Bi- Health Dictionary

Schistosomiasis; a diseases caused by a parasitic trematode and acquired by contact with water infected with cercariae shed by the snail intermediate host.... bilharzia

See CHOLECYSTITIS, CHOLECYSTALGIA, etc.... biliary colic

A waste product of hemoglobin recycling, it is primarily excreted in feces, oxidizing into that familiar brown color (except for beets).... bilirubin

A surgical process in which a small piece of tissue is cut out or otherwise sampled, e.g. through a needle biopsy, to enable a diagnosis to be made.... biopsy

In general, any factor that distorts the true nature of an event or observation. In clinical observations, a bias is any systematic factor other than the intervention of interest that affects the magnitude of an observed difference (i.e. trends to increase or decrease) in the outcomes of a treatment group and control group. Bias diminishes the accuracy (though not necessarily the precision) of an observation. Randomization is a technique used to decrease this form of bias. Bias also refers to a prejudiced or partial viewpoint that would affect someone’s interpretation of a problem. Double-blinding is a technique used to decrease this type of bias. See “blinding”.... bias

Having two cusps. The premolars are bicuspid teeth, and the mitral valve of the HEART is a bicuspid valve.... bicuspid

Occurring on both sides of the body.... bilateral

A thick, bitter, greenish-brown ?uid, secreted by the liver and stored in the gall-bladder (see LIVER). Consisting of water, mucus, bile pigments including BILIRUBIN, and various salts, it is discharged through the bile ducts into the intestine a few centimetres below the stomach. This discharge is increased shortly after eating, and again a few hours later. It helps in the digestion and absorption of food, particularly fats, and is itself reabsorbed, passing back through the blood of the liver. In JAUNDICE, obstruction of the bile ducts prevents discharge, leading to a build-up of bile in the blood and deposition in the tissues. The skin becomes greenish-yellow, while the stools become grey or white and the urine dark. Vomiting of bile is a sign of intestinal obstruction, but may occur in any case of persistent retching or vomiting, and should be fully investigated.... bile

One of the dozen or so vitamins included in the vitamin B complex. It is found in liver, eggs and meat, and also synthesised by bacteria in the gut. Absorption from the gut is prevented by avidin, a constituent of egg-white. The daily requirement is small: a fraction of a milligram daily. Gross de?ciency results in disturbances of the skin, a smooth tongue and lassitude. (See APPENDIX 5: VITAMINS.)... biotin

See CONTRACEPTION.... birth control

In 2003, 695,500 live births were registered in the United Kingdom; 38 per cent occurred outside marriage. Overall, total fertility is falling slowly. The number of births per 1,000 women aged over 40 years has been rising, and in 1999 was 8.9 per cent. In Great Britain in 2003, 193,817 legal abortions were performed under the Abortion Act 1967.... birth rate

Polygonum bistorta. N.O. Polygonaceae.

Synonym: Adderwort, Patient Dock, Snakeweed.

Habitat: Found growing in damp meadows in many parts of Britain, and is also distributed throughout Northern Europe, as well as Northern and Western Asia.

Features ? The oval leaves, similar in appearance to those of the Dock, are blue-green above, grey and purplish underneath, and spring from the roots. The leaf stalks and blades are six to eight inches long, the slender flower stems carrying fewer and smaller leaves, reaching to a height of from one to two feet. A dense, cylindrical spike of pale-hued flowers blossoms from the top of the stem between June and September.

Part used ? The root is the part in most demand, and is reddish-brown in colour.

Action: There is no odour, and the taste is astringent, which is the chief therapeutic action of the root—indeed it is, perhaps, the most powerful astringent in the botanic practice.

The decoction of 1 ounce of the crushed root to 1 pint (reduced) of water is used chiefly in hemorrhages and as a gargle and mouth-wash in cases of

sore throat or gums. Combined with Flag-root it has been known to give relief from intermittent fever and ague. The old-time herbalists enthused over the virtues of Bistort root in "burstings, bruises, falls, blows and jaundice."... bistort

A common practice in schoolchildren, most of whom gradually give it up as they approach adolescence. Too much signi?cance should therefore not be attached to it; in itself it does no harm, and punishment or restraining devices are not needed. It is a manifestation of tension or insecurity, the cause of which should be removed. In some people the habit is carried into adulthood.... nail-biting

North of England midwives ‘birth’ tea. Equal parts: Basil, Lavender and Raspberry leaves in infusion. To each cupful add few grains grated Nutmeg.

To arrest excessive bleeding: Yarrow or Nettle tea. After the event; to restore – Alfalfa tea.

To heal the placenta: inserts of powdered Comfrey. ... birth

Also known as baking soda. Bicarbonate of soda is an alkali, sometimes used as a home remedy for indigestion or for soothing insect bites.... bicarbonate of soda

A term used for a muscle that has two heads. The biceps femoris ?exes the knee and extends the hip, and the biceps brachii supinates the forearm and ?exes the elbow and shoulder.... biceps

A spectacle lens in which the upper part is shaped to assist distant vision and the lower part is for close work such as reading.... bifocal lens

The point at which a structure (for example, a blood vessel) divides into two branches.... bifurcation

Group of antimalarial drugs which includes Proguanil (Paludrine) used for malaria prophylaxis.... biguanides

The channel running from the gall-bladder (see LIVER) to the DUODENUM; carries BILE.... bile duct

Bilharziasis is another name for SCHISTOSOMIASIS.... bilharziasis

A symptom-picture resulting from a short-term disordered liver, with constipation, frontal headache, spots in front of the eyes, poor appetite, and nausea or vomiting. The usual causes are heavy alcohol consumption, poor ventilation when working with solvents, heavy binging with fatty foods, or moderate consumption of rancid fats. The term is genially archaic in medicine; people who are bilious are seldom genial, however.... biliousness

Relating to both ears.... binaural

Relating to both eyes. Binocular vision involves focusing on an object with both eyes simultaneously and is important in judging distance.... binocular

Assessment of the efficacy and persistence of an insecticidal treatment by exposing mosquitoes of known susceptibility to a treated surface or area for a standard period of time.... bioassay

A technique whereby an auditory or visual stimulus follows on from a physiological response. Thus, a subject’s ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG) may be monitored, and a signal passed back to the subject indicating his or her heart rate: for example, a red light if the rate is between 50 and 60 beats a minute; a green light if it is between 60 and 70 a minute. Once the subject has learned to discriminate between these two rates, he or she can then learn to control the heart rate. How this is learned is not clear, but by utilising biofeedback some subjects can control heart rate and blood pressure, relax spastic muscles, bring migraine under control and even help constipation.... biofeedback

The joint utilisation of engineering and biological knowledge to illuminate normal and abnormal functions of the human body. Blood ?ow, the reaction of bones and joints to stress, the design of kidney dialysis machines, and the development of arti?cial body parts are among the practical results of this collaboration.... biomechanical engineering

A type of mental illness typi?ed by mood swings between elation (mania) and depression (see MENTAL ILLNESS).... bipolar disorder

The passage that extends from the neck of the womb (UTERUS), known as the CERVIX UTERI, to the opening of the VAGINA. The baby passes along this passage during childbirth.... birth canal

See CONGENITAL.... birth defects

Bisacodyl is a laxative which acts by stimulation of the nerve endings in the colon by direct contact with the mucous lining.... bisacodyl

Having the qualities of both sexes. The term is used to describe people who are sexually attracted to both men and women.... bisexual

Various bismuth chelates and complexes, such as sucralfate, e?ective in healing gastric and duodenal ulcers are available. They may act by a direct toxic e?ect on gastric HELICOBACTER PYLORI, or by stimulating mucosal prostaglandin (see PROSTAGLANDINS) or bicarbonate secretion. Healing tends to be longer than with H2-RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS and relapse still occurs. New regimens are being developed involving co-administration with antibiotics. ENCEPHALOPATHY, described with older high-dose bismuth preparations, has not been reported.... bismuth

Bisphosphonates, of which disodium etidronate is one, are a group of drugs used mainly in the treatment of PAGET’S DISEASE OF BONE and in established vertebral osteoporosis (see BONE, DISORDERS OF). Their advantage over CALCITONIN (which has to be given by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection) is that they can be taken orally. They act by reducing the increased rate of bone turnover associated with the disease. Disodium etidronate is used with calcium carbonate in a 90-day cycle (duration of therapy up to three years) in the treatment of osteoporosis.... bisphosphonates

The use of teeth or other similar hard substance to puncture the skin of a victim, possibly resulting in the introduction of venom (eg snake bite). c.f. poison and sting.... bite

See Cundeamor.... bitter melon

See Naranja agria.... bitter orange

Protection, Healing ... bittersweet

Apocynum androsaemifolium. N.O. Asclepiadaceae.

Synonym: Dogsbane, Milkweed.

Habitat: Indigenous to North America.

Features ? Root is nearly three-quarters of an inch thick, light brown, transversely- wrinkled bark, easily parting from white, woody centre ; groups of stone cells in outer bark. Whole plant gives a gelatinous, milky juice when wounded.

Part used ? Root.

Action: Cathartic, diuretic, detergent, emetic, tonic.

2-5 grains thrice daily as a general tonic, useful in dyspepsia. 5-15 grain doses in cardiac dropsy. Has been recommended in the treatment of Bright's disease. Large doses cause vomiting. Tendency to gripe can be eliminated by adding Peppermint, Calamus or other carminative.... bitter root

The study of molecules (see MOLECULE) that are part of the structure of living organisms.... molecular biology

See ABORTION; FETUS; PREGNANCY AND LABOUR.... premature birth

An infectious disease following the bite of a rat. There are two causative organisms – Spirillum minus and Actinobacillus muris – and the incubation period depends upon which is involved. In the case of the former it is 5–30 days; in the case of the latter it is 2–10 days. The disease is characterised by fever, a characteristic skin rash and often muscular or joint pains. It responds well to PENICILLIN.... rat-bite fever

Linn.

Family: Ginkgoaceae.

Habitat: Native to China and Japan; cultivated in Indian gardens as an ornamental.

English: Maidenhair tree called Living Fossils (in India), Kew tree.

Action: Antagonizes bronchospasm, used as a circulatory stimulant, peripheral vasodilator.

Key application: Standardized dry extract—for symptomatic treatment of disturbed performance in organic brain syndrome within the regimen ofa therapeutic concept in cases of dementia syndromes— memory deficits, disturbance in concentration, depressive emotional conditions, dizziness, tinnitus and headache. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.) As vasoactive and platelet aggregation inhibitor.

(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) (For pharmocological studies in humans and clinical studies, see ESCOP.)

The majority of pharmacological studies and clinical trials have been conduced using a standardized extract which contains 24% flavonoid glyco- sides (Ginko flavone glycosides) and 6% terpenoids (ginkgolides and bilob- alide).

The extract increases tolerance to hypoxia and exhibits anti-ischaemic effect. It simultaneously improves the fluidity of blood, decreases platelet adhesion, decreases platelet and erythro- cyte aggregation and reduces plasma and blood viscosity. The extract protects erythrocytes from haemolysis. The extract also decreases the permeability of capillaries and protects the cell membrane by trapping deleterious free radicals.

The extract also increased cerebral blood flow in about 70% patients evaluated (patients between 30-50 year age had 20% increase from the base line, compared with 70% in those 50- to 70- year-olds).

A reversal of sexual dysfunction with concurrent use of ginkgo with antidepressant drugs has been reported. (Am J Psychiatry, 2000 157(5), 836837.)

The National Centre for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, USA, is conducting a 5-year study of 3000 people aged 75 and older to determine if ginkgo, 240 mg daily, prevents dementia or Alzheimer's disease.... ginkgo biloba

A rare disorder, present from birth, in which some or all of the bile ducts fail to develop or have developed abnormally.

As a result, bile is unable to drain from the liver (see cholestasis).

Unless the atresia can be treated, secondary biliary cirrhosis will develop and may prove fatal.

Symptoms include deepening jaundice, usually beginning a week after birth, and the passing of dark urine and pale faeces.

Treatment is by surgery to bypass the ducts.

If this fails, or if the jaundice recurs, a liver transplant is the only possible treatment.... biliary atresia

The proportion of a drug that reaches the target organs and tissues, usually expressed as a percentage of the dose administered. Intravenous administration results in 100 per cent bioavailability because the drug is injected directly into the bloodstream. Drugs taken orally have a much lower bioavailability. Preparations that have equal bioavailabilities are described as bioequivalent. (See also drug.)... bioavailability

See biomechanical engineering.... bioengineering

The use of living organisms such as bacteria in industry and science (for example, in drug production).... biotechnology

An area of discoloured skin present from birth, or very soon afterwards, such as moles, freckles, and other types of melanocytic naevus (various flat, brown to blue-grey skin patches), strawberry marks, and port-wine stains.

The last 2 are types of haemangioma (malformation of blood vessels).

Strawberry marks often increase in size in the first year, but most disappear after the age of 9 years.

