an agent which promotes healing by the formation of scar tissue.
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: A. balsamifera, Pinus balsamea, balsam fir, balsam tree, American silver fir, balm of Gilead fir, Canada turpentine (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, graceful evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with a tapering trunk and numerous branches giving the tree an overall shape of a perfect cone. It forms blisters of oleoresin (the so-called ‘balsam’) on the trunk and branches, produced from special vesicles beneath the bark. The tree does not produce a ‘true’ balsam, since it does not contain benzoic or cinnamic acid in its esters; it is really an oleoresin, being a mixture of resin and essential oil.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, particularly Quebec, Nova Scotia and Maine.
OTHER SPECIES: The hemlock spruce (Tsuga canadensis) also yields an exudation sold under the name of ‘Canada balsam’. There are also many other species of fir which produce oils from their needles – see entry on silver fir and Botanical Classification section. NB: Not to be confused with the genuine balsam of Gilead (Commiphora opabalsamum), of ancient repute.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oleoresin is used extensively by the American Indians for ritual purposes and as an external treatment for burns, sores, cuts and to relieve heart and chest pains. It is also used internally for coughs.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic (genito-urinary, pulmonary), antitussive, astringent, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, purgative, regulatory, sedative (nerve), tonic, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. The oleoresin is collected by punturing vesicles in the bark. 2. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin, known as Canada balsam or Canada turpentine. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the leaf or needles, known as fir needle oil.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oleoresin is a thick pale yellow or green honeylike mass which dries to crystal clear varnish, with a fresh sweet balsamic, almost fruity odour. 2. A colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, soft-balsamic, pinelike scent. It blends well with pine, cedarwood, cypress, sandalwood, juniper, benzoin and other balsams.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Consists almost entirely of monoterpenes, pinene, phellandrene, esters and alcohols.
SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. ‘In large doses it is purgative and may cause nausea.’4
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Burns, cuts, haemorrhoids, wounds.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs, sore throat.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, genito-urinary infections.
Nervous System: Depression, nervous tension, stress-related conditions – described as ‘appeasing, sedative, elevating, grounding, opening’.5
OTHER USES: The oil from the oleoresin is used in certain ointments and creams as an antiseptic and treatment for haemorrhoids. Used in dentistry as an ingredient in root canal sealers. Also used as a fixative or fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfurmes. There is some low-level use in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The oleoresin is used as a medium in microscopy and as a cement in glassware.... balsam, canadian
FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS: Cabureicica, ‘Baume de Perou brun’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful, tall tropical tree, 12–15 metres high, with a very hard wood, extremely resistant to moisture and mould growth. It yields a balsam when the trunk is damaged, like many other South American trees.
DISTRIBUTION: Found in Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and north Argentina.
OTHER SPECIES: Many varieties of Myrocarpus yield cabreuva oil, such as M. frondosus. It is also botanically related to the trees which yield copaiba, Peru and Tolu balsam.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The wood is highly appreciated for carving and furniture making. It is used by the natives to heal wounds, ulcers and obviate scars. It was once listed in old European pharmocopoeias for its antiseptic qualities.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from wood chippings (waste from the timber mills).
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, viscous liquid with a sweet, woody-floral scent, very delicate but having great tenacity. It blends well with rose, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, rich woody and oriental bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly nerolidol (80 per cent approx.), farnesol, bisabolol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, scars, wounds.
Respiratory System: Chills, coughs.
Immune System: Colds.
OTHER USES: Fragrance component and fixative in soaps and high-class perfumes, especially floral, woody or oriental types. Previously used for the isolation of nerolidol, now produced synthetically.... cabreuva
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: M. chamomilla, camomile, blue chamomile, matricaria, Hungarian chamomile, sweet false chamomile, single chamomile, chamomile blue (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual, strongly aromatic herb, up to 60 cms tall with a hairless, erect, branching stem. It has delicate feathery leaves and simple daisy-like white flowers on single stems. In appearance it is very similar to the corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis) but can be distinguished from it because the latter is scentless.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and north and west Asia; naturalized in North America and Australia. It is cultivated extensively, especially in Hungary and eastern Europe, where the oil is produced. It is no longer grown in Germany, despite the herbal name.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of chamomile, such as the pineapple weed (Chamaemelium suaveolens) and the Roman chamomile (C. nobile), both of which are used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has a long-standing medicinal tradition, especially in Europe for ‘all states of tension and the visceral symptoms that can arise therefrom, such as nervous dyspepsia and nervous bowel, tension headaches, and sleeplessness; especially useful for all children’s conditions, calming without depressing …’.
An excellent skin care remedy, it has many of the same qualities as Roman chamomile, except that its anti-inflammatory properties are greater due to the higher percentage of azulene.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, anti inflammatory, antiphlogistic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carlminative, cicatrisant, cholagogue, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, hepatic, nerve sedative, stimulant of leucocyte production, stomachic, sudorific, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flower heads (up to 1.9 per cent yield). An absolute is also produced in small quantities, which is a deeper blue colour and has greater tenacity and fixative properties.
CHARACTERISTICS: An inky-blue viscous liquid with a strong, sweetish warm-herbaceous odour. It blends well with geranium, lavender, patchouli, rose, benzoin, neroli, bergamot, marjoram, lemon, ylang ylang, jasmine, clary sage and labdanum.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Chamazulene, farnesene, bisabolol oxide, en-yndicycloether, among others. (NB The chamazulene is not present in the fresh flower but is only produced during the process of distillation.)
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; causes dermatitis in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, allergies, boils, burns, cuts, chilblains, dermatitis, earache, eczema, hair care, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, sensitive skin, teething pain, toothache, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, inflamed joints, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprains.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, indigestion, nausea.
Genito-Urinary System: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.
Nervous System: Headache, insomnia, nervous tension, migraine and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and in carminative, antispasmodic and tonic preparations. Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps, detergents, high-class perfumes and hair and bath products. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... chamomile, german
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Anthemis nobilis, camomile, English chamomile, garden chamomile, sweet chamomile, true chamomile.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, stocky, perennial herb, up to 25 cms high, with a much branched hairy stem, half spreading or creeping. It has feathery pinnate leaves, daisy-like white flowers which are larger than those of the German chamomile. The whole plant has an applelike scent.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern and western Europe; naturalized in North America. Cultivated in England, Belgium, Hungary, United States, Italy and France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are a great many varieties of chamomile found throughout the world, four of which are native to the British Isles, but the only one of these used therapeutically is the Roman chamomile (C. nobile).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has had a medical reputation in Europe and especially in the Mediterranean region for over 2000 years, and it is still in widespread use. It was employed by the ancient Egyptians and the Moors, and it was one of the Saxons’ nine sacred herbs, which they called ‘maythen’. It was also held to be the ‘plant’s physician’, since it promoted the health of plants nearby.
It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for the treatment of dyspepsia, nausea, anorexia, vomiting in pregnancy, dysmenorrhoea and specifically flatulent dyspepsia associated with mental stress.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-anaemic, antineuralgic, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, cholagogue, cicatrisant, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hepatic, hypnotic, nerve sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the flower heads.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale blue liquid (turning yellow on keeping) with a warm, sweet, fruity-herbaceous scent. It blends well with bergamot, clary sage, oakmoss, jasmine, labdanum, neroli, rose, geranium and lavender.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly esters of angelic and tiglic acids (approx. 85 per cent), with pinene, farnesol, nerolidol, chamazulene, pinocarvone, cineol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; can cause dermatitis in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See German chamomile.
OTHER USES: See German chamomile.... chamomile, roman
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: A. longirostris, garden chervil, salad chervil.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A delicate annual herb up to 30 cms high, with a slender, much branched stem, bright green, finely-divided, fernlike leaves, umbels of flat white flowerheads and long smooth seeds or fruits. The whole plant has a pleasing aromatic scent when bruised.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia; naturalized in America, Australia and New Zealand. Widely cultivated, especially in southern Europe and America.
