A detailed review and evaluation of selected clinical records by qualified professional personnel for the purpose of evaluating the quality of medical care.... medical audit

A file kept for each patient, maintained by the hospital (medical practitioners also maintain medical records in their own practices), which documents the patient’s problems, diagnostic procedures, treatment and outcome. Related documents, such as written consent for surgery and other procedures, are also included in the record. In addition to facts about a patient’s illness, medical records nearly always contain other information such as clinical, demographic, sociocultural, sociological, economic, administrative and behavioural data. The record may be on paper or computerized.... medical record

Under the strict legal de?nition, negligence must involve proving a clearly established duty of care which has been breached in a way that has resulted in injury or harm to the recipient of care. There does not need to be any malicious intention. Whether or not a particular injury can be attributed to medical negligence, or must simply be accepted as a reasonable risk of the particular treatment, depends upon an assessment of whether the doctor has fallen below the standard expected of practitioners in the particular specialty. A defence to such a claim is that a respected body of practitioners would have acted in the same way (even though the majority might not) and in doing so would have acted logically.... medical negligence

A statutory body in the United Kingdom that promotes the balanced development of medical and related biological research and aims to advance knowledge that will lead to improved health care. It employs its own research sta? in more than 40 research establishments. These include the National Institute for Medical Research, the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, and the Clinical Sciences Centre. Grants are provided so that individual scientists can do research which complements the research activities of hospitals and universities. There are several medical charities and foundations – for example, the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, the British Heart Foundation, the Nu?eld Laboratories and the Wellcome Trust which fund and foster medical research.... medical research council

See LIVING WILL.... advance statements about medical treatment

Alfalfa tea is known for more than 2000 years and its benefits are shown by recent studies to be good in treating ailments such as kidney stones or arthritis. Alfalfa: the plant and the tea Alfalfa, literally meaning “the father of plants”, is also known as lucerne, holy-hay or trefoil. It has a high nutritional content, and is best known for possessing A, B, C, D, E and K vitamins. This plant has been originally used only as horse feed, but due to its nutritional benefits its usage has been extended to human consumption too. It proved to be a good soil fertilizer, especially a plant growth regulator. As part of the human diet, at first, it was used to promote appetite and stop bleeding, but further studies have revealed many other health benefits. Alfalfa tea is the beverage resulting from brewing the dried herbs. Brewing Alfalfa Tea To make Alfalfa tea:

• take the dried leaves
• soak them in boiling water
• steep them for 10 to 15 minutes (depending on the quantity and flavor preferences)

Consumers described the taste of the resulting Alfalfa tea as refreshing and pleasant to drink. For medicinal purposes, it is advisable to have 5,000 to 10,000 mg of alfalfa leaves steeped three times a day. Another efficient way of intaking Alfalfa is through herbal supplements, like tablets or capsules. Alfalfa Tea benefits Alfalfa tea is successfully used to:

• lower cholesterol levels
• help keep calcium in bones and out of artery linings
• help lower blood sugar levels
• help in treatment of upset stomach
• alleviate kidney and bladder woes
• stimulate the immune system
• purify the blood
• carry intestinal waste out of the body
• reduce cancer risks

Alfalfa Tea side effects Studies have shown that consuming Alfalfa tea, especially in high doses,could have side effects, such as: breaking down red blood cells, aggravating or even causing symptoms similar to systemic lupus erythematosus disease (SLE). The abovementioned tea is not recommended to pregnant or nursing women, and its administration is not advisable to children suffering from diabetes or autoimmune disease. Alfalfa tea is a modern cure for a large array of diseases. It is also largely used as cattle food, due to its nutritional content.... alfalfa tea: a nutritional tea

A complete system of theory and practices that has evolved independently of, and often prior to, the conventional biological approach. Many are traditional systems of medicine that are practised by individual cultures throughout the world. Traditional Oriental medicine and Ayurveda, India’s traditional system of medicine, are two examples.... alternative medical system

See APPENDIX 8: PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS.