Port-wine stains seldom fade, but laser treatment performed in adulthood can make some of them fade.... birthmark

Reaction to any insect bite is due to either venom released or allergic response. Symptoms: redness, pain, itching, swelling. Remove sting where possible.

Alternatives. External.

Tinctures: Arnica, Acid tincture of Lobelia, Echinacea, Marigold, Myrrh, St John’s Wort.

Fresh plants. Crush and apply: Comfrey, Garlic, Houseleek, Marigold, Onion, Plantain. St John’s Wort: specific – horsefly.

Witch Hazel Lotion.

Cider Vinegar: wasp bites.

Bee and ant bites: in absence of any of the above: bicarbonate of soda.

Aromatherapy. Any one oil – Eucalyptus, Clove, Lavender.

For shock: with faintness and pallor: few grains Cayenne pepper in honey or cup of tea. Supplements. Vitamin A and B-complex. ... insect bites

A science that studies the chemistry of living organisms. It includes the chemical processes involved in the maintenance and reproduction of body cells and the chemical reactions carried out inside cells that make up the metabolism of the body. Overall regulation of these chemical processes is a function of hormones, whereas regulation of individual reactions is carried out by enzymes. A constant interchange occurs between cell fluids and blood and urine. Biochemists can therefore learn about the chemical changes going on inside cells from measurements of the various minerals, gases, enzymes, hormones, and proteins in blood, urine, and other body fluids. Such tests are used to make diagnoses and to screen for a disease and to monitor its progress. The most common biochemical tests are performed on blood, and they include liver function tests and kidney function tests. Biochemical tests can also be performed on urine (see urinalysis) and other body fluids.... biochemistry

A surgical procedure in which a conical or cylindrical section of the lower part of the cervix is removed. A cone biopsy is performed after an abnormal cervical smear test result if the exact precancerous or cancerous area (see cervix, cancer of) cannot be identified by colposcopy.... cone biopsy

A diagnostic test in which a small piece of tissue is removed from the lining of the jejunum for microscopic examination.

It is especially useful in the diagnosis of Crohn’s disease, coeliac disease, lymphoma, and other causes of malabsorption.

The biopsy is taken using an endoscope passed down the throat into the small intestine, via the stomach.... jejunal biopsy

An over-thecounter antacid drug used to relieve indigestion, heartburn, and pain caused by a peptic ulcer.

It often causes belching and abdominal discomfort.

Long-term use may cause swollen ankles, muscle cramps, tiredness, and nausea.... sodium bicarbonate

A congenital defect that is a type of neural tube defect in which part of 1 or more vertebrae fails to develop completely. As a result, a portion of the spinal cord is left exposed.

spinal anaesthesia Injection of an anaesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid in the spinal canal to block pain sensations before they reach the central nervous system. It is used mainly during surgery on the lower abdomen and legs.

(See also epidural anaesthesia.)... spina bifida

adj. 1. containing bile; for example bilious vomiting is the vomiting of bile-containing fluid. 2. a lay term used to describe attacks of nausea or vomiting.... bilious

Blume

Family: Amaranthaceae.

Habitat: The temperate and subtropical Himalayas from Kishtwar to Sikkim at 1,200-3,200 m, Khasi hills.

Ayurvedic: Shveta Apaamaarga. (Rakta Apaamaarga is equated with Achyranthes rubra-fusca Hook. f. and A. verschaffeltii Lam., synonym Iresine herbstii Hook. f.)

Siddha/Tamil: Naayurivi.

Action: Astringent, diuretic, spasmolytic. Plant is given in whooping cough, roots in hemicrania.

A water-soluble oligosaccharide, composed of six glucose units and three mannose units, has been isolated from the roots. It enhanced immune response and prolonged survival time of mice bearing Ehrlich carcinoma.

The roots contain free oleanolic acid (0.096%) and its saponins (1.93%). An alcoholic extract of the root showed presence of amino acids, steroids, tri- terpenoids, alkaloids and coumarins. The seeds afforded achyranthin.

Extract of the plant—antimicrobial.... achyranthes bidentata

(Seem.) Clarke.

Synonym: A. pseudo-ginseng Wall. ssp. himalaicus Hara.

Family: Araliaceae.

Habitat: Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan, Khasi Hills.

Folk: Taapamaari (Maharashtra).

Action: Stimulant, aphrodisiac, antipyretic, dyspeptic, expectorant.... aralia binnatifida

Linn.

Family: Oxalidaceae; Averrhoaceae.

Habitat: Native to Malaysia; cultivated throughout the country.

English: Bilimbi, Tree Sorrel.

Ayurvedic: Karmaranga (var.).

Unani: Belambu (a variety of Kamrakh).

Siddha/Tamil: Pilimbi, Pulichakkai.

Action: A syrup made from the fruits is used in febrile excitement, haemorrhages and internal haemorrhoids; also in diarrhoea, bilious colic and hepatitis. The fruit is used for scurvy. An infusion of flowers is given for cough.... averrhoa bilimbi

The practice of medical practitioners, dentists and other independent practitioners to seek payment from the patient for that portion of the patient’s bill not covered by the government or other third party payers.... balance billing

(Vietnamese) A secretive woman... bian

(Italian) A shining, fair-skinned woman

Bianka, Byanca, Blanca, Blanche, Biana, Bianna, Biankeh, Byanka, Blanch, Blanka

... bianca

(African) A king’s daughter; a lady Bibsbebe, Beebee, Byby, Beabea... bibi

(Italian) Form of Vivian, meaning “one who is full of life; vibrant” Bibiane, Bibianna, Bibianne, Bibiann, Bibine... bibiana

An indexed computer or printed source of citations of journal articles and other reports in the literature. Bibliographic citations typically include author, title, source, abstract and/or related information (including full text in some cases).... bibliographic database

Baking soda; used as a gargle for sore throat and tonsillitis, sometimes combined with vinagre blanco (white vinegar) or with limón (lemon) and miel de abeja (honey); can be combined with other herbal remedies such as poultices that are applied externally.... bicarbonato de sodio

(Spanish) A welcome daughter Bienvenidah, Bienvenyda, Bienvenita, Bienvenyta... bienvenida

Split into two parts.... bifid

(Scandinavian) From the bridge Bifroste, Byfrost, Byfroste... bifrost

Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Throughout India in gardens, waste places and tea plantations.

Folk: Phutium (Gujarat), Kuri (Garhwal).

Action: Plant—cytotoxic. Leaf— applied to ulcers and swollen glands.

The plant contains a number of poly- acetylenes which are toxic to bacteria, fungi and human fibroblast cells. Phenylheptatriyne is the major constituent of the leaves and stems.

B. pilosa Linn. var. minor (Blume) Sherff, synonym B. pilosa Linn. var. bi- pinnata Hook. f. in part, gave phytos- terin-B, which like insulin, showed hy- poglycaemic activity both in normal and diabetic rats. B. pilosa auct. non Linn., synonym B. chinensis Willd., is used for leprosy, fistulae, pustules, tumours.... bidens pilosa

Antidesma bunius

Description: Bignay is a shrub or small tree, 3 to 12 meters tall, with shiny, pointed leaves about 15 centimeters long. Its flowers are small, clustered, and green. It has fleshy, dark red or black fruit and a single seed. The fruit is about 1 centimeter in diameter.

Habitat and Distribution: This plant is found in rain forests and semievergreen seasonal forests in the tropics. It is found in open places and in secondary forests. It grows wild from the Himalayas to Ceylon and eastward through Indonesia to northern Australia. However, it may be found anywhere in the tropics in cultivated forms.

Edible Parts: The fruit is edible raw. Do not eat any other parts of the tree. In Africa, the roots are toxic. Other parts of the plant may be poisonous.

CAUTION

Eaten in large quantities, the fruit may have a laxative effect.... bignay

Annatto (Bixa orellana).

Plant Part Used: Seed coats, leaves.

Dominican Medicinal Uses: The powdered seed coats are traditionally combined with other plants to make a tea or vegetable juice drink for treating anemia, cysts, dysmenorrhea, tumors, uterine fibroids and to support post-partum recovery. The seeds coats and/or leaves are also used externally for topical burns, injury and musculoskeletal trauma.

Safety: The seeds and seed coats are generally regarded as safe and commonly used as a culinary flavoring and coloring agent. Animal studies have shown this plant to be relatively nontoxic, although allergic reactions reported.

Contraindications: Hypersensitivity; history of allergic reaction.

Laboratory & Preclinical Data: The seed extract has shown the following activities in animal studies: anti-inflammatory, chemopreventive, hyperglycemic. In vitro the plant extract has demonstrated antibacterial, antifungal, antimicrobial and antiplatelet effects, and the seed extract has shown anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor and immunomodulatory activity.

* See entry for Bija in “Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles” of this book for more information, including references.... bija

(French) As precious as a jewel... bijou

(African) Resembling an anteater Bikitah, Bikyta, Bykita, Bykyta, Bikeyta, Bikeita, Bikieta, Bikeata... bikita

(Hebrew) One who is bashful; in the Bible, a concubine of Jacob Bilha, Baalah, Balah, Bala, Bilhan, Billha, Billhah... bilhah

The presence of abnormally high bilirubin in the blood, usually signifying hepatitis, with jaundice due next week.... bilirubinemia

(English) Feminine form of William; having a desire to protect Billi, Billy, Billey, Billee, Billeigh, Billea, Billeah... billie

(Arabic) The queen of Sheba Bilqys, Bilqees, Bilquis... bilqis

(Indian) One who is pure Bimalla, Bymala, Bimalah, Bemala, Bemalla, Bymala... bimala

(Hebrew) Having intelligence and understanding Bina, Bynah, Byna... binah

(German) From the hollow Bingah, Bynga, Binge, Bynge, Bingeh, Byngeh... binga

Twins who result from the fertilisation of two separate ova. (See MULTIPLE BIRTHS.)... binovular twins

(African) With God Binte, Bint, Binti, Binty, Bintie, Bintee, Bintea, Binteah... binta

The state of life interdependency that is possible when large and small plants, soil organisms, insects, and fuzzy beasts exist in the ebb and flow created by the natural environment. Cut down the trees once and you lessen the biodiversity drastically. Wait fifty years and cut again and you have a small fraction of the life-form variety that you started with; the old diversity will never return...never.... biodiverse

Use of natural, indigenous predators or organisms to control medically important insects.... biological control

The use of living organisms – or infectious agents derived from them – to disable or kill men, animals or plants in the pursuit of war. Such warfare, along with chemical warfare, was condemned in 1925 by the Geneva Convention, and the United Nations has endorsed this policy. Even so, some countries have experimented with possible biological agents, including those causing ANTHRAX and BOTULISM, with the intention of delivering them by land, sea or water-based missiles. These developments have prompted other countries to search for ways of annulling the lethal consequences of biological warfare.... biological warfare

The actual amount of existing material within a species or genus.... biomass

(Linn.) DC.

Synonym: Oxalis sensitiva Linn.

Family: Oxalidaceae.

Habitat: Throughout tropical India.

Ayurvedic: Lajjaalu (var.) Vipareet Lajjaalu (non-classical), Alam- bushaa (Hindi commentators have equated it with Gorakh Mun- di, Sphaeranthus indicus Linn., Asteraceae.)

Folk: Lajoni, Jhalai, Lakajana.

Action: Plant—used in insomnia, convulsions, cramps, chest-complaints, inflammations, tumours, chronic skin diseases. Ash—in stomachache. Leaves— diuretic, astringent, antiseptic. Paste is applied to burns, contusions and wounds. Decoction is given in strangury, asthma and phthisis. Roots—decoction is given in lithia- sis. Mature leaves are recommended in diabetes; contain an insulin-like principle.

A saline extract of leaves showed hy- poglycaemic activity in rabbits.... biophytum sensitivum

Literally, the part of the earth that supports life; more broadly, a large community of life-forms sharing a similar environment, such as a rain forest or prairie grassland.... biosphere

A pinnate compound leaf whose leaflets, in turn, are stems that have pinnate leaflets.... bipinnate

The use of the natural properties of living things to remove hazards that threaten human and animal health. When a pollutant ?rst appears in a local environment, existing microorganisms such as bacteria attempt to make use of the potential source of energy and as a side-e?ect detoxify the polluting substance. This is an evolutionary process that normally would take years.

