In the East it is used to treat rheumatic pain, neuralgia, toothache, laryngitis, indigestion, colds and bronchitis. In Chinese medicine, it is also employed for relieving earache, treating tumours and some skin conditions.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cytotoxic, digestive, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb. The oil is usually dementholized since it contains so much menthol that it is otherwise solid at room temperature.
CHARACTERISTICS: Dementholized oil – a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a strong, fresh, bitter-sweet minty odour, somewhat like peppermint.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Menthol (70–95 per cent), menthane (10–20 per cent), pinene, menthyl acetate, isomenthone, thujone, phellandrene, piperitone and menthofuran, among others. Constituents vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration); may cause sensitization in some individuals. Menthol is a dermal irritant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. Use peppermint in preference, since it is not fractionated like the commercial cornmint oil and has a more refined fragrance.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical preparations, such as cough lozenges, herb teas and syrups, mainly in the form of menthol. Extensively employed in soaps, toothpastes, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes and especially industrial fragrances. Used by the food industry especially for flavouring confectionery, liqueurs and chewing gum. However, it is mainly used for the isolation of natural menthol.... mint, cornmint
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Brandy mint, balm mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb up to 1 metre high with underground runners by which it is easily propagated. The ‘white’ peppermint has green stems and leaves; the ‘black’ peppermint has dark green serrated leaves, purplish stems and reddish-violet flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Originally a cultivated hybrid between M. viridis and M. aquatica, known to have been propagated from before the seventeenth century in England. Naturalized throughout Europe and America, it is cultivated worldwide. The oil is produced mainly in France, England, America, Russia, Bulgaria, Italy, Hungary, Morocco and China.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different strains or chemotypes of peppermint. In addition there are numerous other species of mint, such as spearmint, apple mint, pennyroyal, water mint and pineapple mint – some of which are used to produce essential oils (see Botanical Classification section). Peppermints grown in northern regions, including the Mitcham peppermint, are considered of superior quality.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Mints have been cultivated since ancient times in China and Japan. In Egypt evidence of a type of peppermint has been found in tombs dating from 1000 BC. It has been used extensively in Eastern and Western medicine for a variety of complaints, including indigestion, nausea, sore throat, diarrhoea, headaches, toothaches and cramp.
It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for intestinal colic, flatulence, common cold, vomiting in pregnancy and dysmenorrhoea.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antipruritic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, cordial, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stomachic, sudorific, vasoconstrictor, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb (approx. 3–4 per cent yield).
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or greenish liquid with a highly penetrating, grassy-minty camphoraceous odour. It blends well with benzoin, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, lemon, eucalyptus and other mints.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Menthol (29–48 per cent), menthane (20–31 per cent), menthyl acetate, menthofuran, limonene, pulegone, cineol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization due to menthol. Use in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, ringworm, scabies, toothache.
Circulation muscles and joints: Neuralgia, muscular pain, palpitations.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, halitosis, sinusitis, spasmodic cough – ‘When inhaled (in steam) it checks catarrh temporarily, and will provide relief from head colds and bronchitis: its antispasmodic action combines well with this to make it a most useful inhalation in asthma.’.
Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, fevers.
Nervous system: Fainting, headache, mental fatigue, migraine, nervous stress, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals, and ingredient in cough, cold and digestive remedies. Flavouring agent in many foods, especially chewing gum and sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks; also widely used to flavour tobacco. Fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics, colognes and perfumes.... mint, peppermint
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: M. viridis, common spearmint, garden spearmint, spire mint, green mint, lamb mint, pea mint, fish mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hardy branched perennial herb with bright green, lance-shaped, sharply toothed leaves, quickly spreading underground runners and pink or lilac-coloured flowers in slender cylindrical spikes.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now common throughout Europe, western Asia and the Middle East. It was introduced to the USA where it has become a very popular flavouring. The oil is produced in midwest USA, Hungary, Spain, Yugoslavia, the USSR and China.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different types of spearmint, especially in the USA, such as the curly mint (M. spicata var. crispa). In Russia the oil from M. verticellata is also sold as spearmint oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Valued all over the world as a culinary herb, as shown by its folk names. It was used by the ancient Greeks as a restorative and to scent their bathwater. The distilled water is used to relieve hiccough, colic, nausea, indigestion and flatulence. ‘Applied to the forehead and temples, it eases the pains in the head, and is good to wash the heads of young children with, against all manner of breakings out, sores or scabs ... being smelled unto, it is comforting to the head.’.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic (local), antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, decongestant, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive mobile liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, minty odour. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, jasmine, eucalyptus, basil and rosemary and is often used in combination with peppermint.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: L-carvone (50–70 per cent), dihydrocarvone, phellandrene, limonene, menthone, menthol, pulegone, cineol, linalol, pinenes, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE ‘The properties of spearmint oil resemble those of peppermint but its effects are less powerful ... it is better adapted to children’s maladies.’.