OTHER SPECIES: A cultivated form of its wild relative, the wild chervil or garden-beaked parsley (A. sylvestris), with which it shares similar properties and uses. Not to be confused with another common garden herb sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata), also known as sweet or smooth chervil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name chervil comes from the Greek ‘to rejoice’, due to its delightful scent. The leaves are used as a domestic spice in salads, soups, omelettes, sauces and to flavour bread dough. In folk medicine it is used as a tea to ‘tone up the blood and nerves. Good for poor memory and mental depression. Sweetens the entire digestive system.’.
The juice from the fresh herb is used to treat skin ailments such as eczema, abscesses and slow-healing wounds; also used for dropsy, arthritis and gout, among others.
ACTIONS: Aperitif, antiseptic, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, nervine, restorative, stimulant (metabolism), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from seeds or fruit.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a sweet-herbaceous, anisic odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly methyl chavicol, also 1-allyl-2, 4-dimethoxybenzene and anethole, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Methyl chavicol and anethole are known to have toxic and irritant effects; methyl chavicol is reported to have possible carcinogenic effects. Since these constitute the major proportion of the essential oil, it is best avoided for therapeutic use.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient by the food industry, especially in meat products, as well as in alcoholic and soft drinks.... chervil
FAMILY: Burseraceae
SYNONYMS: C. commune, Manila elemi, elemi gum, elemi resin, elemi (oleoresin).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical tree up to 30 metres high which yields a resinous pathological exudation with a green pungent odour. Although it is called a gum, it is almost entirely made up of resin and essential oil.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Philippine Islands and the Moluccas, where it is also cultivated. Distillation of the oil takes place at source.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other species of Canarium which grow wild or are cultivated in the Philippines, which also yield a ‘gum’. It is also closely related to the trees yielding myrrh, frankincense and opopanax.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The gum or oleoresin is used locally for skin care, respiratory complaints and as a general stimulant. Elemi was one of the aromatics used by the ancient Egyptians for the embalming process.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant, expectorant, fortifying, regulatory, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the gum. (A resinoid and resin absolute are also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a light, fresh, balsamic-spicy, lemonlike odour. It blends well with myrrh, frankincense, labdanum, rosemary, lavender, lavandin, sage, cinnamon and other spices.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The gum contains about 10–25 per cent essential oil of mainly phellandrene, dipentene, elemol, elemicin, terpineol, carvone and terpinolene among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Aged skin, infected cuts and wounds, inflammations, rejuvenation, wrinkles – signifies drying and ‘preservation’..
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, unproductive coughs.
Nervous system: Nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Resinoid and oil are used primarily as fixatives but also as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Occasionally used as a flavouring ingredient in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.... elemi
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: F. gummosa, galbanum gum, galbanum resin, ‘bubonion’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large perennial herb with a smooth stem, shiny leaflets and small flowers. It contains resin ducts which exude a milky juice, a natural oleoresin. The dried resinous exudation is collected by making incisions at the base of the stem.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Middle East and western Asia; cultivated in Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan and Lebanon. Distillation usually takes place in Europe or the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are two distinct types: Levant galbanum which is liquid or soft, and Persian galbanum which is solid or hard. Other Ferula species also yield galbanum gum, such as the muskroot; see also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was used by the ancient civilizations as an incense, and in Egypt for cosmetics and in the embalming process. It is generally used in the east in a similar way to asafetida: for treating wounds, inflammations and skin disorders and also for respiratory, digestive and nervous complaints. Zalou root (F. hermonic) is used in Beirut as an aphrodisiac.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, hypotensive, restorative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the oleoresin or gum – only the Levant or soft type is used for oil production. A partially deterpenized oil is produced, known as ‘galbanol’. (A resinoid is also produced, mainly for use as a fixative.)
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude – A dark amber or brown viscous liquid with a green-woody scent and a soft balsamic undertone. Oil – A colourless, or pale yellow or olive liquid with a fresh green topnote and woody-dry balsamic undertone. It blends well with hyacinth, violet, narcissus, lavender, geranium, oakmoss, opopanax, pine, fir, styrax and oriental bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, cadinol, cadinene and myrcene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Abscesses, acne, boils, cuts, heals scar tissue, inflammations, tones the skin, mature skin, wrinkles, wounds – ‘signifies drying and preservation’..
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Poor circulation, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs.
Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion.
Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: The Persian gum used to be employed in pharmaceutical products. Both oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes. Also used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... galbanum
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Gum tree, southern blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum, fever tree, stringy bark.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A beautiful, tall, evergreen tree, up to 90 metres high. The young trees have bluish-green oval leaves while the mature trees develop long, narrow, yellowish leaves, creamy-white flowers and a smooth, pale grey bark often covered in a white powder.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia. Mainly cultivated in Spain and Portugal, also Brazil, California, Russia and China. Very little of this oil now comes from its native countries.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 different species of eucalyptus, of which at least 500 produce a type of essential oil. Many have been extracted simply for experimental purposes, and research is still being carried out with regard to the different constituents of each oil. In general, they can be divided into three categories. 1. The medicinal oils containing large amounts of cineol (or eucalyptol), such as the blue gum, but increasingly the blue malee (E. polybractea), the narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. australiana) and the gully gum (E. smithii). 2. The industrial oils containing mainly piperitone and phellandrene, such as the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita), grey peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra) and increasingly the broad-leaved peppermint (E. dives var. Type). 3. The perfumery oils containing mainly citronellal, such as the lemon-scented eucalyptus (E. citriodora). See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional household remedy in Australia, the leaves and oil are especially used for respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and croup, and the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco for asthma. It is also used for feverish conditions (malaria, typhoid, cholera, etc.) and skin problems like burns, ulcers and wounds. Aqueous extracts are used for aching joints, bacterial dysentery, ringworms, tuberculosis, etc. and employed for similar reasons in western and eastern medicine. The wood is also used for timber production in Spain.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, balsamic, cicatrisant, decongestant, deodorant, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hypoglycaemic, parasiticide, prophylactic, rubefacient, stimulant, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and young twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless mobile liquid (yellows on ageing), with a somewhat harsh camphoraceous odour and woody-sweet undertone. It blends well with thyme, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, pine, cedarwood and lemon. (The narrow-leaved eucalyptus (E. radiata var. australiana) is often used in preference to the blue gum in aromatherapy work, being rich in cineol but with a sweeter and less harsh odour.)
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (70–85 per cent), pinene, limonene, cymene, phellandrene, terpinene, aromadendrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Externally non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. ‘When taken internally eucalyptus oil is toxic and as little as 3.5ml has been reported as fatal’..
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Burns, blisters, cuts, herpes, insect bites, insect repellent, lice, skin infections, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea.
Immune System: Chickenpox, colds, epidemics, ’flu, measles.
Nervous System: Debility, headaches, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: The oil and cineol are largely employed in the preparation of liniments, inhalants, cough syrups, ointments, toothpaste and as pharmaceutical flavourings also used in veterinary practise and dentistry. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents and toiletries – little used in perfumes. Used for the isolation of cineol and employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories.... eucalyptus, blue gum
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Helichrysum, everlasting, St John’s herb.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic herb, up to 0.6 metres high with a much-branched stem, woody at the base. The brightly coloured, daisy-like flowers become dry as the plant matures, yet retain their colour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, especially the eastern part and North Africa. It is cultivated mainly in Italy, Yugoslavia, Spain and France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other Helichrysum species such as H. arenarium found in florist shops and H. stoechas which is also used to produce an absolute. H. orientale is grown for its oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Europe it is used for respiratory complaints such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and whooping cough; also for headaches, migraine, liver ailments and skin conditions including burns, allergies and psoriasis. Usually taken in the form of a decoction or infusion.
