Insulin is extracted mainly from pork pancreas and puri?ed by crystallisation; it may be made biosynthetically by recombinant DNA technology using Escherichia coli, or semisynthetically by enzymatic modi?cation of porcine insulin to produce human insulin. The latter is the form now generally used, although some patients ?nd it unsuitable and have to return to porcine insulin.
The hormone acts by enabling the muscles and other tissues requiring sugar for their activity to take up this substance from the blood. All insulin preparations are to a greater or lesser extent immunogenic in humans, but immunological resistance to insulin action is uncommon.
Previously available in three strengths, of 20, 40, and 80 units per millilitre (U/ml), these have now largely been replaced by a standard strength of 100 U/ml (U100). Numerous different insulin preparations are listed; these differ in their speed of onset and duration of action, and hence vary in their suitability for individual patients.
Insulin is inactivated by gastrointestinal enzymes and is therefore generally given by subcutaneous injection, usually into the upper arms, thighs, buttocks, or abdomen. Some insulins are also available in cartridge form, which may be administered by injection devices (‘pens’). The absorption may vary from di?erent sites and with strenuous activity. About 25 per cent of diabetics require insulin treatment: most children from the onset, and all patients presenting with ketoacidosis. Insulin is also often needed by those with a rapid onset of symptoms such as weight loss, weakness, and sometimes vomiting, often associated with ketonuria.
The aim of treatment is to maintain good control of blood glucose concentration, while avoiding severe HYPOGLYCAEMIA; this is usually achieved by a regimen of preprandial injections of short-acting insulin (often with a bedtime injection of long-acting insulin). Insulin may also be given by continuous subcutaneous infusion with an infusion pump. This technique has many disadvantages: patients must be well motivated and able to monitor their own blood glucose, with access to expert advice both day and night; it is therefore rarely used.
Hypoglycaemia is a potential hazard for many patients converting from porcine to human insulin, because human insulin may result in them being unaware of classical hypoglycaemic warning symptoms. Drivers must be particularly careful, and individuals may be forbidden to drive if they have frequent or severe hypoglycaemic attacks. For this reason, insurance companies should be warned, and diabetics should – after taking appropriate medical advice – either return to porcine insulin or consider stopping driving.... insulin
This makes the penis erect and ready for insertion into the woman’s vagina in sexual intercourse. The end of the penis, the glans, is covered by a loose fold of skin – the foreskin or PREPUCE – which retracts when the organ is erect. The foreskin is sometimes removed for cultural or medical reasons.
A common congenital disorder of the penis is HYPOSPADIAS, in which the urethra opens somewhere along the under side; it can be repaired surgically. BALANITIS is in?ammation of the glans and foreskin. (See also REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM; EJACULATION; IMPOTENCE; PRIAPISM.)... penis
Habitat: Not common as a wild plant, except on damp heaths and commons. Frequently seen in cottage gardens. Indigenous to Britain and Europe.
Features ? This member of the mint family grows up to twelve inches high, the stembeing bluntly quadrangular. The one to one and a half inch long, egg-shaped leaves are opposite, on short stalks ; they are slightly serrate and nearly smooth. Purple flowers appear in August. The odour is rather pungent, mint-like but characteristic.Part used ? The whole herb.Action: Carminative, emmenagogue, diaphoretic and stimulant.
An infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint of boiling water, taken warm in teacupful doses frequently repeated, is helpful in hysteria, flatulence and sickness. For children's ailments such as feverish colds, disordered stomach and measles, Pennyroyal infusion may be given in appropriate doses with confidence. Its diaphoretic and stimulant action recommends it for chills and incipient fevers, and the infusion works as an emmenagogue when such ailments retard and obstruct menstruation. The oil of Pennyroyal is a first-rate protection against the bites of mosquitoes, gnats, and similar winged pests. The herb is used to some extent as a flavouring. Although not so popular as other herbs for this purpose, the mint-like flavour and carminative virtues of Pennyroyal should recommend it to cooks as adding to both palatability and digestibility of various dishes.American or Mock Pennyroyal are the names given to the dried leaves and flowering tops of Hedeoma pulegioides. This plant, although quite different in appearance from the European Pennyroyal, has similar medicinal values.... pennyroyalPeniah, Penea, Peniya, Peneah, Peniyah... penia
Penicillin is a beta-lactam antibiotic, one of a group of drugs that also includes CEPHALOSPORINS. Drugs of this group have a four-part beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure and they act by interfering with the cell-wall growth of mutliplying bacteria.