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, congested skin.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, sinusitis.
Digestive system: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatobiliary disorders, nausea, vomiting.
Immune system: Colds, fevers, ’flu.
Nervous system: Fatigue, headache, migraine, nervous strain, neurasthenia, stress.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component, mainly in soaps and colognes. Primarily used as a flavour ingredient in a wide range of products, including toothpaste, chewing gum, sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks.... mint, spearmint
FAMILY: Anacardiaceae
SYNONYMS: Peruvian pepper, Peruvian mastic, Californian pepper tree.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical evergreen tree up to 20 metres high with graceful, drooping branches, feathery foliage and fragrant yellow flowers. The berries or fruit have an aromatic, peppery flavour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America; found growing wild in Mexico, Peru, Guatemala and other tropical regions, including California. It has been introduced into North and South Africa and the Mediterranean region. The fruits are collected for essential oil production in Spain, Guatemala and Mexico.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus) – see entry on mastic.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Greece and other Mediterranean countries an intoxicating beverage is made from the fruits of the tree. The fruit is also used as a substitute for black pepper in the growing areas. During World War II, the oil of black pepper was unavailable and was consequently replaced by schinus molle.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruit or berries. (An oil from the leaves is also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale green or olive, oily liquid with a warm, woody-peppery scent with a smoky undertone. It blends well with oakmoss, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, black pepper and eucalyptus.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly phellandrene, also caryophyllene, pinene and carvacrol.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See black pepper.
OTHER USES: Used as a substitute for black pepper in perfumery and flavouring work.... schinus molle
Accumulation of toxins (M,S,B):
Angelica, white birch, carrot seed, celery seed, coriander, cumin, sweet fennel, grapefruit, juniper, lovage, parsley.
Aches and pains (M,C,B):
Ambrette, star anise, aniseed, French basil, West Indian bay, cajeput, calamintha, camphor (white), chamomile (German & Roman), coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, galbanum, ginger, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), niaouli, nutmeg, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), hemlock spruce, thyme, turmeric, turpentine, vetiver.
Arthritis (M,S,C,B):
Allspice, angelica, benzoin, white birch, cajeput, camphor (white), carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, guaiacwood, juniper, lemon, sweet marjoram, mastic, myrrh, nutmeg, parsley, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, Spanish sage, thyme, tumeric, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.
Cellulitis (M,S,B):
White birch, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lemon, parsley, rosemary, thyme.
Debility/poor muscle tone (M,S,B):
Allspice, ambrette, borneol, ginger, grapefruit, sweet marjoram, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, Spanish sage.
Gout (M,S,B):
Angelica, French basil, benzoin, carrot seed, celery seed, coriander, guaiacwood, juniper, lovage, mastic, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, thyme, turpentine.
High blood pressure & hypertension (M,B,V):
cananga, garlic, true lavender, lemon, sweet marjoram, melissa, clary sage, yarrow, ylang ylang.
Muscular cramp & stiffness (M,C,B):
Allspice, ambrette, coriander, cypress, grapefruit, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, thyme, vetiver.
Obesity (M,B):
White birch, sweet fennel, juniper, lemon, mandarin, orange (bitter & sweet).
Oedema & water retention (M,B):
Angelica, white birch, carrot seed, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lavage, mandarin, orange (bitter & sweet), rosemary, Spanish sage.
Palpitations (M):
Neroli, orange (bitter & sweet), rose (cabbage & damask), ylang ylang.
Poor circulation & low blood pressure (M,B):
Ambrette, Peru balsam, West Indian bay, benzoin, white birch, borneol, cinnamon leaf, coriander, cumin, cypress, eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, geranium, ginger, lemon, lemongrass, lovage, neroli, niaouli, nutmeg, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, thyme, violet.
Rheumatism (M,C,B):
Allspice, angelica, star anise, aniseed, Peru balsam, French basil, West Indian bay, benzoin, white birch, borneol, cajeput, calamintha, camphor (white), carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, clove bud, coriander, cypress, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), sweet fennel, silver fir, galbanum, ginger, immortelle, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lovage, sweet marjoram, mastic, niaouli, nutmeg, parsley, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, thyme, turmeric, turpentine, vetiver, violet, yarrow.
Sprains & strains (C):
West Indian bay, borneol, camphor (white), chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), ginger, immortelle, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, thyme, turmeric, vetiver.... circulation, muscles and joints:
Health Encyclopedia