British National Formulary (BNF)

A pocket-book for those concerned with the prescribing, dispensing and administration of medicines in Britain. It is produced jointly by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society and the British Medical Association, is revised twice yearly and is distributed to NHS doctors by the Health Departments. The BNF is also available in electronic form.... british medical association (bma)

Systematically developed statements which assist clinicians and patients to decide on appropriate treatments for speci?c conditions. The guidelines are attractive to health managers and patients because they are potentially able to reduce variation in clinical practice. This helps to ensure that patients receive the right treatment of an acceptable standard. In England and Wales, the NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL EXCELLENCE (NICE) is developing national guidelines with advice from health-care professionals and patients to improve clinical e?ectiveness of NHS care. Some doctors have reservations about guidelines because (1) health-care managers might use them primarily to contain costs; (2) in?exibility would discourage clinical innovations; (3) they could encourage litigation by patients. (See also HEALTH CARE COMMISSION; MEDICAL LITIGATION.)... clinical guidelines

A systematically developed statement to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for one or more specific clinical circumstances.... clinical practice guideline

Guidelines for doctors on the provision of good medical care laid down by the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC).... good medical practice

A direction or principle representing current or future rules of policy and clinical practice. Generally a comprehensive guide to problems and approaches in any field of activity. Guidelines are more specific and more detailed than guiding principles, on which they are based.... guideline

Herbal Medical

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... herbal medical

Equipment, such as hospital beds, wheelchairs and prosthetics, provided by an agency and used at home.... home medical equipment

An executive agency of the Department of Health in the UK. Set up in 1994, it is responsible for regulating and advising on the sale or use of any product, other than a medicine, used in the health-care environment for the diagnosis, prevention, monitoring or treatment of illness or disease. Equipment ranges from pacemakers (see CARDIAC PACEMAKER) to prostheses (see PROSTHESIS), and from syringes to magnetic resonance imaging (see (MRI).... medical devices agency

Treatment that is usually considered unable to produce the desired benefit either because it cannot achieve its physiological aim or because the burdens of the treatment are considered to outweigh the benefits for the particular individual. There are necessary value judgements involved in coming to an assessment of futility. These judgements must consider the individual’s, or proxy’s, assessment of worthwhile outcome. They should also take into account the medical practitioner or other provider’s perception of intent in treatment. They may also take into account community and institutional standards, which in turn may have used physiological or functional outcome measures.... futile medical treatment

A statutory body of elected and appointed medical practitioners and appointed lay members with the responsibility of protecting patients and guiding doctors in their professional practice. Set up by parliament in 1858 – at the request of the medical profession, which was concerned by the large numbers of untrained people practising as doctors – the GMC is responsible for setting educational and professional standards; maintaining a register of quali?ed practitioners; and disciplining doctors who fail to maintain appropriate professional standards, cautioning them or temporarily or permanently removing them from the Medical Register if they are judged un?t to practise.

The Council is funded by doctors’ annual fees and is responsible to the Privy Council. Substantial reforms of the GMC’s structure and functions have been and are still being undertaken to ensure that it operates e?ectively in today’s rapidly evolving medical and social environment. In particular, the Council has strengthened its supervisory and disciplinary functions, and among many changes has proposed the regular revalidation of doctors’ professional abilities on a periodic basis. The Medical Register, maintained by the GMC, is intended to enable the public to identify whom it is safe to approach to obtain medical services. Entry on the Register shows that the doctor holds a recognised primary medical quali?cation and is committed to upholding the profession’s values. Under revalidation requirements being ?nalised, in addition to holding an initial quali?cation, doctors wishing to stay on the Register will have to show their continuing ?tness to practise according to the professional attributes laid down by the GMC.

Once revalidation is fully established, there will be four categories of doctor:

Those on the Register who successfully show their ?tness to practise on a regular basis.

Those whose registration is limited, suspended or removed as a result of the Council’s disciplinary procedures.

Those who do not wish to stay on the Register or retain any links with the GMC.