ACTIONS: Anti-allergenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antitussive, antiseptic, astringent, cholagogue, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hepatic, nervine.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowers and flowering tops. 2. An absolute (and concrete) are also produced by solvent extraction.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow to red oily liquid with a powerful, rich honeylike scent with a delicate tealike undertone. 2. A yellowy-brown viscous liquid with a rich, floral, tealike scent. It blends well with chamomile, boronia, labdanum, lavender, mimosa, oakmoss, geranium, clary sage, rose, Peru balsam, clove and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Nerol and neryl acetate (30–50 per cent), geraniol, pinene, linalol, isovaleric aldehyde, sesquiterpenes, furfurol and eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
Skin care: Abscess, acne, allergic conditions, boils, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, inflammation, spots, wounds etc.
Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, strained muscles.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, chronic coughs, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Liver congestion, spleen congestion.
Immune system: Bacterial infections, colds, ’flu, fever.
Nervous system: Depression, debility, lethargy, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes. The absolute is used to flavour certain tobaccos; used for the isolation of natural anethole.... immortelle
FAMILY: Burseraceae
SYNONYMS: Olibanum, gum thus.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A handsome small tree or shrub with abundant pinnate leaves and white or pale pink flowers. It yields a natural oleo gum resin which is collected by making incisions into the bark: at first, a milky-white liquid appears which then solidifies into tear-shaped amber to orange-brown lumps between the size of a pea and walnut.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Red Sea region; grows wild throughout north east Africa. The gum is mainly produced in Somalia, Ethiopia, China and south Arabia, then distilled in Europe and, to a lesser extent, India.
OTHER SPECIES: Other Boswellia species also yield olibanum gum, such as the Indian variety B. serrata. Constituents vary according to type and locality. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used since antiquity as an incense in India, China and in the west by the Catholic Church. In ancient Egypt it was used in rejuvenating face masks, cosmetics and perfumes. It has been used medicinally in the east and west for a wide range of conditions including syphilis, rheumatism, respiratory and urinary tract infections, skin diseases, as well as digestive and nervous complaints.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, cytophylactic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, sedative, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from selected oleo gum resin (approx. 3–10 per cent oil to 60–70 per cent resin). An absolute is also produced, for use mainly as a fixative.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a fresh, terpeney top note and a warm, rich, sweet-balsamic undertone. It blends well with sandalwood, pine, vetiver, geranium, lavender, mimosa, neroli, orange, bergamot, camphor, basil, pepper, cinnamon and other spices. It modifies the sweetness of citrus blends in an intriguing way.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons, notably pinene, dipentene, limonene, thujene, phellandrene, cymene, myrcene, terpinene; also octyl acetate, octanol, incensole, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Blemishes, dry and mature complexions, scars, wounds, wrinkles.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu.
Nervous System: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions – ‘Frankincense has, among its physical properties, the ability to slow down and deepen the breath … which is very conducive to prayer and meditation.’.
OTHER USES: The gum and oil are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental, spice and men’s fragrances. Employed in some pharmaceuticals such as liniments and throat pastilles. Extensively used in the manufacture of incense. The oil is used in minute amounts in some foods (such as meat products), alcoholic and soft drinks.... frankincense
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Calendula, marygold, marybud, gold-bloom, pot marigold, hollygold, common marigold, poet’s marigold.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual herb up to 60 cms high with soft, oval, pale green leaves and bright orange daisylike flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe and Egypt; naturalized throughout temperate regions of the world. Widely cultivated, especially in northern Europe for domestic and medicinal use. The absolute is only produced in France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several species of marigold, but the common marigold is the one generally used medicinally. It should not be confused with tagetes or taget from the Mexican marigold (Tagetes minuta) or the African marigold (T. erecta), the oil of which is also often called ‘calendula’.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient medical repute, said to ‘comfort the heart and spirits’.. It was also used for skin complaints, menstrual irregularities, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, conjunctivitis and poor eyesight. The flowers are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, specific for enlarged or inflamed lymph nodes, sebaceous cysts, duodenal ulcers and inflammatory skin lesions. The infused oil is useful for a wide range of skin problems including cracked and rough skin, nappy rash, grazes, cracked nipples, varicose veins and inflammations.
ACTIONS: Antihaemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, diaphoretic, cholagogue, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, styptic, tonic, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: An absolute by solvent extraction from the flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark greenish-brown viscous liquid with an intensely sharp, herbaceous odour. It blends well with oakmoss, hyacinth, floral and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The absolute contains calendulin (a yellow resin), waxes and volatile oil.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. The real calendula absolute is only produced in small quantities, and is difficult to get hold of.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Burns, cuts, eczema, greasy skin, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, wounds. NB: ‘The infused oil is very valuable in Aromatherapy for its powerful skin-healing properties.’ .
OTHER USES: Used in high-class perfumery.... marigold
FAMILY: Geraniaceae
SYNONYMS: Rose geranium, pelargonium.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial hairy shrub up to 1 metre high with pointed leaves, serrated at the edges and small pink flowers. The whole plant is aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South Africa; widely cultivated in Russia, Egypt, Congo, Japan, Central America and Europe (Spain, Italy and France). With regard to essential oil production, there are three main regions: Reunion (Bourbon), Egypt and Russia (also China).
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 varieties of cultivated geranium and pelargonium, many of which are grown for ornamental purposes. There are several oil-producing species such as P. odorantissimum and P. radens, but P. graveolens is the main one commercially cultivated for its oil. Geranium Bourbon (P. Roseum) has a superior fragrance to other species, having a rich rosy-fruity scent due to the higher levels of linalook and iso-methone content. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The British plant herb robert (Geranium robertianum) and the American cranesbill (G. maculatum) are the most widely used types in herbal medicine today, having been used since antiquity. They have many properties in common with the rose geranium, being used for conditions such as dysentery, haemorrhoids, inflammations, metrorrhagia and menorrhagia (excessive blood loss during menstruation). The root and herb of cranesbill is specifically indicated in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for diarrhoea and peptic ulcer.
ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antihaemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, cicatrisant, deodorant, diuretic, fungicidal, haemostatic, stimulant (adrenal cortex), styptic, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves, stalks and flowers. An absolute and concrete are also produced in Morocco.
CHARACTERISTICS: The Bourbon oil is a greenish-olive liquid with a green, rosy-sweet, minty scent. The Bourbon oil is generally preferred in perfumery work; it blends well with lavender, patchouli, clove, rose, sandalwood, jasmine, juniper, neroli, bergamot and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Citronellol, geraniol, linalol, isomenthone, menthane, phellandrene, sabinene, limonene, among others. Constituents vary according to type and source.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing; possible contact dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals, especially with the Bourbon type.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, bruises, broken capillaries, burns, congested skin, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, haemorrhoids, lice, oily complexion, mature skin, mosquito repellent, ringworm, ulcers, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, engorgement of breasts, oedema, poor circulation.
Respiratory System: Sore throat, tonsillitis.
Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Adrenocortical glands and menopausal problems, PMT.
Nervous System: Nervous tension, neuralgia and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in all kinds of cosmetic products: soaps, creams, perfumes, etc. Extensively employed as a flavouring agent in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... geranium
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: M. quinquenervia, ‘gomenol’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree with a flexible trunk and spongy bark, pointed linear leaves and bearing spikes of sessile yellowish flowers. The leaves have a strong aromatic scent when they are crushed.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia, New Caledonia, and the French Pacific Islands. The majority of the oil is produced in Australia and Tasmania.
OTHER SPECIES: A typical member of the ‘tea tree’ group of oils; the oil is similar to cajeput. There is another physiological form of M. viridiflora called ‘Variety A’, which was originally developed to provide a natural source of nerolidol, the main constituent of its essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is used locally for a wide variety of ailments, such as aches and pains, respiratory conditions, cuts and infections; it is also used to purify the water. The name ‘gomenol’ derives from the fact that it used to be shipped from Gomen in the French East Indies.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anthelmintic, anticatarrhal, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, regulator, stimulant, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and young twigs. (Usually rectified to remove irritant aldehydes.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless, pale yellow or greenish liquid with a sweet, fresh, camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (50–65 per cent), terpineol, pinene, limonene, citrene, terebenthene, valeric ester, acetic ester, butyric ester.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Often subject to adulteration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, boils, burns, cuts, insect bites, oily skin, spots, ulcers, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat, whooping cough.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urinary infection.
Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical preparations such as gargles, cough drops, toothpastes, mouth sprays, etc.... niaouli
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYM: Azob.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An attractive perennial, almost evergreen subshrub up to 60 cms high with a woody stem, small, lance-shaped leaves and purplish-blue flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region and temperate Asia; now grows wild throughout America, Russia and Europe. It is mainly cultivated in Hungary and France, and to a lesser degree in Albania and Yugoslavia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are four main subspecies of hyssop, but H. officinalis is the main oil producing variety. The species H. officinalis var. decumbens is less toxic than many other types, and well suited to aromatherapy use. To be distinguished from hedge hyssop (Gratiola officinalis) which is still used in herbal medicine but belongs to an entirely different family.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Although hyssop is mentioned in the Bible, it probably does not refer to this herb but to a form of wild marjoram or oregano, possibly Oreganum syriacum. Nevertheless H. officinalis has an ancient medical reputation and was used for purifying sacred places, and employed as a stewing herb. ‘The healing virtues of the plant are due to a particular volatile oil.’.
It is used principally for respiratory and digestive complaints, and externally for rheumatism, bruises, sores, earache and toothache. It is also used to regulate the blood pressure, as a general nerve tonic, and for states of anxiety or hysteria. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for bronchitis and the common cold.
ACTIONS: Astringent, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cicatrisant, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hypertensive, nervine, sedative, sudorific, tonic (heart and circulation), vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellowy-green liquid with a sweet, camphoraceous top note and warm spicy herbaceous undertone. It blends well with lavender, rosemary, myrtle, bay leaf, sage, clary sage, geranium and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinocamphone, isopinocamphone, estragole, borneol, geraniol, limonene, thujone, myrcene, caryophyllene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing; the oil is moderately toxic due to the pinocamphone content. It should be used only in moderation and avoided in pregnancy and by epileptics.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Bruises, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, inflammation, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Low or high blood pressure, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, cough, sore throat, tonsillitis, whooping cough.
Digestive System: Colic, indigestion.
Genito-Urinary System: Amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu.
Nervous System: Anxiety, fatigue, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially eau-de-cologne and oriental bases. Used as a flavour ingredient in many food products, mainly sauces and seasonings; also in alcoholic drinks, especially liqueurs such as chartreuse.... hyssop
FAMILY: Graminaceae
SYNONYMS: Andropogon martinii, A. martinii var. motia, East Indian geranium, Turkish geranium, Indian rosha, motia.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A wild-growing herbaceous plant with long slender stems and terminal flowering tops; the grassy leaves are very fragrant.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to India and Pakistan; now grown in Africa, Indonesia, Brazil and the Comoro Islands.
OTHER SPECIES: Of the same family as lemongrass and citronella; also closely related to gingergrass which is a different chemotype known as C. martinii var. sofia. Gingergrass is considered an inferior oil but in some parts of India the two types of grass are distilled together.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: ‘The oil term “Indian” or “Turkish” geranium oil, which formerly was applied to palmarosa oil, dates back to the time when the oil was shipped from Bombay to ports of the Red Sea and transported partly by land, to Constantinople and Bulgaria, where the oil was often used for the adulteration of rose oil.’.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, bactericidal, cicatrisant, digestive, febrifuge, hydrating, stimulant (digestive, circulatory), tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam or water distillation of the fresh or dried grass.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive liquid with a sweet, floral, rosy, geranium-like scent. It blends well with cananga, geranium, oakmoss, rosewood, amyris, sandalwood, guaiacwood, cedarwood and floral oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly geraniol; also farnesol, geranyl acetate, methyl heptenone, citronellol, citral, dipentene and limonene, among others. Several chemotypes depending upon source – the cultivated varieties are considered of superior quality.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis and minor skin infections, scars, sores, wrinkles; valuable for all types of treatment for the face, hands, feet, neck and lips (moisturizes the skin, stimulates cellular regeneration, regulates sebum production).
Digestive system: Anorexia, digestive atonia, intestinal infections – ‘This is an essence which acts on the pathogenic intestinal flora, in particular on the coli bacillus, the Eberth bacillus and the bacillus of dysentery ... this essence favours the transmutation of the pathogenic agent into normal cells of intestinal mucous membranes. Thus it arrests the degeneracy of the cells for the latter, swiftly impels groups of normal cells towards an inferior form in their hierarchy. The essence does not appear to contain any acid.’.
Nervous system: Nervous exhaustion, stressrelated conditions.
OTHER USES: Used extensively as a fragrance component in cosmetics, perfumes and especially soaps due to excellent tenacity. Limited use as a flavouring agent, e.g. tobacco. Used for the isolation of natural geraniol.... palmarosa
FAMILY: Oleaceae
SYNONYMS: Jasmin, jessamine, common jasmine, poet’s jessamine.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or vine up to 10 metres high with delicate, bright green leaves and star-shaped very fragrant white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to China, northern India and west Asia; cultivated in the Mediterranean region, China and India (depending on the exact species). The concrete is produced in Italy, France, Morocco, Egypt, China, Japan, Algeria and Turkey; the absolute is mainly produced in France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of jasmine used for medicine and perfumery work. Apart from the common jasmine, the most widespead varieties are the royal or Italian jasmine (J. grandiflorum) which is grown in the Mediterranean region, and its Eastern counterpart J. officinale var. grandiflorum or J. auriculatum. See the Botanical Classification section for a more comprehensive list.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In China the flowers of J. officinale var. grandiflorum are used to treat hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and dysentery; the flowers of J. sambac are used for conjunctivitis, dysentery, skin ulcers and tumours. The root is used to treat headaches, insomnia, pain due to dislocated joints and rheumatism.
In the West, the common jasmine was said to ‘warm the womb ... and facilitate the birth; it is useful for cough, difficulty of breathing, etc. It disperses crude humours, and is good for cold and catarrhous constitutions, but not for the hot.’ It was also used for hard, contracted limbs and problems with the nervous and reproductive systems.
ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, galactagogue, parturient, sedative, tonic (uterine).
EXTRACTION: A concrete is produced by solvent extraction; the absolute is obtained from the concrete by separation with alcohol. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the absolute.
CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a dark orange-brown, viscous liquid with an intensely rich, warm, floral scent and a tealike undertone. It blends well with rose, sandalwood, clary sage, and all citrus oils. It has the ability to round off any rough notes and blend with virtually everything.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: There are over 100 constituents in the oil including benzyl acetate, linalol, phenylacetic acid, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, methyl anthranilate, cis jasmone, methyl jasmonate, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing. (An allergic reaction has been known to occur in some individuals.)
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Dry, greasy, irritated, sensitive skin.
Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular spasm, sprains.
Respiratory system: Catarrh, coughs, hoarseness, laryngitis.
Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, frigidity, labour pains, uterine disorders.
Nervous system: Depression, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions. ‘It ... produces a feeling of optimism, confidence and euphoria. It is most useful in cases where there is apathy, indifference or listlessness.’.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially high-class floral and oriental fragrances. The oil and absolute are employed in a wide range of food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The dried flowers of J. sambac are used in jasmine tea.... jasmine
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: P. patchouly, patchouly, puchaput.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial bushy herb up to 1 metre high with a sturdy, hairy stem, large, fragrant, furry leaves and white flowers tinged with purple.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially Indonesia and the Philippines. It is extensively cultivated for its oil in its native regions as well as India, China, Malaysia and South America. The oil is also distilled in Europe and America from the dried leaves.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the Java patchouli (P. heyneanus), also known as false patchouli, which is also occasionally used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil is used in the East generally to scent linen and clothes, and is believed to help prevent the spread of disease (prophylactic). In China, Japan and Malaysia the herb is used to treat colds, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and halitosis. In Japan and Malaysia it is used as an antidote to poisonous snakebites.
ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antitoxic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, nervine, prophylactic, stimulant (nervous), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried leaves (usually subjected to fermentation previously). A resinoid is also produced, mainly as a fixative.
CHARACTERISTICS: An amber or dark orange viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, herbaceous earthy odour – it improves with age. It blends well with labdanum, vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, oakmoss, geranium, clove, lavender, rose, neroli, bergamot, cassia, myrrh, opopanax, clary sage and oriental-type bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Patchouli alcohol (40 per cent approx.), pogostol, bulnesol, nor patchoulenol, bulnese, patchoulene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, athlete’s foot, cracked and chapped skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema (weeping), fungal infections, hair care, impetigo, insect repellent, sores, oily hair and skin, open pores, wounds, wrinkles.
Nervous system: Frigidity, nervous exhaustion and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in cosmetic preparations, and as a fixative in soaps and perfumes, especially oriental types. Extensively used in the food industry, in alcoholic and soft drinks. It makes a good masking agent for unpleasant tastes and smells.... patchouli
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYM: Common juniper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or tree up to 6 metres high, with bluish green narrow stiff needles. It has small flowers and little round berries, which are green in the first year, turning black in the second and third.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere: Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada, northern Europe and northern Asia. The oil is mainly produced in Italy, France, Yugoslavia, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Germany and Canada.
OTHER SPECIES: In Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruit and twigs of J. smerka, less rich and sweet than that of common juniper. There are various other species of juniper such as J. oxycedrus which produces cade oil, J. virginiana which produces the so-called Virginian cedarwood oil, and J. sabina which produces savin oil. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The needles and berries have a long traditional history of use. It is used medicinally for urinary infections such as cystitis and urethritis; for respiratory problems such as bronchitis, colic and coughs; as well as gastro-intestinal infections and worms. It helps expel the build-up of uric acid in the joints, and is employed in gout, rheumatism and arthritis. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for rheumatic pain and cystitis.
ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the berries (sometimes fermented first as a by-product of juniper – brandy manufacture – the oil is considered an inferior product), and 2. the needles and wood. A resinoid, concrete and absolute are also produced on a small scale.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh, woody-balsamic odour. It blends well with vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, mastic, oakmoss, galbanum, elemi, cypress, clary sage, pine, lavender, lavandin, labdanum, fir needle, rosemary, benzoin, balsam tolu, geranium and citrus oils. 2. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet-balsamic, fresh, turpentine-like odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes: pinene, myrcene, sabinene with limonene, cymene, terpinene, thujene and camphene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-sensitizing, may be slightly irritating, generally non-toxic. However, it stimulates the uterine muscle (an abortifacient) and must not be used during pregnancy. Neither should it be used by those with kidney disease due to its nephrotoxic effect. The wood oil is usually adulterated with turpentine oil. It is best to use only juniper berry oil, in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, eczema, hair loss, haemorrhoids, oily complexions, as a skin toner, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Accumulation of toxins, arteriosclerosis, cellulitis, gout, obesity, rheumatism.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Berries and extracts are used in diuretic and laxative preparations; also veterinary preventatives of ticks and fleas. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially spicy fragrances and aftershaves. Extensively used in many food products but especially alcoholic and soft drinks: the berries are used to flavour gin.... juniper
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Satureia hortensis, Calamintha hortensis, garden savory.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual herb up to 45 cms high with slender, erect, slightly hairy stems, linear leaves and small, pale lilac flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, naturalized in North America. Extensively cultivated, especially in Spain, France, Yugoslavia and the USA for its essential oil.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the thyme family, with which it shares many characteristics. There are several different types ‘of savory’ which include S. thymbra, found in Spain, which contains mainly thymol, and the winter savory (S. montana) – see separate entry.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A popular culinary herb, with a peppery flavour. It has been used therapeutically mainly as a tea for various ailments including digestive complaints (cramp, nausea, indigestion, intestinal parasites), menstrual disorders and respiratory conditions (asthma, catarrh, sore throat). Applied externally, the fresh leaves bring instant relief from insect bites, bee and wasp stings.
‘This kind is both hotter and drier than the winter kind ... it expels tough phlegm from the chest and lungs, quickens the dull spirits in the lethargy.’.
ACTIONS: Anticatarrhal, antiputrescent, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, stimulant, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the whole dried herb. (An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow oil with a fresh, herbaceous, spicy odour. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, pine needle, oakmoss, rosemary and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Carvacrol, pinene, cymene, camphene, limonene, phellandrene and borneol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Dermal toxin, dermal irritant, mucous membrane irritant. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used on the skin at all.’.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in perfumery work for its fresh herbaceous notes. The oil and oleoresin are used in most major food categories, especially meat products and canned food.... savory, summer
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: L. vera, L. officinalis, garden lavender, common lavender
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen woody shrub, up to 1 metre tall, with pale green, narrow, linear leaves and flowers on blunt spikes of a beautiful violet-blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated all over the world. The oil is produced mainly in France, also Spain, Italy, England, Australia, Tasmania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria, Greece, etc.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of lavender; L. angustifolia is divided into two subspecies – L. delphinensis and L. fragrans. French lavender (L. stoechas) is a smaller shrub with dark violet flowers; see also entries on spike lavender, lavandin and the Botanical Classification section. The so-called cotton lavender (Santolina chamaecyparissus) and the sea lavender (Statice caroliniana) belong to different botanical families.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Lavender has a well-established tradition as a folk remedy, and its scent is still familiar to almost everyone. It was used to ‘comfort the stomach’ but above all as a cosmetic water, an insect repellent, to scent linen, and as a reviving yet soothing oil ‘The essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made from it, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms and colic ... A few drops of lavender in a hot footbath has a marked influence in relieving fatigue. Outwardly applied, it relieves toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. In hysteria, palsy and similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve power, lavender will act as a powerful stimulant.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops. 2. An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, floral herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone; it has a more fragrant floral scent compared to spike lavender. It blends well with most oils, especially citrus and florals; also cedarwood, clove, clary sage, pine, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli, etc. 2. The absolute is a dark green viscous liquid with a very sweet herbaceous, somewhat floral odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 100 constituents including linalyl acetate (up to 40 per cent), linalol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene, caryophyllene, among others. Constituents vary according to source: high altitudes generally produce more esters.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Generally regarded as the most versatile essence therapeutically:
Skin care: Abscesses, acne, allergies, athlete’s foot, boils, bruises, burns, dandruff, dermatitis, earache, eczema, inflammations, insect bites and stings, insect repellent, lice, psoriasis, ringworm, scabies, sores, spots, all skin types, sunburn, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Lumbago, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, halitosis, laryngitis, throat infections, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Abdominal cramps, colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune system: ’Flu.
Nervous system: Depression, headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions, PMT, sciatica, shock, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and as a fragrance. Extensively employed in all types of soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, etc, especially toilet waters and colognes. Employed as a flavouring agent in most categories of food as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... lavender, true
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Narrow-leaved paperbark tea tree, ti-tree, ti-trol, melasol.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small tree or shrub (smallest of the tea tree family), with needle-like leaves similar to cypress, with heads of sessile yellow or purplish flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia. Other varieties have been cultivated elsewhere, but M. alternifolia is not produced outside Australia, mainly in New South Wales.
OTHER SPECIES: Tea tree is a general name for members of the Melaleuca family which exists in many physiological forms including cajeput (M. cajeputi) and niaouli (M. viridiflora), and many others such as M. bracteata and M. linariifolia – see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name derives from its local usage as a type of herbal tea, prepared from the leaves. Our present knowledge of the properties and uses of tea tree is based on a very long history of use by the aboriginal people of Australia. It has been extensively researched recently by scientific methods with the following results: ‘1. This oil is unusual in that it is active against all three varieties of infectious organisms: bacteria, fungi and viruses. 2. It is a very powerful immuno-stimulant, so when the body is threatened by any of these organisms ti-tree increases its ability to respond.’ .