Among the organisms to which it has been, and often still is, active are: streptococcus, pneumococcus, meningococcus, gonococcus, and the organisms responsible for syphilis and for gas gangrene (for more information on these organisms and the diseases they cause, refer to the separate dictionary entries). Most bacteria of the genus staphylococcus are now resistant because they produce an enzyme called PENICILLINASE that destroys the antibiotic. A particular problem has been the evolution of strains resistant to methicillin – a derivative originally designed to conquer the resistance problem. These bacteria, known as METHICILLINRESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS (MRSA), are an increasing problem, especially after major surgery. Some are also resistant to other antibiotics such as vancomycin.
An important side-e?ect of penicillins is hypersensitivity which causes rashes and sometimes ANAPHYLAXIS, which can be fatal.
Forms of penicillin These include the following broad groups: benzylpenicillin and phenoxymethyl-penicillin; penicillinase-resistant penicillins; broad-spectrum penicillins; antipseudomonal penicillins; and mecillinams. BENZYLPENICILLIN is given intramuscularly, and is the form that is used when a rapid action is required. PHENOXYMETHYLPENICILLIN (also called penicillin V) is given by mouth and used in treating such disorders as TONSILLITIS. AMPICILLIN, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, is another of the penicillins derived by semi-synthesis from the penicillin nucleus. It, too, is active when taken by mouth, but its special feature is that it is active against gram-negative (see GRAM’S STAIN) micro-organisms such as E. coli and the salmonellae. It has been superceded by amoxicillin to the extent that prescriptions for ampicillin written by GPs in the UK to be dispensed to children have fallen by 95 per cent in the last ten years. CARBENICILLIN, a semi-synthetic penicillin, this must be given by injection, which may be painful. Its main use is in dealing with infections due to Pseudomonas pyocanea. It is the only penicillin active against this micro-organism which can be better dealt with by certain non-penicillin antibiotics. PIPERACILLIN AND TICARCILLIN are carboxypenicillins used to treat infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus spp. FLUCLOXACILLIN, also a semi-synthetic penicillin, is active against penicillin-resistant staphylococci and has the practical advantage of being active when taken by mouth. TEMOCILLIN is another penicillinase-resistant penicillin, e?ective against most gram-negative bacteria. AMOXICILLIN is an oral semi-synthetic penicillin with the same range of action as ampicillin but less likely to cause side-effects. MECILLINAM is of value in the treatment of infections with salmonellae (see FOOD POISONING), including typhoid fever, and with E. coli (see ESCHERICHIA). It is given by injection. There is a derivative, pivmecillinam, which can be taken by mouth. TICARCILLIN is a carboxypenicillin used mainly for serious infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, though it is also active against some gram-negative bacilli. Ticarcillin is available only in combination with clarulanic acid.... penicillin
Habitat: Throughout India; ascending to 1,700 m in the Himalayas.
Ayurvedic: Lataakhadira, Aadaari, Ari.Siddha/Tamil: Indan, Indu. Iyak Koluntu (tender leaves).Folk: Aila.Action: Bark—antibilious, antiasth- matic. Leaf—stomachic, styptic (for bleeding gum), antiseptic (for scalding of urine). A decoction of young leaves is taken for body pain, headache and fever.
The bark contains tannin 9%, lupe-ol and alpha-spinasterol. Stem yields sitosterol.... acacia pennataHabitat: West and South India. Often found planted around villages and temples.
English: Kapok, White Silk Cotton.Ayurvedic: Kuuta-Shaalmali, Shveta Shaalmali.Siddha/Tamil: Ielavum (Tamil).Action: Gum—laxative, astringent, demulcent (given in painful micturition). Unripe fruit—astringent. Root—diuretic, antidiabetic, an- tispasmodic (used in dysentery). Flowers—laxative; used in lochi- orrhoea. Unripe pods—used in vertigo and migraine. Seed oil— used in rheumatism.
The plant contains linarin (acacetin 7-rutinoside). Seeds contain fatty acids, diglycerides and phospholipids. Leaves are considered a good source of iron and calcium. Stem-bark extract—antimicrobial.... ceiba pentandraHabitat: The sub-Himalayan tract from Garhwal to Sikkim; also in Chakrata range.