Scientists have engineered appropriate genes from other organisms into BACTERIA, or sometimes plants, to accelerate this natural evolutionary process. For e?ective ‘digestion of waste’, a micro-organism must quickly and completely digest organic waste without producing unpleasant smells or noxious gases, be non-pathogenic and be able to reproduce in hostile conditions. For example, American researchers have discovered an anaerobic bacterium that neutralises dangerous chlorinated chemical compounds such as trichlorethane, which can pollute soil, into a harmless molecule called ethens. But the bacteria do not thrive in soil. So the dechlorinating genes in this bacterium are transferred to bacteria that are acclimatised to living in toxic areas and can more e?ciently carry out the required detoxi?cation. Other research has been aimed at detoxifying the byproducts of DDT, a troublesome and resistant pollutant. Bioremediation should prove to be an environmentally friendly and cost-e?ective alternative to waste incineration or chemically based processes for washing contaminated soils.... bioremediation

Biota tea is a Chinese beverage, used nowadays to heal hemorrhages and other types of ailments, such as headaches, but not only. Biota tea description Biota is a slow-growing shrub or tree from the cypress family, originating from China. It is considered as one of the 50 fundamental herbs in the annals of Chinese herbalism. Biota has a central stem, scale-like leaves and little inconspicuous flowers. The biota leaves are small, and triangular-shaped, with a grayish-green color and a fragrant odor. The seeds are the eatable parts of this plant. Both the leaves and the seeds are used for medicinal purposes. Biota trees and shrubs have ornamental uses as they make beautiful natural fences and hedges. Also, they are good as wind breakers and as a good ground cover for a variety of wildlife. Parts from these plants make useful additions as culinary ingredients and medicinal herbs. These vegetative substances became part of the cosmetic industry, being added to lotions, shampoos and conditioners. Biota tea is the beverage resulting from brewing the abovementioned plant. Biota tea brewing To prepare Biota tea, add the dried leaves in the boiling water and stir the mixture. Strain it and drink it slowly. Biota tea benefits Biota tea has been successfully used to:

• fight headaches
• fight asthma, cough and bronchitis
• fight fever
• fight bacteria and viruses
• heal wounds, treat burns, as well as improve the growth of hair, when applied topically
• help in the treatment of excessive menstruation
• fight hemorrhages
• ease arthritic pain
• help in the treatment of premature baldness
• soothe and calm the nerves
• fight constipation among the elderly

Biota tea side effects Pregnant or nursing women should not intake Biota tea. Biota tea is a healthy beverage able to fight against bacteria, viruses or even prevent baldness, if applied topically. It also proved its efficiency in dealing with arthritic pains.... biota tea health benefits

Terror attacks on civilian communities using biological agents such as ANTHRAX and SMALLPOX. Particular problems in detecting and handling attacks are the time lags between exposure of a population to dangerous agents and the onset of victims’ symptoms, and the fact that early symptoms might initially be taken as the result of a naturally occurring disease. Management of any biological attack must depend on systems already in place for managing new diseases, new epidemics or traditional diseases. The e?ectiveness of public-health surveillance varies widely from country to country, and even advanced economies may not have the sta? and facilities to investigate anything other than a recognised epidemic. As attacks might well occur without warning, tackling them could be a daunting task. Intelligence warnings about proposed attacks might, however, allow for some preventive and curative measures to be set up. Medical experts in the US believe that deployment of existing community disaster teams working to pre-prepared plans, and the development of specially trained strike teams, should cut the numbers of casualties and deaths from a bioterrorist attack. Nevertheless, bioterrorism is an alarming prospect.... bioterrorism

The effect of the two ends of a bacillus staining while the centre of the rod remains unstained (eg in Yersinia pestis, the cause of Bubonic Plague) when stained with Giemsa stain.... bipolar staining

Protection, Exorcism, Purification and Cleansing... birch

Also known as pigeon breeder’s lung, this is a form of extrinsic allergic ALVEOLITIS resulting from sensitisation to birds. In bird fanciers, skin tests sometimes show sensitisation to birds’ droppings, eggs, protein and serum, even through there has been no evidence of any illness.... bird fancier’s lung

(American) Resembling a little bird Birdine, Byrdene, Byrdena, Birdina, Byrdina, Byrdine, Birdeena, Birdeene, Byrdeena, Byrdeene, Birdyna, Birdyne, Byrdyna, Byrdyne, Birdie, Birdi, Birdy, Birdey, Birdee, Burdette... birdena

(Celtic) Woman of great strength Birkitah, Birkyta, Byrkita, Byrkyta, Birkeyta, Birkeita, Birkeata, Birkieta... birkita

Birth marks are of various kinds; the most common are port-wine marks (see NAEVUS). Pigment spots are found, very often raised above the skin surface and more or less hairy, being then called moles (see MOLE).... birth marks

Birch tea is a medicinal beverage made from the leaves or the bark of the plant. It is enjoyed worldwide for its health benefits and also for its tasty flavor. Birch tea description Birch is a soft-wood tree, found in the woodlands of cold climate countries, especially in North America and Europe. It is a fast-growing tree that can reach 65 feet in height. The birch tree is known for its silvery-white bark that tends to peel off in layers. The ‘oil of birch’ has potent properties in the anti-cancer treatment. Birch is a natural pain reliever with salicylate, the compound found in aspirin. Birch leaf is a medicinal remedy for various forms of upset stomach. Birch tea is the resulting beverage from brewing the abovementioned plant. Birch tea brewing To make Birch tea from the leaves:

• Place 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls in a cup and pour on boiling water.
• Cover the mix and allow it to steep for 10 minutes.
• Drink the tea about three times a day.

Birch tea can also be made using the bark of the tree:

• Place a teaspoon of dried birch bark in a cup of boiling water.
• Allow it to steep for 15 minutes.
• Drink the tea twice or thrice a day.

Birch tea can be sweetened with honey. The resulting beverage has a very aromatic flavor. The parts used for tea are the leaves, twigs, and the bark. Birch tea benefits Birch tea has been successfully used to:

• alleviate joint pain related to rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis
• combat gout
• fight urinary disorders
• increase urination
• treat melanoma
• help fighting skin breakouts and other dermatological problems (applied topically as a wash or added to bath water)
• soothe sore muscles

Also, Birch tea may help remove excess fluids from the body. Birch tea side effects Birch tea is not recommended to pregnant and nursing women. Also, it not advised to people allergic to aspirin. Birch tea is best known for itsanti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti-viral properties. It is also largely used to remove excess fluids from the body.... birch tea: not only a tasty beverage

A pool of warm water in which a woman can give birth to her baby. The infant is delivered into the water. The method was introduced during the 1980s and is claimed to make delivery less painful and upsetting.... birth pool

(African) A daughter who is greatly loved

Bisah, Bissa, Bissah, Bysa, Bysah, Byssa, Byssah... bisa

(Anglo-Saxon) A compassionate woman Bisgue, Bysgu, Bysgue ... bisgu

A compound leaf divided in threes, whose leaflets are in turn di- vided in pairs.... biternate

(Hebrew) A child of song ... bithron

A bitter-tasting substance or formula used to increase a deficient appetite, improve the acidity of stomach secretions and protein digestion, and slightly speed up the orderly emptying of the stomach. A good bitter tonic should possess little, if any, drug effect, only acting on oral and stomach functions and secretions. Dry mouth, bad gums, teeth problems with bad breath in the morning, and weak digestion, often with constipation, are the main deficiency symptoms. A bitter tonic has little effect in normal digestion. Example: Gentiana... bitter tonic

(Basque) A victorious woman... bixenta

Bistort tea is widely known as an adjuvant in the areas of treating stomach, respiratory and bleeding problems. It can be intaken two or three times a day to fully enjoy its healthy benefits. Bistort Tea description Bistort is a perennially-growing plant from the Northern Hemisphere. It is normally grown as an ornamental plant because of its small white and pink blooms. It contains vitamins A and C, mucilage and antioxidants, acknowledged for their anti-cancer action. However, Bistort is also cultivated for medicinal purposes, being well-known as one of the most astringent herb. Bistort tea is the beverage resulting from brewing the abovementioned plant. Bistort Tea brewing Bistort tea can be made as a decoction:

• Place one teaspoonful of the dried bistort rhizome in a 250 ml cup of water and boil the mix.
• Let it steep for about 10 to 15 minutes.
• Strain the liquid.

Bistort tea can be consumed twice or thrice a day. It can also be used as a gargle or mouthwash to treat infections inside the mouth. Bistort Tea benefits Bistort tea has been successfully used to:

• treat diarrhea, dysentery and irritable bowel syndrome
• aid in the treatment of diverticulitis
• help treating oral and tongue inflammations
• help fighting pharyngitis and sore throat
• help in the treatment of jaundice
• aid fighting measles and smallpox
• fight hemorrhoids
• ease menstrual bleeding
• help in the healing of wounds, skin ruptures and burstings (when applied topically)

Bistort tea may also help expel worms. Bistort Tea side effects A long-term administration of Bistort tea is not recommended. Pregnant and nursing women are advised not to intake this tea. Bistort tea is a medicinal remedy against several digestive problems and, it also proved to be effective in treating menstrual bleeding, but not only.... bistort tea for stomach ailments

Bitter Melon tea is a bitter beverage, very useful in treating a large array of diseases such as diabetes, but not only. Bitter Melon Tea description Bitter Melon is an herbaceous tendril-bearing vine that grows in parts of East Africa, Asia, the Caribbean islands, and parts of South America. It has dainty yellow flowers, bearing an oblong-shaped fruit that has a pockmarked and warty exterior which turns yellow when ripe. Its flesh is crunchy and watery in texture whereas its skin is tender and edible. The taste of the fruit is very bitter. Bitter Melon tea is the resulting beverage from brewing the abovementioned plant, best known for its efficiency against diabetes. The plant is also added to several types of food, as a culinary ingredient. Bitter Melon Tea brewing To prepare Bitter Melon tea:

• Place a handful of leaves in a pot of boiling water
• Boil the mix until the water turns green
• Let the mix steep for about 5 minutes

The taste is quite bitter. Also, the Bitter Melon fruit can also be made into a tea. The majority of cultures prefer to use the leaves for making tea while the fruit is consumed as an addition to dishes. Bitter Melon Tea benefits Bitter Melon tea has proved its efficiency in treating:

• abdominal gas and colic
• liver problems
• ulcers in different parts of the body
• digestion (It may also help ease symptoms of dyspepsia and constipation)

Bitter Melon tea is said to help in regulating blood sugar levels, being widely used as a herbal remedy by diabetes patients. Bitter Melon tea can be used in the treatment of HIV. Bitter Melon Tea side effects Bitter Melon tea should never be taken in conjuncture with any form of diabetes medication. Pregnant and nursing women should also avoid this tea. Bitter Melon Tea is a natural remedy against type 1 and type 2 of diabetes. It is also consumed for its healing properties when dealing with abdominal gas and colic.... bitter mellon tea against diabetes

Occurs when some participants who are assigned to the treatment group in a clinical study do not receive the intervention or receive another intervention, or when some participants in the control group receive the intervention (e.g. outside the trial). If these crossover participants are analysed with their original groups, this type of bias can “dilute” (diminish) the observed treatment effect.... crossover bias

See BITES AND STINGS; RABIES.... dog bites

The process of attachment of a drug to a receptor or plasma protein, fat, mucopolysaccharide or other tissue component. This process may be reversible or irreversible.... drug binding

A biopsy of a lesion for the purposes of diagnosis in which the whole lesion is exc ised.... excision biopsy

Animal bites are best treated as puncture wounds and simply washed and dressed. In some cases ANTIBIOTICS may be given to minimise the risk of infection, together with TETANUS toxoid if appropriate. Should RABIES be a possibility, then further treatment must be considered. Bites and stings of venomous reptiles, amphibians, scorpions, snakes, spiders, insects and ?sh may result in clinical effects characteristic of that particular poisoning. In some cases speci?c ANTIVENOM may be administered to reduce morbidity and mortality.

Many snakes are non-venomous (e.g. pythons, garter snakes, king snakes, boa constrictors) but may still in?ict painful bites and cause local swelling. Most venomous snakes belong to the viper and cobra families and are common in Asia, Africa, Australia and South America. Victims of bites may experience various effects including swelling, PARALYSIS of the bitten area, blood-clotting defects, PALPITATION, respiratory di?culty, CONVULSIONS and other neurotoxic and cardiac effects. Victims should be treated as for SHOCK – that is, kept at rest, kept warm, and given oxygen if required but nothing by mouth. The bite site should be immobilised but a TOURNIQUET must not be used. All victims require prompt transfer to a medical facility. When appropriate and available, antivenoms should be administered as soon as possible.

Similar management is appropriate for bites and stings by spiders, scorpions, sea-snakes, venomous ?sh and other marine animals and insects.

Bites and stings in the UK The adder (Vipera berus) is the only venomous snake native to Britain; it is a timid animal that bites only when provoked. Fatal cases are rare, with only 14 deaths recorded in the UK since 1876, the last of these in 1975. Adder bites may result in marked swelling, weakness, collapse, shock, and in severe cases HYPOTENSION, non-speci?c changes in the electrocardiogram and peripheral leucocytosis. Victims of adder bites should be transferred to hospital even if asymptomatic, with the affected limb being immobilised and the bite site left alone. Local incisions, suction, tourniquets, ice packs or permanganate must not be used. Hospital management may include use of a speci?c antivenom, Zagreb®.