ACTIONS: Anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, fungicidal, immuno-stimulant, parasiticide, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam or water distillation from the leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-green or water-white mobile liquid with a warm, fresh, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, lavender, clary sage, rosemary, oakmoss, pine, cananga, geranium, marjoram, and spice oils, especially clove and nutmeg.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinene-4-ol (up to 30 per cent), cineol, pinene, terpinenes, cymene, sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene alcohols, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, athlete’s foot, blisters, burns, cold sores, dandruff, herpes, insect bites, oily skin, rashes (nappy rash), spots, verrucae, warts, wounds (infected).
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, tuberculosis, whooping cough.
Genito-urinary system: Thrush, vaginitis, cystitis, pruritis.
Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious illnesses such as chickenpox.
OTHER USES: Employed in soaps, toothpastes, deodorants, disinfectants, gargles, germicides and, increasingly, in aftershaves and spicy colognes.... tea tree
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: C. limonum, cedro oil.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small evergreen tree up to 6 metres high with serrated oval leaves, stiff thorns and very fragrant flowers. The fruit turns from green to yellow on ripening.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Asia, probably east India; it now grows wild in the Mediterranean region especially in Spain and Portugal. It is cultivated extensively worldwide in Italy, Sicily, Cyprus, Guinea, Israel, South and North America (California and Florida).
OTHER SPECIES: There are about forty-seven varieties which are said to have been developed in cultivation, such as the Java lemon (C. javanica). The lemon is also closely related to the lime, cedrat (or citron) and bergamot.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The juice and peel are widely used as a domestic seasoning. It is very nutritious, being high in vitamins A, B and C. In Spain and other European countries, lemon is something of a ‘cure-all’, especially with regard to infectious illness. It was used for fever, such as malaria and typhoid, and employed specifically for scurvy on English ships at sea.
Taken internally, the juice is considered invaluable for acidic disorders, such as arthritis and rheumatism, and of great benefit in dysentery and liver congestion.
ACTIONS: Anti-anaemic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antisclerotic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, haemostatic, hypotensive, insecticidal, rubefacient, stimulates white corpuscles, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by cold expression from the outer part of the fresh peel. A terpeneless oil is also produced on a large scale (cedro oil).
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale greeny-yellow liquid (turning brown with age), with a light, fresh, citrus scent. It blends well with lavender, neroli, ylang ylang, rose, sandalwood, olibanum, chamomile, benzoin, fennel, geranium, eucalyptus, juniper, oakmoss, lavandin, elemi, labdanum and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Limonene (approx. 70 per cent), terpinene, pinenes, sabinene, myrcene, citral, linalol, geraniol, octanol, nonanol, citronellal, bergamotene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic; may cause dermal irritation or sensitization reactions in some individuals – apply in moderation. Phototoxic do not use on skin exposed to direct sunlight.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, anaemia, brittle nails, boils, chilblains, corns, cuts, greasy skin, herpes, insect bites, mouth ulcers, spots, varicose veins, warts.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, high blood pressure, nosebleeds, obesity (congestion), poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Asthma, throat infections, bronchitis, catarrh.
Digestive system: Dyspepsia.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, fever and infections.
OTHER USES: Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, toilet waters and perfumes. Extensively employed by the food industry in most types of product, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... lemon
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Milfoil, common yarrow, nosebleed, thousand leaf – and many other country names.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb with a simple stem up to 1 metre high, with finely dissected leaves giving a lacy appearance, bearing numerous pinky-white, dense flowerheads.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Eurasia; naturalized in North America. Now found in most temperate zones of the world. The oil is mainly distilled in Germany, Hungary, France and Yugoslavia, also the USA and Africa.
OTHER SPECIES: A very extensive species. Other varieties include the Ligurian yarrow (A. ligustica) and the musk yarrow or iva (A. moschata), which also produces an essential oil containing mainly cineol – used in the preparation of ‘iva liquor’, a medicinal aperitif.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: An age-old herbal medicine used for a wide variety of complaints including fever, respiratory infections, digestive problems, nervous tension and externally for sores, rashes and wounds. Its use in the treatment of wounds is said to go back to Achilles who used it for injuries inflicted by iron weapons.
It is used in China mainly for menstrual problems and haemorrhoids. In Norway it is also used for rheumatism. The stalks are traditionally used for divination in the I Ching, the Chinese classic. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for thrombotic conditions with hypertension.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, digestive, expectorant, haemostatic, hypotensive, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried herb.
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark blue or greenish olive liquid with a fresh, green, sweet herbaceous, slightly camphoraceous odour. It blends well with cedarwood, pine, chamomile, valerian, vetiver and oakmoss.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Azulene (up to 51 per cent), pinenes, caryophyllene, borneol, terpineol, cineol, bornyl acetate, camphor, sabinene and thujone, among others. Constituents, especially azulene levels, vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, burns, cuts, eczema, hair rinse (promotes hair growth), inflammations, rashes, scars, tones the skin, varicose veins, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arteriosclerosis, high blood pressure, rheumatoid arthritis, thrombosis.
Digestive system: Constipation, cramp, flatulence, haemorrhoids, indigestion.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, cystitis and other infections.
Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu, etc.
Nervous system: Hypertension, insomnia, stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in pharmaceutical bath preparations for skin conditions. Limited use in perfumes and aftershaves. Employed as a flavour ingredient in vermouths and bitters.... yarrow
FAMILY: Burseraceae
SYNONYMS: Balsamodendron myrrha, gum myrrh, common myrrh, hirabol myrrh, myrrha.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The Commiphora species which yield myrrh are shrubs or small trees up to 10 metres high. They have sturdy knotted branches, trifoliate aromatic leaves and small white flowers. The trunk exudes a natural oleoresin, a pale yellow liquid which hardens into reddish-brown tears, known as myrrh. The native collectors make incisions in the bark of the tree to increase the yield.
DISTRIBUTION: The Commiphora species are native to north east Africa and south west Asia, especially the Red Sea region (Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia).
OTHER SPECIES: There are several C. species which yield myrrh oleoresin: African or Somali myrrh (C. molmol) and Arabian or Yemen myrrh (C. abyssinica). Bisabol myrrh or opopanax (C. erthraea) also belongs to the same family.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Myrrh has been employed since the earliest times in Eastern and Western medicine; its use is mentioned some 3700 years ago. The ancient Egyptians used it for embalming purposes and in their perfumes and cosmetics. In China it is used for arthritis, menstrual problems, sores and haemorrhoids. In the West it is considered to have an ‘opening, heating, drying nature’ (Joseph Miller), good for asthma, coughs, common cold, catarrh, sore throat, weak gums and teeth, ulcers and sores. It has also been used to treat leprosy.
Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for mouth ulcers, gingivitis and pharyngitis.
ACTIONS: Anticatarrhal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, astringent, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, revitalizing, sedative, stimulant (digestive, pulmonary), stomachic, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. Resinoid (and resin absolute) by solvent extraction of the crude myrrh. 2. Essential oil by steam distillation of the crude myrrh.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The resinoid is a dark reddish-brown viscous mass, with a warm, rich, spicy-balsamic odour. It is not pourable at room temperature so a solvent, such as diethyl phthalate, is sometimes added. 2. The essential oil is a pale yellow to amber oily liquid with a warm, sweet-balsamic, slightly spicy-medicinal odour. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, benzoin, oakmoss, cypress, juniper, mandarin, geranium, patchouli, thyme, mints, lavender, pine and spices.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude contains resins, gum and about 8 per cent essential oil composed mainly of heerabolene, limonene, dipentene, pinene, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, cadinene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing, possibly toxic in high concentration. Not to be used during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Athlete’s foot, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, mature complexions, ringworm, wounds, wrinkles.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, gum infections, gingivitis, mouth ulcers, sore throat, voice loss.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, haemorrhoids, loss of appetite.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, pruritis, thrush.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: The oil, resinoid and tincture are used in pharmaceutical products, including mouthwashes, gargles and toothpaste; also used in dentistry. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types and heavy florals. Used as flavour ingredients in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... myrrh
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: C. vulgaris, C. bigaradia, orange blossom, orange flower, neroli bigarade.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree up to 10 metres high with glossy dark green leaves and fragrant white flowers. There are two flowering seasons when the blossom is picked, one in May and another in October (in mild weather). See also bitter orange.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Far East, but well adapted to the Mediterranean climate. Major producers include Italy, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, America and especially France.