Those, placed on a supplementary list, who do not wish to stay on the main Register but who want to retain a formal link with the medical profession through the Council. Such doctors will not be able to practise or prescribe.... general medical council (gmc)

These are UK bodies that provide doctors with advice and, where appropriate, ?nancial support in defending claims for medical negligence in their clinical practice. They also advise doctors on all legal aspects of their work, including patients’ complaints, and provide representation for members called to account by the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC) or other regulatory body. The sharp rise in claims for medical negligence in the NHS in the 1980s persuaded the UK Health Departments to introduce a risk-pooling system called the Clinical Negligence Scheme for Trusts, and the defence societies liaise with this scheme when advising their doctor members on responding to claims of negligence (see MEDICAL LITIGATION; MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE).... medical defence organisations

Medical Dictionary

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... medical dictionary

An error or omission in the medical care provided to an individual. Medical errors can occur in diagnosis, treatment, preventive monitoring or in the failure of a piece of medical equipment or another component of the medical system. Often, but not always, medical errors result in adverse events such as injury or death. See also “malpractice”; and “incidence monitoring and reporting”.... medical error

See INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE.... medical informatics

See ONCOLOGY.... medical oncology

Descriptive tool or standardized specification for care of an older person in a typical situation developed through a formal process that incorporates the best scientific evidence of effectiveness with expert opinion.... practice guideline

See “futile medical treatment”; “advanced directive”.... withholding / withdrawing medical treatment

See ETHICS.... world medical association

Quarterly publication of the National Herbalists Association of Australia. Australian medicinal plants, Government reports, case studies, books, plant abstracts. For subscription details and complimentary copy of the Journal contact: NHAA, PO Box 65, Kingsgrove NSW 2208, Australia. Tel: +61(02) 502 2938. Annual subscription (Aus) $40 (overseas applicants include $15 for air mail, otherwise sent by sea mail). ... australian journal of medical herbalism

This term is used to de?ne the process of learning and knowledge-acquisition in the study of medicine. It also encompasses the expertise required to develop education and training for students and learners in all aspects of medical health care. Studies for undergraduate students, postgraduate students and individual health-care practitioners, from the initial stages to the ongoing development of a career in medicine or associated health ?elds, are also included in medical education. The word ‘pedagogy’ is sometimes applied to this process.

A range of research investigations has developed within medical education. These apply to course monitoring, audit, development and validation, assessment methodologies and the application of educationally appropriate principles at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Research is undertaken by medical educationalists whose backgrounds include teaching, social sciences and medicine and related health-care specialties, and who will hold a medical or general educational diploma, degree or other appropriate postgraduate quali?cation.

Development and validation for all courses are an important part of continuing accreditation processes. The relatively conservative courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including diplomas and postgraduate quali?cations awarded by the specialist medical royal colleges (responsible for standards of specialist education) and universities, have undergone a range of reassessment and rede?nition driven by the changing needs of the individual practitioner in the last decade. The stimuli to change aspects of medical training have come from the government through the former Chief Medical O?cer, Sir Kenneth Calman, and the introduction of new approaches to specialist training (the Calman programme), from the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC) and its document Tomorrow’s Doctors, as well as from the profession itself through the activities of the British Medical Association and the medical royal colleges. The evolving expectations of the public in their perception of the requirements of a doctor, and changes in education of other groups of health professionals, have also led to pressures for changes.

Consequently, many new departments and units devoted to medical education within university medical schools, royal colleges and elsewhere within higher education have been established. These developments have built upon practice developed elsewhere in the world, particularly in North America, Australia and some European countries. Undergraduate education has seen application of new educational methods, including Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester; clinical and communications skills teaching; early patient contact; and the extensive adoption of Internet (World Wide Web) support and Computer-Aided Learning (CAL). In postgraduate education – driven by European directives and practices, changes in specialist training and the needs of community medicine – new courses have developed around the membership and fellowship examinations for the royal colleges. Examples of these changes driven by medical education expertise include the STEP course for the Royal College of Surgeons of England, and distance-learning courses for diplomas in primary care and rheumatology, as well as examples of good practice as adopted by the Royal College of General Practitioners.

Continuing Professional Development (CPD) and Continuing Medical Education (CME) are also important aspects of medical education now being developed in the United Kingdom, and are evolving to meet the needs of individuals at all stages of their careers.

Bodies closely involved in medical educational developments and their review include the General Medical Council, SCOPME (the Standing Committee on Postgraduate Medical Education), all the medical royal colleges and medical schools, and the British Medical Association through its Board of Medical Education. The National Health Service (NHS) is also involved in education and is a key to facilitation of CPD/CME as the major employer of doctors within the United Kingdom.