The weever ?sh is found in the coastal waters of the British Isles, Europe, the eastern Atlantic, and the Mediterranean Sea. It possesses venomous spines in its dorsal ?n. Stings and envenomation commonly occur when an individual treads on the ?sh. The victim may experience a localised but increasing pain over two hours. As the venom is heat-labile, immersion of the affected area in water at approximately 40 °C or as hot as can be tolerated for 30 minutes should ease the pain. Cold applications will worsen the discomfort. Simple ANALGESICS and ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS may be given.

Bees, wasps and hornets are insects of the order Hymenoptera and the females possess stinging apparatus at the end of the abdomen. Stings may cause local pain and swelling but rarely cause severe toxicity. Anaphylactic (see ANAPHYLAXIS) reactions can occur in sensitive individuals; these may be fatal. Deaths caused by upper-airway blockage as a result of stings in the mouth or neck regions are reported. In victims of stings, the stinger should be removed as quickly as possible by ?icking, scraping or pulling. The site should be cleaned. Antihistamines and cold applications may bring relief. For anaphylactic reactions ADRENALINE, by intramuscular injection, may be required.... bites and stings

Linn.

Family: Bixaceae.

Habitat: Native to Central America, often cultivated in Madhya Pradesh and South India.

English: Annatto.

Ayurvedic: Sinduri, Sinduriyaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Jabara, Manjitti.

Action: Plant—astringent, antibil- ious, antiemetic, blood purifier. Leaves—infusion is given in jaundice, also in dysentery. Externally, scar-preventive. Root bark— febrifuge, antiperiodic. Seed pulp— haemostatic, antidysenteric, diuretic, laxative. Fruit—antidysenteric.

An antimicrobial constituent, mas- linic acid, alongwith gallic acid and pyrogallol, has been isolated from the leaves. Alcoholic extract of the leaves completely inhibited Micrococcus pyo- genes, but was inactive against E. coli. The aqueous extract, however, showed partial inhibition against E. coli. The aqueous extract also showed potent inhibitory activity towards lens aldose re- ductase, which plays an important role in the management of diabetic complications. The activity is attributed to a flavonoid, isoscutelarein.

Bixin, the main constituent of seed coat, shows cytostatic effect on the growth of human lymphoma cells. Bixin also has a hyperglycaemic effect and may disturb blood glucose control.... bixa orellana

Kuntze.

Synonym: L. burmanni Benth.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Bihar, Chota Nagpur, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Decan and Konkan southwards to Kerala.

Ayurvedic: Shankhapushpi (Gujarat).

Action: Used as a substitute for Convolvulus pluricaulas Choisy.... lavandula bipinnata

Stapf.

Synonym: Eragrostis cynosuroides Beauv.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the plains of India in dry and hot areas and in sandy deserts.

English: Sacrificial Grass (smaller var.)

Ayurvedic: Kusha, Suuchyagra, Yagyabhuushana, Kshurapatra.

Siddha/Tamil: Tharubai.

Action: Root—cooling, diuretic, galactagogue, astringent. Used for urinary calculi, and other diseases of the bladder. Clums—used in menorrhagia, dysentery, diarrhoea and in skin diseases. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommended the use of the rootstock in dysuria, vaginal discharges and erysipelas.

Dosage: Rootstock—50-100 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)... desmostachya bipinnata

Linn.

Synonym: Vigna unquiculata (L.) Walp.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: A pulse crop, particularly in Madras, Mysore, Mumbai and Hyderabad.

English: Horsegram.

Ayurvedic: Kulattha, Kulittha, Khalva, Vardhipatraka.

Unani: Kulthi.

Siddha/Tamil: Kollu, Kaanam.

Action: Plant—used in measles, smallpox, adenitis, burns, sores. Seeds—astringent, antipyretic, diuretic. Decoction or soup is used in affections of the liver and spleen, intestinal colic, in leucorrhoea and menstrual dissorders, urinary discharges. A valuable protein supplement.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the decoction of dry seeds in calculus and amenorrhoea.

The seeds contain crude protein 20.8, pentosan 10.8 and water-soluble gum 2.8%. The presence of antinu- tritional components such as haemag- glutinin and a protease inhibitor has been reported. The inhibitor activity decreased during germination.

The mean protein value of the seeds is 25.47% which is more or less equivalent to soybean, winged bean and gram. Nutritionally, the horsegram seeds are richer in lysine content when compared to Cajanus cajan (Arhar) pulse and gram pulse.

Presence of vitamin A in the green pods makes them a valuable diet for children; green leaves may be used in vitamin C deficiency syndrome, due to the presence of ascorbic acid and calcium. The seeds contain several common phytosterols.

Strepogenin—several times higher than in casein.

A decoction of seeds (soaked or boiled in water) is prescribed as diuretic and antilithiatic and has been clinically established.

Diuretic activity of a dipeptide (py- roglutamylglutamine) has been found to be 2-3 times that of acetazolamide in albino rats.

Globulin fraction of the seeds showed hypolipidaemic effects in rats.

A lectin-like glycoprotein from stems and leaves possesses carbohydrate- binding activity.

Dosage: Seed—6 g powder; decoction 50-100 ml. (CCRAS.)... dolichos biflorus

Hook. f.

Family: Meliaceae.

Habitat: Assam, Sikkim, Bengal and the Western Ghats.

Siddha/Tamil: Agunivagil, Cembil. Folk: Lassuni (West Bengal).

Action: Fruit—anti-inflammatory, diuretic, CNS depressant.

The bark from mature trees contain 15% tannin and that from young trees 10%. EtOH (50%) extract of fruit—anti- inflammatory, diuretic and CNS depressant.

The fruit contains a tetranortriter- penoid, dysobinin, a potential CNS depressant and inflammation inhibitor.

The stem bark contains an alkaloid, rohitukine, which exhibited anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory property.... dysoxylum binectariferum

(Retz.) C. E. Hubbard.

Synonym: Pollinidium angustifolium Haines.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Many parts of North India. English: Baib grass, Sabai grass. Ayurvedic: Balvaja. Folk: Bhaabar.

Action: Diuretic. Used for treating lithiasis.

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant is sasmogenic.... eulaliopsis binata

The period during which the biting cycle of a given mosquito species when the largest number of females take blood meals.... peak biting time

Unrepresentative publication of research reports that is not due to the quality of the research but to other characteristics, e.g. tendencies of investigators to submit, and publishers to accept, positive research reports (i.e. ones with results showing a beneficial treatment effect of a new intervention).... publication bias

Error due to systematic differences in characteristics between those who take part in a study and those who do not. Selection bias invalidates conclusions and generalizations that might otherwise be drawn from such studies.... selection bias

Roxb.

Synonym: E. tetragonum Roxb. E. perrottetii Griseb.

Family: Gentianaceae.

Habitat: Upper Gangetic plains and tropical Himalaya, also in South India.

Ayurvedic: Ava-chiraayataa (bigger var. of chiraayataa).

Folk: Titakhana, Uudakiraayita (Maharashtra).

Action: Stomachic,febrifuge, antifungal, bitter tonic.

The leaves gave apigenin, luteolin, vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocate- chuic and p-coumaric acids.

A related species. Exacum pedun- culatum L., found throughout India, ascending up to 1,000 m, is also used as a substitute for Swertia chirayita and Gentiana lutea. Pounded plant is applied externally in rheumatism and gout. It also gave luteolin, diosmetin and phenolic acids.... exacum bicolor

Roxb.

Family: Caesalpiniaceae.

Habitat: Dry forests of Deccan Peninsula, Central India and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Ayurvedic: Anjana.

Siddha/Tamil: Katudugu, Kodapalai.

Action: Balsam—used for sexually transmitted diseases. The balsam is similar to Copaiba balsam (Copaifera langsdorffii Desf., Leguminosae) of Brasil and is used in leucorrhoea, chronic cystitis, gonorrhoea, combined with cubebs and sandal. The resin (not the oleo-resin) is used as diuretic.

The essential oil of H. binata is not a substitute for Copaiba oil.

The methanolic extract of the heart- wood yields beta-sitosterol, (+)-taxifo- lin, eriodictyol, (+)-catechin, (+)-epi- catechin and (+)-mopanol. The phenolic compounds are said to impart antibacterial and antifungal property to the herb.

The bark has a good absorption capacity for mercury from water.... hardwickia binata

See BITES AND STINGS.... snake-bite

Steud.

Family: Combretaceae.

Habitat: Andamans.

English: White Chuglam, Silvergrey Wood.

Action: Bark—cardiac stimulant. It contains tannins and is used as an adulterant to cutch.... terminalia bialata

Tick-borne spotted fever.... tick bite fever

Linn.

Family: Lentibulariaceae.

Habitat: Marshy places, as a weed.

English: Bladder wort.

Folk: Jhangi (smallar var.)

Action: Diuretic (used against urinary disorders), anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic (used against cough). Used topically for mucous membrane inflammations, burns and wounds.

U. stellaris is equated with bigger var. of Jhangi.... utricularia bifida

Linn.

Family: Violaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 1,800-3,000 m.

Unani: Banafashaa (related species).

Action: Leaves—laxative, emollient. Flowers—antiseptic, pectoral, diaphoretic. Root—emetic.

The herb is used as a substitute for Banafashaa obtained from V. odorata.

The leaves are used for treating skin eruptions and the flowers for skin irritation.... viola biflora

Twins occur about once in 80 pregnancies, triplets once in 6,000, and quadruplets about once in 500,000. Quintuplets are exceedingly rare. Such is the natural state of a?airs.

In recent years, however, the position has been altered by the introduction of the so-called fertility drugs, such as CLOMIPHENE, and human menopausal gonadotrophin which, through the medium of the PITUITARY GLAND, stimulate the production of ova (see OVUM). Their wide use in the treatment of INFERTILITY has resulted in an increase in the number of multiple births, a recognised hazard of giving too large a dose.

Twins may be binovular or uniovular. Binovular, or fraternal, twins are the result of the mother’s releasing two ova within a few days of each other and both being fertilised by separate spermatozoa (see SPERMATOZOON). They both develop separately in the mother’s womb and are no more alike than is usual with members of the same family. They are three times as common as uniovular, or identical, twins, who are developed from a single ovum fertilised by a single spermatozoon, but which has split early in development. This is why they are usually so remarkably alike in looks and mental characteristics. Unlike binovular twins, who may be of the same or di?erent sex, they are always of the same sex.

So far as fraternal, or binovular, twins are concerned, multiple pregnancy may be an inherited tendency; it certainly occurs more often in certain families, but this may be partly due to chance. A woman who has already given birth to twins is ten times more likely to have another multiple pregnancy than one who has not previously had twins. The statistical chance of a third pair of twins is 1:512,000. Identical twins do not run in families.

The relative proportion of twins of each type varies in di?erent races. Identical twins have much the same frequency all over the world: around 3 per 1,000 maternities. Fraternal twins are rare in Mongolian races: less than 3 per 1,000 maternities. In Caucasians they occur two or three times as often as identical twins: between 7 (Spain and Portugal) and 10 (Czech and Slovak Republics and Greece) per 1,000 maternities. They are more common in Afro-Caribbeans, reaching 30 per 1,000 maternities in certain West African populations.

Rarely, uniovular twins may not develop as separate individuals, being physically joined in some way. They are called conjoined or (traditionally) Siamese twins. Depending on the extent of common structures shared by the infants – this ranges from a common umbilical cord to twins with conjoined heads or a common liver – the infants may be successfully separated by surgery. (See CONJOINED TWINS.)

Parents of twins, triplets, etc. can obtain advice and help from the Twins and Multiple Births Association (TAMBA).... multiple births

Nees.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: Distributed throughout India.

Ayurvedic: Nadikaantaa, Praachibalaa, Sulomshaa, Kaakatik- ta, Kaakajanghaa. (Aatarilaal is a wrong synonym. It is equated with Anthriscus cerefolium Hoffm., used in Unani medicine.)

Siddha/Tamil: Chebisa.

Action: Plant—febrifuge. The essential oil shows tuberculostatic activity in vitro. It inhibits the growth of various strains of Mycobaterium tuberculosis.

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the dried root in insomnia and for fear-psychosis in children.

Dosage: Root—1-5 g powder. (API, Vol III.)... peristrophe bicalyculata

Linn.

Synonym: P. paleaceum Wall. ex Hook. f.

Family: Polygonaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim and the hills of Assam.

English: Snake Weed, Bistort, Dragon Wort.

Unani: Anjabaar.

Action: Anti-inflammatory, haemostatic, astringent, demulcent, anticatarrhal, antidiarrhoeal. Used for internal haemorrhages, irritable bowel, diverticulosis, urinary and uterine affections. Used as a mouth wash and gargle for ulcerated mouth and bleeding gums.

The herb contains ferulic, sinapic, vanillic, syringic, melilotic, p-couma- ric, p-hydroxybenzoic, gentisic, sali- cyclic and ellagic acids, about 15-20% tannins mainly catechins.

When administered before the induction of adjuvant arthritis, the aqueous-ethanolic extract of the herb inhibited both the maximal oedema response and the total oedema response in rat.... polygonum bistorta

Herbs with an affinity for the liver and gallbladder, prescribed for inflammation of those organs and promotion of bile.