OTHER SPECIES: The sweet orange (C. aurantium var. dulcis) is also used to make an absolute oil called neroli Portugal or neroli petalae – however, it is less fragrant and considered of inferior quality.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This oil was named after a princess of Nerola in Italy, who loved to wear it as a perfume. Orange flowers have many folk associations. They were used in bridal bouquets and wreaths, to calm any nervous apprehension before the couple retired to the marriage bed.
On the Continent an infusion of dried flowers is used as a mild stimulant of the nervous system, and as a blood cleanser. The distillation water, known as orange flower water, is a popular cosmetic and household article.
ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, cordial, deodorant, digestive, fungicidal, hypnotic (mild), stimulant (nervous), tonic (cardiac, circulatory).
EXTRACTION: 1. A concrete and absolute are produced by solvent extraction from the freshly picked flowers. 2. An essential oil is, produced by steam distillation from the freshly picked flowers. An orange flower water and an absolute are produced as a byproduct of the distillation process.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The absolute is a dark brown or orange viscous liquid with a fresh, delicate yet rich, warm sweet-floral fragrance; very true to nature. It blends well with jasmine, benzoin, myrrh and all citrus oils. 2. The oil is a pale yellow mobile liquid (darkening with age) with a light, sweet-floral fragrance and terpeney topnote. Blends well with virtually all oils: chamomile, coriander, geranium, benzoin, clary sage, jasmine, lavender, rose, ylang ylang, lemon and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Linalol (34 per cent approx.), linalyl acetate (6–17 per cent), limonene (15 per cent approx.), pinene, nerolidol, geraniol, nerol, methyl anthranilate, indole, citral, jasmone, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing, non-phototoxic.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Scars, stretch marks, thread veins, mature and sensitive skin, tones the complexion, wrinkles.
Circulation muscles and joints: Palpitations, poor circulation.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea (chronic), colic, flatulence, spasm, nervous dyspepsia.
Nervous system: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension, PMT, shock, stress-related conditions – ‘I find that by far the most important uses of neroli are in helping with problems of emotional origin.’.
OTHER USES: Neroli oil and orange flower water are used to flavour pharmaceuticals. The absolute is used extensively in high-class perfumery work, especially oriental, floral and citrus blends; also as a fixative. The oil is used in eau-de-cologne and toilet waters (traditionally with lavender, lemon, rosemary and bergamot). Limited use as a flavour ingredient in foods, alcoholic and soft drinks.... neroli
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: Cinnamomum camphora ct. 1,8-cineole.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cinnamomum camphora is a tall evergreen tropical tree characteristic of the Laurel family that grows up to 20–30 metres tall. The foliage is bright green and the leaves have a glossy, waxy appearance bearing masses of small white flowers in spring. It produces clusters of shiny black berries and has a pale bark that is very rough and fissured vertically.
DISTRIBUTION: C. camphora is native to China, Japan, and Taiwan but has been introduced to many countries throughout the world including India, Australia and the USA, where in places such as Florida it is becoming increasingly invasive and a danger to the native flora. This species is not indigenous to Madagascar and was introduced onto the island during the middle of the nineteenth century. As the plant became accustomed to the Malagasy climate it became a distinct subspecies, which in time adapted so well to the new environment, naturalizing in the central-eastern regions, that it became a very sustainable species for producing an essential oil, now called ravintsara oil. However, since it is clear there are many different sub-varieties of C. camphora in various parts of the world, it is possible that there also existed another native aromatic tree already growing in Madagascar originally known as ravintsara by the local people. According to Georges M. Halpern in The Healing Trail: Essential Oils of Madagascar, an indigenous tree of this name had been part of the Malagasy culture for many centuries and its leaves were used as a traditional folk medicine.
OTHER SPECIES: The genus Cinnamomum has approximately 250 different species, many of which yield an essential oil on distillation. Amongst the most important are C. zeylanicum (cinnamon bark and leaf oils) and C. cassia (cassia oil). The single species C. camphora itself produces a wide range of essential oils including: camphor, ho wood and leaf oil, sassafras and ravintsara. All these essential oils, although derived from the same tropical tree or botanical species, differ in their chemical profile enormously depending on the country of origin as well as the part of the plant used to extract the oil: e.g. leaf or bark.
There are at least 6 different chemotypes of C. camphora essential oil due to this factor, including the camphor, linalool, 1,8-cineole, nerolidol, safrole and borneol types. For example, C. camphora, grown in Taiwan and Japan, is known as Ho oil, and has linalool as its major constituent, whereas in India and Sri Lanka the camphor type of C. camphora remains the most important. The variety of C. camphora cultivated in Madagascar contains high levels of 1,8-cineole and no camphor. In order to avoid any confusion, it has been suggested that Ravintsara should be labelled: ‘Cinnamomum camphora ct. 1,8-cineole.’
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The term Cinnamomum is derived from the Greek root kinnamon or kinnamomon meaning ‘sweet wood’. The word ravint means leaf and sara means ‘good for you’ according to the Malagasy tradition, as the local people have long appreciated the therapeutic value of its leaves which were used in folk medicine to treat digestive complaints, headaches, colds and chest infections. It has also been used for culinary applications and employed as a herbal tea. The Malagasy people themselves believe that the original Ravintsara tree is an indigenous species: a ‘cousin’ of the well-known C. camphora species, which has since been introduced.
ACTIONS: Antibacterial, anticatarrhal, antifungal, anti-infectious, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiviral, decongestant, cicatrisant (wound healer), expectorant, immune and neurotonic.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves of the plant.
CHARACTERISTICS: Fresh, woody, slightly floral, balsamic, eucalyptus-like scent. It blends well with eucalyptus, rosemary, bay, frankincense, cardamon, pine, cypress, juniper and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ravintsara is akin to Eucalyptus globulus oil (as both are particularly effective for respiratory infections) due to its high 1,8-cineole content ranging from 45–55 per cent. Other major constituents include monoterpenes (sabinene 15 per cent, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene), sesquiterpenes (beta-carophyllene), monoterpenic alcohols (alpha-terpineol 7 per cent and terpineol) and esters (terpenyl acetate).
NOTE: Ravintsara essential oil contain at least 45 per cent 1,8-cineole compared to approximately 5 per cent found in Ravensara aromatica oil.
SAFETY DATA: Ravintsara oil is generally very well tolerated by the majority of the population, although like eucalyptus, it can cause sensitization in some individuals and should be used in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Shingles, herpes, verrucas, warts and athletes foot.
Circulation muscles and joints: Aching muscles and joints.
Respiratory system: Coughs, colds, influenza and other respiratory ailments such as asthma, bronchitis, sinusitis, laryngitis, otitis, tonsillitis and whooping cough.
Immune system: Viral infections especially air-borne infections.
Nervous system: Nervous debility
OTHER USES: Ravintsara oil is produced in a ‘pharmaceutical grade’ for the chemical and perfumery industry.... ravintsara
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: R. coronarium, compass plant, incensier.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A shrubby evergreen bush up to 2 metres high with silvery green, needle-shaped leaves and pale blue flowers. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated worldwide in California, Russia, Middle East, England, France, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Morocco, China, etc. The main oil-producing countries are France, Spain and Tunisia.
OTHER SPECIES: R. officinalis is the type used for oil production but it is generally not specified, although there are many different cultivars, for example pine-scented rosemary (R. officinalis var. angustifolius). See also Botanical Classification.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest plants to be used for food, medicine and magic, being regarded as sacred in many civilizations. Sprigs of rosemary were burnt at shrines in ancient Greece, fumigations were used in the Middle Ages to drive away evil spirits, and to protect against plague and infectious illness.