Several learned societies embrace medical education at all levels. These include ASME (the Association for the Study of Medical Education), MADEN (the Medical and Dental Education Network) and AMEE (the Association for Medical Education in Europe). Specialist journals are devoted to research reports relating to medical educational developments

(e.g. Academic Medicine, Health Care Education, Medical Education). The more general medical journals (e.g. British Medical Journal, New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons) also carry articles on educational matters. Finally, the World Wide Web (WWW) is a valuable source of information relating to courses and course development and other aspects of modern medical education.

The UK government, which controls the number of students entering medical training, has recently increased the quota to take account of increasing demands for trained sta? from the NHS. More than 5,700 students – 3,300 women and 2,400 men – are now entering UK medical schools annually with nearly 28,600 at medical school in any one year, and an attrition rate of about 8–10 per cent. This loss may in part be due to the changes in university-funding arrangements. Students now pay all or part of their tuition fees, and this can result in medical graduates owing several thousand pounds when they qualify at the end of their ?ve-year basic quali?cation course. Doctors wishing to specialise need to do up to ?ve years (sometimes more) of salaried ‘hands-on’ training in house or registrar (intern) posts.

Though it may be a commonly held belief that most students enter medicine for humanitarian reasons rather than for the ?nancial rewards of a successful medical career, in developed nations the prospect of status and rewards is probably one incentive. However, the cost to students of medical education along with the widespread publicity in Britain about an under-resourced, seriously overstretched health service, with sta? working long hours and dealing with a rising number of disgruntled patients, may be affecting recruitment, since the number of applicants for medical school has dropped in the past year or so. Although there is still competition for places, planners need to bear this falling trend in mind.

Another factor to be considered for the future is the nature of the medical curriculum. In Britain and western Europe, the age structure of a probably declining population will become top-heavy with senior citizens. In the ?nancial interests of the countries affected, and in the personal interests of an ageing population, it would seem sensible to raise the pro?le of preventive medicine – traditionally rather a Cinderella subject – in medical education, thus enabling people to live healthier as well as longer lives. While learning about treatments is essential, the increasing specialisation and subspecialisation of medicine in order to provide expensive, high-technology care to a population, many of whom are suffering from preventable illnesses originating in part from self-indulgent lifestyles, seems insupportable economically, unsatisfactory for patients awaiting treatment, and not necessarily professionally ful?lling for health-care sta?. To change the mix of medical education would be a di?cult long-term task but should be worthwhile for providers and recipients of medical care.... medical education

Legal action taken by an individual or group of individuals, usually patients, against hospitals, health-service providers or health professionals in respect of alleged inadequacies in the provision of health care.

In the hospital service, claims for clinical negligence have risen enormously since the 1970s. In 1975 the NHS spent about £1m a year on legal claims; by 2004 the NHS faced over £2 billion in outstanding claims. In 1995 a risk-pooling Clinical Negligence Scheme for Trusts (CNST) was set up in England, and is administered by the NHS Litigation Authority. NHS trusts are expected to follow a set of risk-management standards, the ?rst being that each trust should have a written risk-management strategy with an explicit commitment to managing clinical risk (see RISK MANAGEMENT).... medical litigation

Legal guidance sought by the sufferer when making claims against a doctor or health authority is available from: Action for Victims of Medical Accidents (AVMA), Bank Chambers, 1 London Road, Forest Hill, London SE23 3TP. ... medical accidents

Est. 1864. The oldest and only body of professional medical herbalists, now known as phytotherapists, in Europe. Membership by examination after completion of course of training. A stipulated period of clinical practice must be completed before the final examination is taken.

Members are directly involved with patient-care, carrying full responsibility for their recommendations, prescribing medication suitable to the individual biological requirements of each patient. Their role includes patient-counselling, health education and research.

Official recognition of the Institute, indicating its growing importance in the field of medicine came with the historic Grant of Arms by Her Majesty’s College of Heralds. Members regard this as evidence that the Royal Charter of King Henry VIII still stands and that there is no monopoly in healing the sick. See: HENRY VIII, HERBALISTS’ CHARTER.