Balmony, Barberry, Betony, Bitter root, Black root, Centuary, Chamomile, Dandelion, Fringe Tree, Fumitory, Goldenseal, Holy Thistle, Hops, Mountain Grape, Mugwort, Pomegranate bark, Vervain, Wahoo, Wild Yam, Wormwood. ... anti-bilious

A herb that initiates a change in the metabolism of the body. It exercises a specific chemical action relating to vitamins, hormones, enzymes and minerals. Parsley is one of the most important. Others – Watercress, Alfalfa, Fenugreek seeds, Lettuce, Marshmallow, Carrots. ... biocatalyst

Vitamin P factors usually found with Vitamin C. Sources: most fruits, particularly citrus, grapefruit, grapes, lemons; rutin as found in buckwheat. They are associated with maintaining the strength of capillary walls in the elderly. One of the most popular and effective sources is Ginkgo that increases oxygen and blood supply in the general circulation, particularly the brain. ... bioflavonoids

The Khil plant is native to the Nile Valley. Seeds have a long traditional reputation as a kidney-stone breaker. Half an ounce seeds to 1 pint water; bring to boil and simmer for 5 minutes. All is drunk over the course of the day. Continue until positive response, allowing one week’s rest after each three weeks. ... bisr khil

If you want both an aromatic tea, as well as a healthy one, orange peel tea is perfect. It is a delicious beverage, especially during cold winter days. It also helps you stay healthy, especially thanks to the amount of vitamin C it contains. Read this article to find out more about its health benefits and side effects. About Orange Peel Tea Orange peel tea is made from the peel of the orange fruit. The fruit grows in orange trees, which are cultivated all around the world. The orange peel is the outer skin of the orange, leathery-textured and with many oil glands. Orange peel, as well as the peel from other fruits (lemon, lime) has been used for medical purposes for many years. They are also used for culinary purposes, as they can be added to soups, stews, cakes or cookies. Components of Orange Peel Tea It is well-known that oranges have many nutritional components. Some are included in the orange peel, as well, and are thus transferred to the orange peel tea. The orange peel tea is, of course, a great source of Vitamin C, and also has vitamin B1. Other important active constituents are: choline, folic acid, antioxidant flavonoids, d-limonene, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and aldehydes. How to make Orange Peel Tea If you’ve got some oranges around, you can easily make your own orange peel tea from scratch. Peel the skin from an orange, cut it in smaller pieces, and let them dry, preferably in a cool, dry place. Once they’re dry, you can use them for your orange peel tea. Add a bit to a cup of boiling water and let it steep for about 10-15 minutes. Remove the pieces of dried orange peel and you’re ready to drink your cup of tea! Orange Peel Tea Benefits Because of its many active constituents, orange peel tea helps you stay healthy. One cup brings many health benefits. Orange peel tea helps you fight against viruses and bacteria. It is also useful when treating coughs, asthma, bronchitis, tightness in the chest, and colds. Generally, it is good at helping the body eliminate the phlegm in the lungs. Drinking orange peel tea helps you have a good digestion. It is useful when relieving gas, bloating and nausea, symptoms of an upset stomach. Also, it is drunk in order to treat constipation, and it helps boost your appetite. Orange peel tea is also helpful when it comes to having a good oral hygiene. It helps you take care and treat sensitive skin, and it also eliminates bad breath. Another benefit is related to stimulating blood circulation and the flow in the lymphatic system. Also, orange peel tea is useful with helping you fight stress, nervousness, and insomnia. For women who have just given birth, orange peel tea helps treat mastitis (when the breast feels swollen because of excess milk production). If this is your case, then it’s recommended that you drink it twice a day. Orange Peel Tea Side Effects Just like any type of tea, orange peel tea also comes with a few side effects. First, it is recommended that you not drink orange peel tea while you’re pregnant. It might cause problems to the baby. Orange peel tea can act as a stimulant in some cases. It might cause symptoms such as nervousness or restlessness, and you might also have trouble falling asleep. It will act even more as a stimulant if you take a supplement that contains caffeine. If your family has a history of heart diseases, speak to your doctor before drinking orange peel tea. It might be harmful for you, and cause high blood pressure, hypertension, arrhythmias, tachycardia, fainting, heart palpitations and chest pains. Be careful if you’re suffering from hyperthyroidism. Orange peel tea may aggravate the thyroid’s condition. It might also weaken your body, or cause vision problems. It can cause your vision to get blurry, difficulty in focusing, and it might also worsen glaucoma. Not only is orange peel tea richly aromatic and delicious, but it is also good for your health. Make sure you get no side effects and then you can enjoy a cup of orange peel tea!... orange peel tea - a bittersweet tea

W. f. Wight.

Synonym: S. aculeata (Willd.) Poir.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Western Himalayas and plains, southwards to Peninsular India.

English: Prickly Sesban, Dhaincha.

Ayurvedic: Jayanti (var.), Itkata (var.).

Siddha/Tamil: Mudchembai.

Action: Seeds—used externally in ringworm and skin diseases. Plant—used for treating wounds.

The leaf, stem and fruit gave positive test for alkaloids. A mixture of saponins, reported to be present in the seeds, yields on hydrolysis oleanolic acid and neutral sapogenin. Colloidal substances similar to those of marine algae, locust bean gum, guar gum and gum tragacanth are reported in the seeds.... sesbania bispinosa

Of cats, dogs, fish, domestic and other animals. Treatment as for RABIES. For weever fish sting the best treatment is hot water. For bites of insects, see INSECT BITES. ... bites

Treatment as for RABIES. ... dog bite

The name given to a muscle originating as 2 separate parts, which then fuse. It is the commonly used name for the biceps brachii muscle of the upper arm, which bends the arm at the elbow and rotates the

forearm. The biceps femoris at the back of the thigh bends the leg at the knee and extends the thigh.... biceps muscle

A spectacle lens with 2 different focal lengths. Glasses with bifocal lenses make corrections for both close and distant vision.... bifocal

This is one of the most common of the congenital (present at birth) malformations. It is one of the three types of neural-tube anomaly, the other two being ANENCEPHALY and cranium bi?dum. It takes two main forms – spina bi?da occulta being much the commoner. There is a de?cit in the posterior part of the SPINAL COLUMN, usually in the LUMBAR region, and it is generally asymptomatic unless the underlying spinal cord is affected. Occasionally it is associated with a hairy patch or birthmark on the back, and a few children develop a mild spastic gait or bladder problems.

Much more serious is spina bi?da cystica, in which the spinal-wall defect is accompanied by a protrusion of the spinal cord. This may take two forms: a meningocele, in which the MENINGES, containing CEREBROSPINAL FLUID, protrude through the defect; and a meningomyelocele, in which the protrusion contains spinal cord and nerves.

Meningocele is less common and has a good prognosis. HYDROCEPHALUS and neurological problems affecting the legs are rare, although the bladder may be affected. Treatment consists of surgery which may be in the ?rst few days of life or much later depending upon the precise situation; long-term follow-up is necessary to pick up any neurological problems that may develop during subsequent growth of the spine.

Meningomyelocele is much more serious and more common, accounting for 90 per cent of all cases. Usually affecting the lumbo-sacral region, the range of severity may vary considerably and, while early surgery with careful attention in a minor case may achieve good mobility, normal bladder function and intellect, a more extensive protrusion may cause complete ANAESTHESIA of the skin, with increased risk of trauma; extensive paralysis of the trunk and limbs, with severe deformities; and paralysis and insensitivity of the bladder and bowel. Involuntary movements may be present, and hydrocephalus occurs in 80 per cent of cases. The decision to operate can only be made after a full examination of the infant to determine the extent of the defect and any co-existent congenital abnormalities. The child’s potential can then be estimated, and appropriate treatment discussed with the parents. Carefully selected patients should receive long-term treatment in a special centre, where full attention can be paid to all their various problems.

There is growing evidence of the value of vitamin supplements before and during pregnancy in reducing the incidence of spina bi?da. Parents of affected infants may obtain help, advice, and encouragement from the Association for Spina Bi?da and Hydrocephalus which has branches throughout the country, or the Scottish Spina Bi?da Association.... spina bifida

Roxb.

Synonym: T. natans Linn. var. bispinosa (Roxb.) Makino. T. quadrispinosa Wall.

Family: Trapaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India.

English: Water Chestnut.

Ayurvedic: Shrngaataka, Shrngaata, Shrngamuula, Trikota, Jalapha- la, Trikonaphala, Paaniyaphala, Jalkanda, Trikona, Trika.

Unani: Singhaaraa.

Siddha: Singara

Action: The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of dried kernels in bleeding disorders, threatened abortion, dysuria, polyuria and oedema.

Flour of dried kernels is used in preparations for breaking fast in India. The flour is rich in proteins and minerals. The flour, prepared from dried kernels, ofred and white varieties contain: phosphorus 45, 48; sulphur 122.81, 130.16; calcium 60, 20; magnesium 200, 160; sodium 100, 80; and potassium 1800, 1760 mg/100 g; iron 145.16, 129.02 and manganese 18.93, 11.36 ppm, respectively. The starch, isolated from flour, consists of 15% amylose and 85% amylopectin.

Dosage: Dried seed—5-10 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.)... trapa bispinosa

(Wight & Arn.) Engl.

Synonym: Toddalia bilocularis Wight & Arn.

Family: Rutaceae.

Habitat: North Kanara, forests of Malabar, Annamalai and Travancore, up to 1,200 m.

Ayurvedic: Krishna-Agaru. (In South India V. bilocularis is used as Krishna-Agaru and Dysoxylum labricum Bedd. ex Hiern as Shveta-Agaru.)

Siddha/Tamil: Devadaram.

Action: Wood—extract in oil is used for rheumatic swellings and skin diseases. Root—used for biliousness.

Alkaloids from stem bark included kokusaginine, skimmianine, flindersi- amine, evoxanthine, N-methylacrido- ne derivatives, maculine and vepris- one. The leaves contain a triterpenoid, lupeol.... vepris bilocularis

Also called the mucus inspection method, a technique in which a woman notes changes in the characteristics of mucus produced by the cervix in order to predict ovulation for the purposes of contraception or family planning.... billings’ method

A type of partial gastrectomy in which the lower part of the stomach is removed. Once used as a surgical treatment for peptic ulcers, it has now largely been replaced by treatment with antibiotic drugs.... billroth’s operation

The first intelligence test that attempted to measure higher mental functions, devised in 1905.... binet test

An alternative term for bulimia.... binge–purge syndrome

DC.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Near sea-coasts and the Andamans.

Ayurvedic: Bhringaraaja (yellow- flowered var).

Action: Leaves—used as poultice on ulcers, sores, varicose veins; paste applied to fungal infections. Leaf decction—vulnerary and antiscabious. The juice of leaf is also given internally with cow's milk as a tonic after child birth.

The dried leaves contain veratryli- dene hydrazide and quercetin derivatives. The stem contains stigmasterol and grandifloric acid. The leaves and stem showed antifungal activity.... wedelia biflora

Huckleberry. Vaccinum myrtillus L. French: Petit Myrte. German: Echte Heidelbeere. Italian: Baceri mirtillo. Fresh berries, rarely leaves.

Action. Anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, antemetic, astringent, diuretic, refrigerant, strengthens blood vessels, vein tonic. Inhibits growth of certain bacteria. Contains Vitamins A, C, P. Gather before fruit ripens.

Uses: Dropsy, gravel, violent irritable bowel, diverticulosis, nausea or vomiting, sore throat (gargle), leucorrhoea (douche), scurvy, Vitamin C deficiency. Popular in Russian Folk Medicine for gastro- enteritis and to reduce insulin intake in diabetes. Cleansing wash for old ulcers (decoction). Pharyngitis (gargle). Leukoplakia of the mouth, vagina and urethra – improvement reported. Crohn’s disease. Bacillus Coli infections. By stimulating production of visual purple improves vision, especially night vision. Varicose veins. Piles. Cystitis.

Preparations: Thrice daily.

Decoction: 1oz to 1 pint water, remove vessel when boiling point is reached. Wineglass freely.

Liquid Extract, dose: 2-8ml.

Home tincture. Handful bilberries to 1 pint Vodka. Cork or cap. Shake daily for 1 week. Filter. Wineglass freely.

Formula. Combines well with Meadowsweet and Horsetail (equal parts).

Powder, capsules: 280mg. 2 capsules thrice daily between meals. (Arkocaps)

Diet. Cooked fresh berries are a popular dessert. Equal parts leaves of Wild Strawberry, Thyme and Bilberry substitute for domestic tea.

Fresh berries. Chew 1-3 teaspoons daily. ... bilberry

Bile is a greenish-yellow alkaline substance secreted by the liver which emulsifies fat and prevents putrefaction in the intestines. An aid to pancreatic juices.