Folk: Ratanjot (var.), Rowana. Surasi is a doubtful synonym.Action: Bark—anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic; used in veterinary medicine for wounds and sprains.
Aerial parts contain coumarins— clausmarins A and B. Coumarins exhibit spasmolytic activity. The root also contains coumarins. Root and stem bark of Clausena excavata Burm. f. Eastern sub-Himalayan tract, Orissa and Bihar) also contain coumarins— clausenin and clausenidin. The root bark exhibits antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria.A related species, C. anisata (Willd.) Oliver, is reported from Uttar Pradesh. Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts exhibited spasmolytic activity. The fu- ranocoumarins, anisolactone, xantho- toxol, indicolactone, imperatorin and 2', 3'-epoxy-anisolactone have been isolated from the extract.In West African traditional medicine, the decoction of the root is given to control convulsions in children. The anticonvulsant agent has been found to be heliettin, extracted from the stem bark and roots.... clausena pentaphyllaHabitat: The Himalayan terai from Punjab to Assam, and South India and the Andamans.
Folk: Dillenia. Agai (Bihar), Agachi (Maharashtra).Action: See D. indica.
The bark contains 6% tannin.... dillenia pentagynaHabitat: Native to tropical Asia; distributed throughout India.
Ayurvedic: Vaaraahikanda (var., dry pieces are sold as Vidaarikanda).Folk: Kaantaalu.Action: Tubers contain 71.0780.77% carbohydrates, 8.68-15.93% albuminoids. Tubers are used to disperse swellings.... dioscorea pentaphylla
Habitat: Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. Cultivated in gardens.
Ayurvedic: Vana-nimbuukaa, Ashwa-shaakhota.Siddha/Tamil: Konji, Amam, Kula-pannai.Folk: Bana-Nimbu, Paanal (Kerala).Action: Plant—bechic, anti- anaemic, antirheumatic. Root— anti-inflammatory. Leaf—used in Jaundice and liver disorders, eczema and other skin affections. Leaf and root—vermifuge, febrifuge. A paste of the wood is applied externally to pimples.
Leaf extract from a Sri Lankan plant yielded the alkaloids arborine, skim- mianine and arborinine. The steam distillate of leaves showed significant antifungal activity.... glycosmis pentaphyllaPenina, Peninah, Peninna, Penyna, Pennyna, Penine, Penyne... penninah
Habitat: A shrub cultivated as an ornamental throughout the hotter parts of India.
Ayurvedic: Bandhujiva, Bandhuuka, Arkavallabha.Folk: Gul-dupahariaa.Action: Capsule—mucilaginous, used for the diseases of the bowels; a decoction is used as emollient. Root—astringent, antibilious, antiphlegmonous, febrifuge.... pentapetes phoenicea
Habitat: Sylhet. (A parasite found on trees.)
Ayurvedic: Bandaaka (var.).Folk: Baandaa.Action: Leaves—used as poultice for sores and ulcers. The twigs contain quercitrin and a wax, which gives melissyl alcohol. The twig ash (8.95%) contains manganese (0.26%).... loranthus pentandrus
Natural penicillins are derived from the mould PENICILLIUM; others are synthetic preparations.
Penicillins are used to treat many infective conditions, including tonsillitis, bronchitis, bacterial endocarditis, syphilis, and pneumonia.
They are also given to prevent rheumatic fever from recurring.
Common adverse effects of penicillins are an allergic reaction causing a rash, and diarrhoea.... penicillin drugs
The various types include a silicone splint inserted in the tissues of the upper surface of the penis, and an inflatable prosthesis that is inflated by squeezing a small bulb in the scrotum.... penile implant
Habitat: A climber found in Punjab, Delhi, Upper Gangetic Plain, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Ayurvedic: Kaakanaasaa (related species).Folk: Ambarvel, Vanaveri (Punjab).Action: Root—astringent, antigon- orrhoeic, alterative. Plant—emetic, purgative.
An acyclic diterpene ester, cis-phy- tyl-l-palmitate, together with the triter- penes, squalene, n-taraxasterol and taraxasterol, has been isolated from the plant.... pentatropis microphyllaDiagnosis is made by a biopsy.
If the tumour is detected early, radiotherapy is usually successful.
Otherwise, removal of part or all of the penis may be necessary.... penis, cancer of
The rate of flow is adjusted so that the level of blood glucose (sugar) is constant.... pump, insulin
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