The Institute played a major role in winning vital concessions for the survival of the herbalist in the passage through Parliament of the Medicine’s Bill. See: MEDICINE’S ACT, 1968.

In connection with the NIMH degree courses in herbal medicine are available at a London University, and Exeter University.

The Institute provides professional indemnity cover for its members, and is engaged in a series of clinical trials to evaluate traditional remedies.

All members are required to adhere to a strict professional Code of Ethics and are entitled to carry after their names the letters of qualification: MNIMH or FNIMH.

Members have a key role in preventative medicine and health promotion in their contribution to improvement of the nation’s health.

Address: 56 Longbrook Street, Exeter EX4 6AH, from which a list of members is obtainable. ... national institute of medical herbalists

The collection and analysis of numerical data relating to medicine.

Information on the incidence and prevalence of various conditions is an important aspect of medical statistics.... statistics, medical

(AMA) a professional organization for US physicians. Its purposes include dissemination of scientific information through journals, a weekly newspaper, and a website; representation of the profession to Congress and state legislatures; keeping members informed of pending health and medical legislation; evaluating prescription and non-prescription drugs; and cooperating with other organizations in setting standards for hospitals and medical schools. The AMA maintains a comprehensive directory of licensed physicians in the US.... american medical association

(BMA) a professional body for doctors and also an independent trade union dedicated to protecting individual members and the collective interests of doctors. It has a complex structure that allows representation both by geographical area of work and through various committees, including the General Practice Committee (GPC), Central Consultants and Specialists Committee, Junior Doctors Committee, and the Medical Students Committee.... british medical association

(CMO) the most senior medical adviser to the UK government, who is responsible for providing expert advice on health issues (including health-related emergencies). The CMO is responsible to the Secretary of State for Health and acts as leader of profession for Directors of Public Health. There are separate CMOs appointed to advise the devolved governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.... chief medical officer

Nutritional disorders may be caused by a deficiency or excess of one or more nutrients, or by the presence of a toxin (poisonous element) in the diet.

A diet deficient in carbohydrates is almost inevitably also deficient in protein, leading to the development of protein–calorie malnutrition. Such malnutrition is most often seen as a result of severe poverty and famine (see kwashiorkor; marasmus).

Deficiency of specific nutrients is commonly associated with a disorder of the digestive system, such as coeliac disease, Crohn’s disease, or pernicious anaemia (see anaemia, megaloblastic).

Inadequate intake of protein and calories may also occur in people who excessively restrict their diet to lose weight (see anorexia nervosa), hold mistaken beliefs about diet and health (see food fad), or suffer from a loss of interest in food associated with alcohol dependence or drug dependence.Obesity results from taking in more energy from the diet than is used up by the body. Nutritional disorders may also result from an excessive intake of minerals and vitamins. An excessive intake of saturated fat is thought to be a contributory factor in coronary artery disease and in some forms of cancer.

Naturally occurring toxins can interfere with the digestion, absorption, and/or utilization of nutrients, or can cause specific disorders due to their toxic effects: for example, the ergot fungus found on rye can cause ergotism.... nutritional disorders

Tests may be performed to investigate the cause of symptoms and establish a diagnosis, to monitor the course of a disease, or to assess response to treatment. A medical testing programme carried out on apparently healthy people to find disease at an early stage is known as screening.

The accuracy of a test is based on its sensitivity (ability to correctly identify diseased subjects), specificity (ability to correctly identify healthy subjects), and predictive value.

The predictive value is determined by a mathematical formula that involves the number of accurate test results and the total number of tests performed.

The best tests have both high specificity and high sensitivity, and therefore high predictive value.... tests, medical

see community health.... clinical medical officer

see Gillick competence.... fraser guidelines

(GMC) the regulatory body of the medical profession in the UK, which was established in 1858 by the Medical Act and has statutory powers. It licenses doctors to practise medicine and has the power to revoke licences or place restrictions on practice. The governing body of the GMC, its Council, comprises 12 members, 6 of which are medically qualified and 6 of which are not. Its purpose is to protect, promote, and maintain the health and safety of the public by ensuring proper standards in the practice of medicine and medical education and training. Following various high-profile cases involving malpractice, there has been a shift in the role of the GMC from one of simple registration to that of *revalidation of doctors.