Alternatives. To stimulate flow, Boldo, Horsetail, Dandelion, Blue Flag root, Milk Thistle, Bogbean, Burdock. Teas, capsules, tablets, Liquid extracts, or Tinctures.

A. Vogel recommends: Barberry, Centuary, St John’s Wort, Sarsaparilla.

Combination tea. Equal parts: Peppermint leaves, Milk Thistle, Dandelion root. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes, 1 cup thrice daily for limited period (1 month).

Bile in the urine. (Bilviria)

Arthur Barker: Liquid Extract Black root 1oz (30ml). Liquid Extract Cornsilk 1oz (30ml). Essential Peppermint 30 drops (2ml). Water to 8oz (240ml). 2 teaspoons in water 3 times daily before meals.

Diet. Dandelion coffee. Artichokes.

See: CHOLAGOGUES. CHOLERETICS. ... bile secretion deficiency

“Liverishness”. A common term used to describe sick headache, nausea and sour belching due to liver disorder. May also be associated with kidney disease, acidity, constipation or appendicitis. Most likely due to dietetic indiscretions, alcohol, fatty foods.

Alternatives:– Tea. Mixture. Equal parts, Black Horehound and Wood Betony. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water infused 5-15 minutes. Drink freely.

Decoction. Mixture. Parts: Fringe Tree bark 2; Parsley root 1; Dandelion root 1. One teaspoon to each cup water gently simmered 20 minutes. Half a cup 3 times daily before meals.

Tablets/capsules. Devil’s Claw, Milk Thistle, Blue Flag, Wild Yam.

Powders. Formula. Equal parts: Milk Thistle and Peppermint. Dose: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon) thrice daily.

Tinctures. Formula. Equal parts: Wahoo and Barberry. 30-60 drops every 2 hours in water.

Barberry bark. One teaspoon shredded Barberry bark to each cup cold water allowed to infuse overnight. Half-1 cup twice daily.

Arthur Barker. Liquid Extract Black root 30ml; Liquid Extract Meadowsweet 30ml; Liquid Extract Agrimony 15ml; Emulsion Peppermint water (1 in 60) 2ml (optional). Water to 240ml (8oz). Dose: 2 teaspoons in water 3 times daily.

Prevention. Weekly dose Epsom’s salts.

Milk Thistle. Acquires a reputation for the complaint.

Diet. Low fat, Dandelion coffee, artichokes. Reject alcohol and strong caffeine drinks.

See also: ACIDOSIS. LIVER. ... bilousness

A popular term for the inherent timing mechanism that supposedly controls physiological processes and cycles in living organisms. (See also biorhythms.)... biological clock

are analysed by staining, in which Abnormal area dyes are used to Normal to show up structures or identify constituents such as antibodies or enzymes. A tissue sample may be tested with specific antibodies in the investigation of infection and inflammation. In some cases, a tis-sue culture may be required.... biopsy samples

Physiological functions that vary in a rhythmic way.

Most biorhythms are based on a daily, or circadian (24hour), cycle.

Our bodies are governed by an internal clock, which is itself regulated by hormones.

Periods of sleepiness and wakefulness may be affected by the level of melatonin secreted by the pineal gland in the brain.

Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and suppressed by light.

Cortisol, secreted by the adrenal glands, also reflects the sleeping and waking states, being low in the evening and high in the morning.... biorhythms

See bisphosphonate drugs.... biphosphonate drugs

Damage sustained during birth. Minor injuries, such as bruising and swelling of the scalp during a vaginal delivery (see cephalhaematoma) are common. More serious injury can occur, particularly if the baby is excessively large and has difficulty in passing through the birth canal. A breech delivery may result in injury to nerves in the shoulder, causing temporary paralysis in the arm. The face may be paralysed temporarily if the facial nerve is traumatized by forceps. Fractured bones are another hazard of difficult deliveries, but the bones usually heal easily. (See also birth defects; brain damage.)... birth injury

Company founded by Fred Pestalozzi, Herrliberg on Lake Zurich, Switzerland. Pioneered herbal preparations in a base of candida utilis yeast. Yeast is fed with wild herbs plasmolysed in a fermentation process. Efficacy of products demonstrated by scientific experiment. Under special growing conditions the principles are absorbed by the yeast cells in the process of multiplication or are bound to the cell surface. They are then metabolised, i.e., undergo chemical change.

Candida utilis is a highly active wild yeast able to synthesise its own vitamins. More than 90 selected plant species from 14 countries are used in Biostrath preparations. The Company has pioneered an important advance in the preparation of herbal medicines. Results have in some instances led to completely new discoveries. ... biostrath a. g.

Herbal yeast food supplement. Ingredients: herbal yeast plasmolysate (saccharomyces cerevisiae) 85 per cent w/w, malt extract 9 per cent w/w, honey 3 per cent w/w, orange juice 3 per cent w/w. Biostrath Drops are a similar preparation but without malt, honey and orange juice, (Vessen). Builds up resistance, promotes vitality, combats stress, examination fatigue and lack of concentration. Said to protect the body against radiation.

Live yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is cultivated on the herbs: Angelica, Balm, Basil, Caraway, Chamomile, Cinnamon, Elder, Fennel, Horseradish, Hyssop, Lavender, Liquorice, Parsley, Peppermint, Sage and Thyme. ... biostrath elixir

 Silver birch. Betula alba L., B. pendula Roth. German: Weissbirke. French: Bouleau. Spanish: Abidul. Italian: Betula. Bark and leaves.

Action: Astringent. Bitter. Anti-inflammatory. Cholagogue. Diuretic. Contains salicylates which have an aspirin-like effect. Young leaves increase the flow of urine. Popular in Scandinavia.

Uses: Rheumatism and gout (dried leaf tea). Sore mouth (gargle). Kidney and bladder complaints. Sluggish kidney function. ‘Heart’ oedema. Cellulitis due to retention of metabolic wastes.

Preparations: Tea: 1 teaspoon dried leaves to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Strain. Wineglass thrice daily.

Methyl salicylate, a rheumatism remedy, obtained by distillation of the twigs. (A. Vogel) Birch tar oil. (Ointment) External use only (UK). ... birch, european

Aristolochia longa, L. Aristolochia clematis L. Aristolochia indica L.

Part used: root. Long reputation in traditional medicine. Prescription by medical practitioner only. Action: stimulant, emmenagogue, diaphoretic, oxytocic (hence its name – to induce childbirth delivery). Immune enhancer. Stimulates action of white blood cells.

Reduces effects of Prednisolone, Chloramphenicol and Tetracycline (H. Wagner, “Economic & Medicinal Plant Research, vol 1, Pub: Academic Press (1985) UK)

Uses: Chinese medicine: ulcers, infectious diseases.

Preparations: Powdered root: dose – 2-4 grams. 2-3 times daily.

Madaus: Tardolyt: a sodium salt of aristolochic acid. ... birthwort

Bitters are stimulants to the autonomic nervous system. They stimulate ‘bitter’ taste buds in the mouth that reflexly initiate secretion of a special hormone into the blood stream increasing production of stomach and pancreatic juices and impelling the liver to release bile into the duodenum. Bitters increase acid production and are given about half an hour before meals. To sweeten them is to nullify their effect.

Bitters increase the appetite, assist assimilation, and are indicated for perverted or loss of the sense of taste (zinc). They reduce fermentation in the intestines and are of value in hypoglycaemia and diabetes mellitus. Bitters are not carminatives. Some, such as Gentian, Calumba and Chamomile are also sialogogues (increasing the flow of saliva). Another effect, little understood, is an increase in white corpuscles in the peripheral circulation.

Aletris, Angostura, Avens, Balmony, Barberry, Betony, Bogbean, Boneset, Calumba, Centuary, Chicory, Condurango, Feverfew, Gentian, Goldenseal, Holy Thistle, Hops, Quassia Chips, Rue, Southernwood, White Horehound, Wormwood.

Not used in presence of gastric ulcer. ... bitters

A pool of warm water in which a woman can sit to help relieve pain during labour.... birthpool

A baby’s weight at birth that usually ranges from 2.5–4.5 kg.

Birthweight depends on a number of factors, including the size and ethnic origin of the parents.

Babies who weigh less than 2.5 kg at birth are classified as being of low birthweight.

Causes of low birthweight include prematurity and undernourishment in the uterus (for example, because the mother had preeclampsia).

Abnormally high birthweight is often due to unrecognized or poorly controlled diabetes mellitus in the mother.... birthweight

Sexual interest in members of both sexes that may or may not involve sexual activity.... bisexuality

Drugs used to slow bone metabolism (for example in Paget’s disease) and to reduce the high calcium levels in the blood associated with destruction of bone by secondary cancer growths.

Bisphosphonates are also used in the prevention or treatment of osteoporosis.... bisphosphonate drugs

Wounds caused by one person biting another. Human bites rarely cause serious tissue damage or blood loss, but infection is likely, particularly if the bite is deep. There is a risk of tetanus infection. Transmission of hepatitis B, herpes simplex, and AIDS by a bite is a theoretical hazard.... bites, human

An uncommon form of liver cirrhosis that results from problems with the bile ducts, either due to an autoimmune disorder known as primary biliary cirrhosis, or a longstanding blockage. Primary biliary cirrhosis affects mainly middle-aged women and seems to be linked with a malfunction of the immune system. Secondary biliary cirrhosis results from prolonged bile duct obstruction or biliary atresia. In both types, liver function is impaired due to cholestasis (accumulation of bile in the liver). In primary biliary cirrhosis, the bile ducts within the liver become inflamed and are destroyed. Symptoms include itching, jaundice, an enlarged liver, and sometimes abdominal pain, fatty diarrhoea, and xanthomatosis. Osteoporosis may develop. Symptoms of liver cirrhosis and liver failure may occur after several years. Drugs can minimize complications and relieve symptoms such as itching. A liver transplant is the only long-term cure.

The symptoms and signs of secondary biliary cirrhosis include abdominal pain and tenderness, liver enlargement, fevers and chills, and sometimes blood abnormalities. Treatment is the same as for bile duct obstruction.... biliary cirrhosis

The organs and ducts by which bile is formed, concentrated, and carried from the liver to the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). Bile is secreted by the liver cells and collected by a network of bile ducts that carry the bile out of the liver by way of the hepatic duct. A channel called the cystic duct branches off the hepatic duct and leads to the gallbladder where bile is concentrated and stored. Beyond this junction, the hepatic duct becomes the common bile duct and opens into the duodenum at a controlled orifice called the ampulla of Vater. The presence of fat in the duodenum after a meal causes secretion of a hormone, which opens the ampulla of Vater and makes the gallbladder contract, squeezing stored bile into the duodenum.

The main disorders affecting the biliary system are gallstones, congenital biliary atresia and bile duct obstruction.

(See also gallbladder, disorders of.)... biliary system

A technique in which a person uses information about a normally unconscious body function to gain conscious control over that function. Biofeedback training may help in the treatment of stress-related conditions, including certain types of hypertension, anxiety, and migraine.

The patient is connected to a recording instrument that measures one of the unconscious body activities, such as blood pressure, heart-rate, or the quantity of sweat on the skin. The patient receives information (feedback) on the changing levels of these activities from changes in the instrument’s signals. Using relaxation techniques, the patient learns to change the signals by conscious control of the body function. Once acquired, this control can be exercised without the instrument.... biofeedback training

See insect bites.... flea bites

A procedure in which a small sample of kidney tissue is removed and examined under a microscope.

Kidney biopsy is performed to investigate and diagnose serious kidney disorders, such as glomerulonephritis, proteinuria, nephrotic syndrome, and acute kidney failure, or to assess the kidneys’ response to treatment.

There are 2 basic techniques: percutaneous needle biopsy, in which a hollow needle is passed through the skin into the kidney under local anaesthesia; and open surgery under general anaesthesia.... kidney biopsy

A rare inherited disorder characterized by increasing obesity, retinitis pigmentosa that may lead to blindness, learning difficulties, polydactyly, and hypogonadism.

(See also genetic disorders.)... laurence–biedl–moon syndrome

Any injury inflicted by the mouthparts of an animal, from the puncture wounds of bloodsucking insects to the massive injuries caused by shark or crocodile attacks. Teeth, especially those of carnivores, can inflict severe and widespread mechanical injury. Severe injuries and lacerations to major blood vessels can lead to severe blood loss and physiological shock. Serious infection may occur due to bacteria in the animal’s mouth; and tetanus is a particular hazard. In countries where rabies is present, any mammal may potentially harbour the rabies virus and transmit it via a bite. Medical advice should be sought for all but minor injuries or if there is a possibility of rabies. Treatment usually includes cleaning and examination of the wound. The wound will usually be left open and dressed. Preventive antibiotic drug treatment and an antitetanus injection may also be given. Antirabies vaccine is given, with immunoglobulin, if there is any possibility that the animal is infected with the rabies virus. (See also bites, human insect bites; snake bites; spider bites; venomous bites and stings.)... bites, animal

A procedure to obtain a sample of cells from the bone marrow (aspiration biopsy) or a small core of bone with marrow inside (trephine biopsy). The sample is usually taken, under local anaesthesia, from the sternum (breastbone) or iliac crests (upper part of the hip-bones). Microscopic examination gives information on the development of the blood components

surrounding tissues. Radionuclide scanning detects areas throughout the skeleton in which there is high bone-cell activity. This type of scanning and on the presence of cells foreign to the marrow.