GMC website: includes the Council’s guide to Good Medical Practice... general medical council

n. wire used as a guide to insert a catheter during interventional procedures, particularly in the *Seldinger technique. Guidewires often have multiple cores and a variety of coverings, depending on their functions, and they vary in stiffness and thickness. Their ends may be curved, to get past tight strictures, or J-shaped, to avoid accidentally puncturing a vessel wall or other structure while being pushed forward.... guidewire

see HEMS.... helicopter-based emergency medical services

(IGRT) the process of imaging during a course of radiation treatment to verify the internal position of the target in comparison to the initial planning scan. This enables adjustment of *treatment fields to improve coverage and allows the use of smaller treatment volumes. The possible methods for IGRT include cone beam CT, *tomotherapy, *cyberknife, and ultrasound and kilovoltage X-rays of implanted fiducial markers.... image-guided radiotherapy

see computer-assisted surgery.... image-guided surgery

(LMC) a group of representatives of the general practitioners working in a defined geographical area. There are separate LMCs for each area, and the members speak on behalf of the local practitioners by whom they are elected. Similar arrangements and responsibilities apply for dentists, pharmacists, and optometrists practising in the NHS outside hospitals.... local medical committee

adj. 1. of or relating to medicine, the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease. 2. of or relating to conditions that require the attention of a physician rather than a surgeon. For example, a medical ward of a hospital accommodates patients with such conditions.... medical

a certificate stating a doctor’s diagnosis of a patient’s medical condition, disability, or fitness to work (see statement of fitness for work). It is known informally as a ‘fit note’ (formerly a ‘sick note’). See Appendix 8.... medical certificate

see local medical committee.... medical committee

(MET) a team, usually consisting of a group of physicians, anaesthetists, and senior nurses, that can be summoned urgently to attend to patients with deteriorating medical conditions. The aim is to prevent further deterioration and to decide if enhanced levels of care are appropriate (e.g. on the high-dependency or intensive care units). The team will also assume the role of the *cardiac-arrest team.... medical emergency team

1. a health service worker who is not a registered medical practitioner (often in the armed forces) working in association with a doctor to undertake minor treatments and preliminary assessments. In poorer countries, particularly in rural areas where qualified resources are short (e.g. China), agricultural workers receive limited training in health care and continue in a dual role as barefoot doctors; elsewhere, limited training concentrates more on environmental issues: the workers so trained are known as sanitarians. 2. in the USA, a person – licensed or unlicensed, certified or uncertified – who provides administrative and/or clinical assistance in a physician’s office or other health-care facility. Administrative duties typically include filling out insurance forms, billing, and bookkeeping, while clinical duties may include taking medical histories, preparing patients to be examined, and preparing blood and urine specimens.... medical assistant

the standards of conduct required of medical professionals and also the academic study of ethical issues arising from the practice of medicine. From the *Hippocratic oath onwards, standards are designed to reassure that professionals subscribing to them will act in the *best interests of, and will avoid harming, their patients. Today they lay greater emphasis on patient *autonomy, while the contemporary study of medical ethics is concerned with a great variety of complex societal and social issues related to medical practice and research. Medical ethics is now taught in all medical schools in the UK as an essential part of a professional training, and the wider field of *bioethics is becoming a recognized academic specialty. See also clinical ethics; feminist ethics; public health ethics; publication ethics; virtue ethics.

Guidance on good medical practice from the website of the General Medical Council... medical ethics

the study or practice of the legal aspects of medicine. See forensic medicine.... medical jurisprudence

travelling internationally to undergo surgery or otherwise be treated for an illness or condition. This may be done to save money, to avoid having to wait for treatment, or to receive a treatment not available in the home country.... medical tourism

the study of the relationships between the human genome, nutrition, and health. There are two main branches of study: nutrigenetics investigates how an individual’s genes affect their response to certain dietary nutrients, whereas nutrigenomics investigates how nutrients ingested can modulate gene expression. In time, nutrigenomics may help to identify the aetiology of certain chronic diseases.... nutritional genomics