It is useful in the diagnosis of many blood disorders, including leukaemia and anaemia.

It can also show whether bone marrow has been invaded by lymphoma or cells from other tumours.... bone marrow biopsy

A diagnostic test in which a small sample of tissue is removed from the liver, usually under local anaesthesia. The main function of this test is to diagnose liver diseases. (See also biopsy.)... liver biopsy

Mosquitoes are flying insects found throughout the world. The females bite humans or animals to obtain blood, which they need to produce eggs. The males do not bite. A doctor should be consulted if there is a severe skin reaction to a mosquito bite.

As well as being irritating, mosquito bites can also transmit diseases. The main disease-transmitting mosquitoes belong to 3 groups: ANOPHELES (which transmits malaria), AEDES (which carries yellow fever), and CULEX (which transmits filariasis).

Preventive measures should be taken in any area where mosquitoes are rampant. The most effective measures are wearing long sleeves and socks, placing mosquito screens over windows, and using insect-repellent sprays or slowburning coils that release insecticidal smoke. Mosquito nets should be placed over beds. (See also insect bites; insects and disease.)... mosquito bites

See kidney biopsy.... renal biopsy

Bites of small, long-legged sandflies, found in many warm climates, which can transmit disease to humans.

In tropical and subtropical areas they transmit leishmaniasis.

In parts of Asia and the Mediterranean, they transmit sandfly fever, an influenza-like illness.

In the western Andes, they transmit bartonellosis, different forms of which cause either joint pain and fever, or a rash.... sandfly bites

Removal of a portion of skin for laboratory analysis in order to diagnose a skin disorder.... skin biopsy

Most snake bites are by nonvenomous species. Venomous snakes are found mainly in the tropics; the only species native to the is the adder.

The effects of a venomous bite depend on the species and size of the snake, the amount of venom injected, and the age and health of the victim. A bite from an adder or other viper typically causes immediate pain and swelling at the site, followed by dizziness and nausea, a drop in blood pressure, an increase in heart-rate, and internal bleeding.

Antibiotic drugs and tetanus antitoxin injections are given for all bites to prevent infection and tetanus.

An injection of antivenom is also given for a venomous bite.

With prompt treatment, most victims recover completely.... snake bites

Nearly all spiders produce venom, which they use to kill their prey.

However, only a few species, such as the black widow in North America, are harmful to humans.

Antivenoms are available for many dangerous spider bites.... spider bites

A type of intelligence test.... stanford–binet test

The bites of tsetse flies, which are found in Africa, can be painful. The flies, resembling brown houseflies, spread sleeping sickness.... tsetse fly bites

A cause of myiasis.... tumbu fly bites

The injection of venom by certain animals via their mouthparts (bites) or other injecting apparatus (stings). Venoms are often carried to discourage predators, and are sometimes used to kill or immobilize prey. It is rare for a venomous animal to attack a person unless it has been provoked or disturbed. Specific antivenoms are available to treat many, though not all, types of animal venom. (See also insect stings; jellyfish stings; scorpion stings; snake bites; spider bites.)... venomous bites and stings

n. a nonsteroidal *anti-androgen commonly used to treat locally advanced and metastatic prostate cancer. It binds to and blocks the androgen receptor but does not reduce the levels of testosterone in the blood, thus preserving libido and general energy levels. Side-effects include breast enlargement, tenderness, and pain.... bicalutamide

a deep tendon reflex mediated by the fifth cervical *spinal nerve (C5). The examiner’s thumb or index finger is placed over the patient’s biceps tendon in the elbow crease and struck sharply with a tendon hammer; the normal response is a reflex contraction of the biceps and flexion of the elbow. The jerk is exaggerated in upper *motor neuron lesions, such as a stroke, and reduced or absent in lower motor neuron lesions, such as a disc herniation, peripheral nerve injury, or peripheral neuropathy (e.g. diabetes, alcoholism).... biceps jerk

adj. having a hollowed surface on both sides. Biconcave lenses are used to correct short-sightedness. Compare biconvex.... biconcave

adj. having a surface on each side that curves outwards. Biconvex lenses are used to correct long-sightedness. Compare biconcave.... biconvex

adj. having two hornlike processes or projections. The term is applied to an abnormal uterus that is divided into two separate halves at the upper end.... bicornuate

see contralateral-routing-of-signal hearing aid.... bicros hearing aid

see mitral valve.... bicuspid valve

an orthoptic eye test used mainly to differentiate between a weakness of the superior oblique muscle and a weakness of the contralateral superior rectus muscle (see extrinsic muscle). [A. Bielschowsky (1871–1940), German ophthalmologist]... bielschowsky head tilt

adj. split or cleft into two parts.... bifid

one of the two swellings that develop in the roof of the midbrain during its development in the embryo.... bigeminal body

n. the condition in which alternate *ectopic beats of the heart are transmitted to the pulse and felt as a double pulse beat (pulsus bigeminus). It is usually benign.... bigeminy

n. one of the group of drugs including *metformin, which is used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus. Biguanides are *oral hypoglycaemic drugs: they act by reducing the release of glucose from the liver and increasing glucose uptake by muscles.... biguanide

the organic acids in bile; mostly occurring as bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate). They are cholic acid, deoxycholic acid, glycocholic acid, and taurocholic acid.

cebile-acid sequestrant a drug that binds to bile acids, forming a complex that is excreted in the faeces. Bile acids are formed in the liver from *cholesterol and the effect of loss of bile acids is a reduction in total body cholesterol and a decrease in *low-density lipoprotein serum levels. These drugs, which include *colestyramine and *colestipol, are used to treat patients with abnormally high blood cholesterol levels who are liable to develop coronary heart disease.... bile acids

coloured compounds – breakdown products of the blood pigment *haemoglobin – that are excreted in *bile. The two most important bile pigments are bilirubin, which is orange or yellow, and its oxidized form biliverdin, which is green. Mixed with the intestinal contents, they give the brown colour to the faeces (see urobilinogen).... bile pigments

sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate – the alkaline salts of *bile – necessary for the emulsification of fats. After they have been absorbed from the intestine they are transported to the liver for reuse.... bile salts

combining form denoting bile.... bili

adj. relating to or affecting the bile duct or bile. See also fistula.... biliary

(choluria) n. the presence of bile in the urine: a feature of certain forms of jaundice.... biliuria

n. see bile pigments.... biliverdin

a method of planning pregnancy involving the daily examination of cervical mucus, which varies in consistency and colour throughout the menstrual cycle. Use of a Billings mucus observation chart to help identify the type of mucus enables the woman to have six days’ warning of impending ovulation. [J. and E. Billings (20th century), Australian physicians]... billings method

adj. using two hands to perform an activity, such as a gynaecological examination.... bimanual

n. a *prostaglandin analogue (a prodrug) used topically as eye drops to control the progression of glaucoma and in the management of ocular hypertension. It reduces intraocular pressure by increasing the outflow of aqueous fluid from the eyes.... bimatoprost

n. a bandage that is wound around a part of the body, usually the abdomen, to apply pressure or to give support or protection.... binder

see bulimia.... binge–purge syndrome

the ability to focus both eyes on an object at the same time, so that a person sees one image of the object he is looking at. It is not inborn, but acquired during the first few months of life. Binocular vision enables judgment of distance and perception of depth. See also stereoscopic vision.... binocular vision

n. the ability of a material or device to be tolerated by living tissue or a living system; this means it must not be toxic, injurious, or physiologically reactive and must not cause a negative immunological response. Biocompatibility is important for materials embedded in the body. —biocompatible adj.... biocompatibility

n. an area of applied *ethics concerned with the life sciences generally and not limited to *medical ethics, academic study of which is often seen as a subspecialty of bioethics (biomedical ethics).... bioethics

n. an organized layer of microorganisms in which the cells stick to each other as well as to a surface. Biofilm may be implicated in several disease processes, including dental infections (see plaque), *endocarditis, infections of surgical implants, lung infections in people with *cystic fibrosis, and *glue ear. Its organized structure makes the biofilm resistant to attack.... biofilm

n. see biopharmaceutical.... biologic

(BRM) a therapeutic agent, such as *interferon or *interleukin, that influences the body’s defence mechanisms to act against infection and disease. In small amounts, these substances are produced naturally by the body; larger doses have been genetically developed for use against rheumatoid arthritis, hepatitis, and cancer (especially melanoma and renal cancer).... biological response modifier

any treatment that facilitates the ability of the immune system to fight disease, as opposed to acting directly against the disease (compare chemotherapy; radiotherapy). Such treatments, most commonly used for cancer and rheumatic disease, include *biological response modifiers, *immunotherapy, *monoclonal antibodies, *cytokine inhibitors and modulators, and *targeted agents.... biological therapy

(in dentistry) the combined width of the *junctional epithelium and connective tissue attachment around the root surface of a tooth: in other words, the distance between the deepest point of the gingival sulcus and the *alveolus. Dental restorations must respect this natural dimension if harmful consequences are to be avoided.... biologic width

n. the study of living organisms – plants, animals, and microorganisms – including their structure and function and their relationships with one another and with the inanimate world. —biological adj.... biology

n. a normal *metabolite that, when present in abnormal concentrations in certain body fluids, can indicate the presence of a particular disease or toxicological condition. For example, abnormal concentrations of glucose in the blood can be indicative of *diabetes mellitus.... biomarker

n. the measurement of living things and the processes associated with life, including the application of mathematics, particularly statistics, to problems in biology.... biometry

n. the science of mechanical or electronic systems that function in the same way as, or have characteristics of, living systems. Compare cybernetics. —bionic adj.... bionics

n. see ecology.... bionomics

(biological medical product)... biopharmaceutical

a physiological assessment of fetal wellbeing, based on scores for each of the following: fetal breathing, fetal movement, fetal tone, and *amniotic fluid volume (as observed on ultrasound) and fetal heart rate (measured by *cardiotocography). The maximum score is 10 (with 2 points for each component).... biophysical profile

n. a *biopharmaceutical (biologic) created to be very similar to a product already approved for clinical use whose patent has expired. Owing to their molecular complexity, it is not possible to produce identical (generic) versions of biological products. However, a growing number of biosimilars have been approved since the mid-2000s on the basis that they have no clinically meaningful differences from the original product.... biosimilar

n. the application of statistical techniques to studies in biology, especially in the fields of medicine and public health. The term embraces, and is to some extent synonymous with, vital statistics (e.g. *fertility and *mortality rates) and *demography.... biostatistics

(bi-level positive airways pressure) trade name for a device that provides ventilation for patients by delivering air to the lungs at two levels of pressure, either cyclically in an anaesthetized patient or triggered by the patient’s attempts at breathing when awake. The higher pressure inflates the lungs to whatever volume can safely be achieved, while the lower pressure enables controlled exhalation against a resistance: this minimizes *atelectasis, a risk with conventional positive-pressure ventilators, which allow exhalation against zero resistance (by opening a valve in the device). Although BiPAP is a trade name, it is now widely used generically for this type of ventilation (or ventilator). There are also other devices that utilize the same principle, for example vPAP (variable positive airways pressure).... bipap

the ultrasound measurement used to assess gestational age of a fetus between 13 and 22 weeks. It is the distance between the upper edge of the proximal parietal bone and the upper edge of the distal one, i.e. the greatest transverse diameter of the fetal skull.... biparietal diameter

see defibrillator.... biphasic defibrillator

adj. (in neurology) describing a neuron (nerve cell) that has two processes extending in different directions from its cell body.... bipolar

(BPAD) a severe mental illness affecting about 1% of the population and causing repeated episodes of *depression, *mania, and/or *mixed affective state. Type I BPAD consists equally of depressive and manic episodes, whereas Type II BPAD consists primarily of depressive episodes with occasional phases of *hypomania. Treatment is that of the individual episode. Antidepressants and antipsychotics are used to treat depressive episodes together with mood stabilizers (e.g. *lithium) or antiepileptics. Mood stabilizers are also used to prevent or lessen future episodes. Mania is most commonly treated with benzodiazepines, antipsychotics, and mood stabilizers. ECT may be used for either episode in severe cases. To prevent future episodes many patients need combinations of mood stabilizers with *antidepressant or *antipsychotic medication. Certain types of educational *psychotherapy can be used to prevent relapse as well as to treat the individual episode. Up to 50% of BPAD patients have substance abuse problems, and many suffer from residual mood symptoms between episodes.

BI-RADS (Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System) a standardized system of terminology, report organization, assessment, and classification for mammography and ultrasound or MRI of the breast. BI-RADS reporting enables radiologists to communicate results to the referring physician clearly and consistently, with a final assessment and specific management recommendations.

The success of BI-RADS has inspired several other systems of the same kind: TI-RADS (Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System); LI-RADS (Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System); and PI-RADS (Prostate Imaging Reporting and Data System).... bipolar affective disorder

a form of extrinsic allergic *alveolitis caused by the inhalation of avian proteins present in the droppings and feathers of certain birds, especially pigeons and caged birds (such as budgerigars). As in *farmer’s lung, there is an acute and a chronic form.... bird-fancier’s lung

see avian influenza.... bird flu

n. the property possessed by some naturally occurring substances (such as cell membranes) of doubly refracting a beam of light, i.e. of bending it in two different directions. —birefringent adj.... birefringence

see hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy.... birth asphyxia

a chair specially adapted to allow childbirth to take place in a sitting position. Its introduction in the Western world followed the increasing demand by women for greater mobility during labour. The chair is electronically powered and can be tilted back quickly and easily should the need arise.... birthing chair

a scoring system to assess the state of the maternal cervix and position of the fetal head to determine the ease or difficulty with which labour may be induced.... bishop score

a basic aniline dye used for staining and counterstaining histological and bacterial specimens. [O. von Bismarck (1815–98), German statesman]... bismarck brown

n. a cardioselective *beta blocker used to treat angina pectoris, hypertension, and heart failure. Possible side-effects include breathing difficulty, fatigue, cold extremities, and sleep disturbances.... bisoprolol

n. a narrow surgical knife, with a straight or curved blade.... bistoury

n. an appliance to prevent normal closure of the teeth in orthodontic treatment and in the treatment of *temporomandibular joint syndrome.... bite-raiser

n. a dental X-ray film that provides a view of the crowns of the teeth together with the alveolar bone in part of both upper and lower jaws. This view is used in the diagnosis of caries and periodontal disease (where alveolar bone does not appear on the bite-wing this indicates loss of bony support).... bite-wing

cheesy foamy greyish spots that form on the surface of dry patches of conjunctiva at the sides of the eyes. They consist of fragments of keratinized epithelium. A common cause is vitamin A deficiency. [P. A. Bitot (1822–88), French physician]... bitot’s spots

n. (in genetics) a structure consisting of homologous chromosomes attached to each other by *chiasmata during the first division of *meiosis. —bivalent adj.... bivalent

n. see hirudin.... bivalirudin

the thickness or thinness of the *gingiva in the faciopalatal dimension. A thin gingival biotype is thought to have a direct relation with gingival recession following surgical and restorative procedures.... gingival biotype

a family of plasma proteins whose function is to bind free hormone molecules to varying degrees and thus reduce their function. Alterations in levels of the binding globulins, for example during pregnancy or ill health, can result in variations in assays of hormone levels in individuals. Examples include thyroid-binding globulin, sex-hormone-binding globulin, and corticosteroid-binding globulin.... hormone-binding globulins

an autosomal *recessive condition characterized by obesity, short stature, learning disabilities, *retinitis pigmentosa, *hypogonadism, and delayed puberty. [J. Z. Laurence (1830–74), British ophthalmologist; R. C. Moon (1844–1914), US ophthalmologist; A. Biedl (1869–1933), Austrian physician]... laurence–moon–biedl syndrome

an *interventional radiology technique in which, after taking a sample of tissue (biopsy) to check for cancer cells or abnormality, the tract of the biopsy needle is plugged with materials to prevent bleeding at the site. It is mostly used for liver and renal biopsies.... plugged biopsy

1. delivery of a child by *Caesarean section after the mother’s death. 2. birth of a child after the father’s death.... posthumous birth

(premature birth) birth of a baby before 37 weeks (259 days) of gestation (calculated from the first day of the mother’s last menstrual period); a birth at less than 23 weeks is at present incompatible with life. Such factors as *pre-eclampsia, multiple pregnancies (e.g. twins), maternal infection, and *cervical incompetence may all result in preterm births, but in the majority of cases the cause is unknown. Conditions affecting preterm babies may include *respiratory distress syndrome, feeding difficulties, inability to maintain normal body temperature, *apnoea, infection, *necrotizing enterocolitis, and brain haemorrhages. Supportive treatment is provided in an incubator in a neonatal unit; many infants survive with no residual impairment but the shorter the gestation period, the more serious are the problems to be overcome.... preterm birth

a defect in the bony arch of the spine that (unlike spina bifida) has a normal skin covering; there may be an overlying hairy patch. The condition is usually an incidental finding on X-ray and it is not associated with neurological involvement.... spina bifida occulta

the making of decisions by a health-care provider based on (sometimes unconscious) nonmedical criteria. Examples include assuming that a woman’s physical complaints are ‘all in her head’ and neglecting to consider depression as a possible diagnosis in a man.... treatment bias

a plant which completes its life cycle in two years, without flowering in the first year.... biennial

a tonic component which stimulates the appetite and promotes the secretion of saliva and gastric juices by exciting the taste buds.... bitter

Prunus dulcis var. amara

FAMILY: Rosaceae

SYNONYMS: P. amygdalus var. amara, Amygdalus communis var. amara, A. dulcis, P. communis.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The almond tree grows to a height of about 7 metres and is popular as a garden tree due to its pinky-white blossom. It is botanically classified as a drupe.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Western Asia and North Africa, it is now extensively cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region, Israel and California.

OTHER SPECIES: There are two main types of almond tree – bitter and sweet. The sweet almond does not produce any essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A ‘fixed’ oil commonly known as ‘sweet almond oil’ is made by pressing the kernels from both the sweet and bitter almond trees. Unlike the essential oil, this fixed oil does not contain any benzaldehyde or prussic acid, and has many medical and cosmetic uses. It is used as a laxative, for bronchitis, coughs, heartburn and for disorders of the kidneys, bladder and biliary ducts. It helps relieve muscular aches and pains, softens the skin and premotes a clear complexion.

ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, antispasmodic, narcotic, vermifuge (FFPA).

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the kernels. The nuts are first pressed and macerated in warm water for 12 to 24 hours before the oil is extracted. It is during this process that the prussic acid is formed; it is not present in the raw seed. Most commercial bitter almond oil is rectified to remove all prussic acid, i.e. free from prussic acid (FFPA).

CHARACTERISTICS: Light colourless liquid with a characteristic ‘marzipan’ scent (FFPA).

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Benzaldehyde (95 per cent), prussic acid (3 per cent).

SAFETY DATA: Prussic acid, also known as hydrocyanic acid or cyanide, is a well-known poison. Benzaldehyde is also moderately toxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy either internally or externally.’2

OTHER USES: Bitter almond oil is no longer used for internal medication. Rectified bitter almond oil is used for flavouring foods, mainly confectionery; the most common uses are ‘almond essence’ and marzipan. The oil (FFPA) is increasingly being replaced by synthetic benzaldehyde in food flavourings.... almond, bitter

Betula lenta

FAMILY: Betulaceae

SYNONYMS: B. capinefolia, cherry birch, southern birch, mahogany birch, mountain mahogany.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful tree about 25 metres high which has a pyramidal shape while young. It has bright green leaves and a dark reddish-brown aromatic bark, which is broken into plates or patches.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Canada and southeastern USA; produced mainly in Pennsylvania.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous species of birch, spanning several continents, such as black birch (B. nigra) found in North America. Not to be confused with the European white birch (B. alba), which produces birch tar oil used in chronic skin diseases.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The cambium (the layer directly under the bark) is eaten in the spring, cut into strips like vermicelli. The bark, in the form of an infusion, is used as a general stimulant and to promote sweating. As a decoction or syrup, it is used as a tonic for dysentery and is said to be useful in genito-urinary irritation. The flavour of wintergreen and birch bark, in the form of a tea, was popular with the American Indians and European settlers. More recently, this has been translated into a preference for ‘root beer’ flavourings.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, depurative, diuretic, rubefacient, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the bark macerated in warm water.

CHARACTERISTICS: Colourless, pale yellow or reddish tinted liquid with an intense, sweet-woody, wintergreen-like scent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Almost entirely methyl salicylate (98 per cent), produced during the maceration process. It is almost identical in composition to wintergreen oil.

SAFETY DATA: Methyl salicylate, the major constituent, is not exactly toxic but very harmful in concentration.’ It can be absorbed through the skin, and fatal poisoning via this route has been reported.’. ’ It is also classed as an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Limited use as a counter-irritant in anti-arthritic and antineuralgic ointments and analgesic balms. Limited use as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes; extensively used as a flavouring agent, especially ‘root beer’, chewing gum, toothpaste, etc. (usually very low-level use).... birch, sweet

Betula alba

FAMILY: Betulaceae

SYNONYMS: B. alba var. pubescens, B. odorata, B. pendula, European white birch, silver birch.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Decorative tree, up to 15–20 metres high, with slender branches, silvery-white bark broken into scales, and light green oval leaves. The male catkins are 2–5 cms long, the female up to 15 cms long.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere; found throughout Eastern Europe, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic coast, northern China and Japan.

OTHER SPECIES: Many cultivars exist of this species of birch. The paper birch (B. papyrifera) and B. verrucosa are also used for the production of birch bud oil and/or birch tar. NB Should not be confused with the oil from the sweet birch (B. lenta) which is potentially toxic.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Birch buds were formerly used as a tonic in hair preparations. Birch tar is used in Europe for all types of chronic skin complaints: psoriasis, eczema, etc. In Scandinavia the young birch leaflets and twigs are bound into bundles and used in the sauna to tone the skin and promote the circulation. The sap is also tapped in the spring and drunk as a tonic. Buds, leaves and bark are used for ‘rheumatic and arthritic conditions, especially where kidney functions appear to need support … oedematous states; urinary infections and calculi.’.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, tonic.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaf-buds. 2. Crude birch tar is extracted by slow destructive distillation from the bark; this is subsequently steam distilled to yield a rectified birch tar oil.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pale yellow, viscous oil with a woody-green balsamic scent. It crystallizes at low temperatures. 2. The crude tar is an almost black, thick oily mass. The rectified oil is a brownish-yellow, clear oily liquid with a smoky, tar-like, ‘Russian leather’ odour. It blends well with other woody and balsamic oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Mainly betulenol and other sesquiterpenes. 2. In the tar oil: phenol, cresol, xylenol, guaiacol, creosol, pyrocatechol, pyrobetulin (which gives the ‘leather’ scent).

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Dermatitis, dull or congested skin, eczema, hair care, psoriasis etc.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, cellulitis, muscular pain, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.

OTHER USES: Birch bud oil is used primarily in hair tonics and shampoos, and in some cosmetics for its potential skin-healing effects. The crude tar is used in pharmaceutical preparations, ointments, lotions, etc. for dermatological diseases. It is also used in soap and leather manufacture – rectified birch tar oil provides the heart for many ‘leather’ type perfumes and aftershaves.... birch, white

Citrus aurantium var. amara

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYMS: C. vulgaris, C. bigaradia, Seville orange, sour orange bigarade (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree up to 10 metres high with dark green, glossy, oval leaves, paler beneath, with long but not very sharp spines. It has a smooth greyish trunk and branches, and very fragrant white flowers. The fruits are smaller and darker than the sweet orange. It is well known for its resistance to disease and is often used as root stock for other citrus trees, including the sweet orange.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Far East, especially India and China, but has become well adapted to the Mediterranean climate. It also grows abundantly in the USA (California), Israel and South America. Main producers of the oil include Spain, Guinea, the West Indies, Italy, Brazil and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous different species according to location – oils from Spain and Guinea are said to be of superior quality.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: ‘Oranges and lemons strengthen the heart, are good for diminishing the coagubility of the blood, and are beneficial for palpitation, scurvy, jaundice, bleedings, heartburn, relaxed throat, etc. They are powerfully anti-scorbutic, either internally or externally applied.’. The dried bitter orange peel is used as a tonic and carminative in treating dyspepsia.

In Chinese medicine the dried bitter orange and occasionally its peel are used in treating prolapse of the uterus and of the anus, diarrhoea, and blood in the faeces. Ingestion of large amounts of orange peel in children, however, has been reported to cause toxic effects.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, choleretic, fungicidal, sedative (mild), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: An essential oil by cold expression (hand or machine pressing) from the outer peel of the almost ripe fruit. (A terpeneless oil is also produced.) The leaves are used for the production of petitgrain oil; the blossom for neroli oil.

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark yellow or brownish-yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, dry, almost floral odour with a rich, sweet undertone.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 90 per cent monoterpenes: mainly limonene, myrcene, camphene, pinene, ocimene, cymene, and small amounts of alcohols, aldehydes and ketones.

SAFETY DATA: Phototoxic; otherwise generally non-toxic, non-irritant and non sensitizing. Limonene has been reported to cause contact dermatitis in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See sweet orange.

OTHER USES: Used in certain stomachic, laxative and carminative preparations. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, colognes and perfumes. Extensively used as a flavouring material, especially in liqueurs and soft drinks. Also utilized as a starting material for the isolation of naturallimonene.... orange, bitter