It has been used for a wide range of complaints including respiratory and circulatory disorders, liver congestion, digestive and nervous complaints, muscular and rheumatic pain, skin and hair problems. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘depressive states with general debility and indications of cardiovascular weakness’..
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, hepatic, hypertensive, nervine, parasiticide, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (circulatory, adrenal cortex, hepatobiliary), stomachic, sudorific, tonic (nervous, general), vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh flowering tops or (in Spain) the whole plant (poorer quality).
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, fresh, minty herbaceous scent and a woody-balsamic undertone. Poor quality oils have a strong camphoraceous note. It blends well with olibanum, lavender, lavandin, citronella, oregano, thyme, pine, basil, peppermint, labdanum, elemi, cedarwood, petitgrain, cinnamon and other spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinenes, camphene, limonene, cineol, borneol with camphor, linalol, terpineol, octanone, bornyl acetate, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution only), non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Not to be used by epileptics.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, greasy hair, insect repellent, promotes hair growth, regulates seborrhoea, scabies, stimulates scalp, lice, varicose veins.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arteriosclerosis, fluid retention, gout, muscular pain, palpitations, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Colitis, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatic disorders, hypercholesterolaemia, jaundice.
Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.
Nervous system: Debility, headaches, hypotension, neuralgia, mental fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related disorders.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, household sprays and perfumes, especially colognes. Also used as a masking agent. Extensively employed in most major food categories, especially meat products, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks. Serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.... rosemary
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Clary, clary wort, muscatel sage, clear eye, see bright, common clary, clarry, eye bright.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Stout biennial or perennial herb up to 1 metre high with large, hairy leaves, green with a hint of purple, and small blue flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe; cultivated worldwide especially in the Mediterranean region, Russia, the USA, England, Morocco and central Europe. The French, Moroccan and English clary are considered of superior quality for perfumery work.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the garden sage (S. officinalis) and the Spanish sage (S. lavendulaefolia), which are both used to produce essential oils. Other types of sage include meadow clary (S. pratensis) and vervain sage (S. verbenaca). Clary sage should not be confused with the common wayside herb eyebright (Euphrasia).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb, highly esteemed in the Middle Ages, has now largely fallen out of use. It was used for digestive disorders, kidney disease, uterine and menstrual complaints, for cleansing ulcers and as a general nerve tonic. The mucilage from the seeds was used for treating tumours and for removing dust particles from the eyes.
Like garden sage, it cools inflammation and is especially useful for throat and respiratory infections.
ACTIONS: Anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, emmenagogue, hypotensive, nervine, regulator (of seborrhoea), sedative, stomachic, tonic, uterine.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops and leaves. (A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellowy-green liquid with a sweet, nutty herbaceous scent. It blends well with juniper, lavender, coriander, cardamon, geranium, sandalwood, cedarwood, pine, labdanum, jasmine, frankincense, bergamot and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Linalyl acetate (up to 75 per cent), linalol, pinene, myrcene and phellandrene, among others. Constituents vary according to geographical origin – there are several different chemotypes.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Do not use clary sage oil while drinking alcohol since it can induce a narcotic effect and exaggerate drunkenness. Clary sage is generally used in preference to the garden sage in aromatherapy due to its lower toxicity level.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, boils, dandruff, hair loss, inflamed conditions, oily skin and hair, ophthalmia, ulcers, wrinkles.
Circulation muscles and joints: High blood pressure, muscular aches and pains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, throat infections, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, labour pain, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Nervous system: Depression, frigidity, impotence, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related disorders.
OTHER USES: The oil and absolute are used as fragrance components and fixatives in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. The oil is used extensively by the food and drink industry, especially in the production of wines with a muscatel flavour.... sage, clary
FAMILY: Santalaceae
SYNONYMS: White sandalwood, yellow sandalwood, East Indian sandalwood, sandalwood Mysore, sanders-wood, santal (oil), white saunders (oil), yellow saunders (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, evergreen, parasitic tree up to 9 metres high with brown-grey trunk and many smooth, slender branches. It has leathery leaves and small pinky-purple flowers. The tree must be over thirty years old before it is ready for the production of sandalwood oil.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia and Taiwan. India is the main essential oil producer; the region of Mysore exports the highest quality oil, although some oil is distilled in Europe and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: The Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum or Eucarya spicata) produces a very similar oil, but with a dry-bitter top note. The so-called West Indian sandalwood or amyris (Amyris balsamifera) is a poor substitute and bears no botanical relation to the East Indian sandalwood.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the oldest known perfume materials, with at least 4000 years of uninterrupted use. It is used as a traditional incense, as a cosmetic, perfume and embalming material all over the East. It is also a popular building material, especially for temples.
In Chinese medicine it is used to treat stomach ache, vomiting, gonorrhoea, choleraic difficulties and skin complaints. In the Ayurvedic tradition it is used mainly for urinary and respiratory infections, for acute and chronic diarrhoea. In India it is often combined with rose in the famous scent aytar.
ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic (urinary and pulmonary), antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative; cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, insecticidal, sedative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the roots and heartwood, powdered and dried.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, greenish or brownish viscous liquid with a deep, soft, sweet-woody balsamic scent of excellent tenacity. It blends well with rose, violet, tuberose, clove, lavender, black pepper, bergamot, rosewood, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, benzoin, vetiver, patchouli, mimosa, cassie, costus, myrrh and jasmine.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: About 90 per cent santalols, 6 per cent sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: santene, teresantol, borneol, santalone, tri-cyclo-ekasantalal, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dry, cracked and chapped skin, aftershave (barber’s rash), greasy skin, moisturizer.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs (dry, persistent), laryngitis, sore throat.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis.
Nervous system: Depression, insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Used to be used as a pharmaceutical disinfectant, now largely abandoned. Extensively employed as a fragrance component and fixative in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes – especially oriental, woody, aftershaves, chypres, etc. Extensively used in the production of incense. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including soft and alcoholic drinks.... sandalwood
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: T. aestivus, T. ilerdensis, T. webbianus, T. valentianus, French thyme, garden thyme, red thyme (oil), white thyme (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial evergreen subshrub up to 45 cms high with a woody root and much-branched upright stem. It has small, grey-green, oval, aromatic leaves and pale purple or white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Spain and the Mediterranean region; now found throughout Asia Minor, Algeria, Turkey, Tunisia, Israel, the USA, Russia, China and central Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Spain but also in France, Israel, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Germany and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous varieties of thyme – the common thyme is believed to have derived from the wild thyme or mother-of-thyme (T. serpyllum), which is also used to produce an essential oil called serpolet, similar in effect to the common thyme oil.
Another species used for the production of the so-called red thyme oil is particularly the Spanish sauce thyme (T. zygis), a highly penetrating oil good for cellulitis, sports injuries, etc. (although, like the common thyme, it is a skin irritant). Other species used for essential oil production include lemon thyme (T. citriodorus), a fresh scented oil good for asthma and other respiratory conditions, safe for children. Spanish marjoram (T. Mastichina) is actually botanically classified as a variety of thyme, with which it shares many common properties, despite its common name. Spanish marjoram contains mainly 1,8-cineole (up to 75 per cent) and linalool (up to 20 per cent), so therapeutically has much in common with eucalyptus, being well suited to treating viral and bacterial respiratory infections. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest medicinal plants employed throughout the Mediterranean region, well known to both Hippocrates and Dioscorides. It was used by the ancient Egyptians in the embalming process, and by the ancient Greeks to fumigate against infectious illness; the name derives from the Greek thymos meaning ‘to perfume’. It is also a long-established culinary herb, especially used for the preservation of meat.
It has a wide range of uses, though in Western herbal medicine its main areas of application are respiratory problems, digestive complaints and the prevention and treatment of infection. In the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is indicated for dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, bronchitis, pertussis, asthma, children’s diarrhoea, laryngitis, tonsillitis and enuresis in children.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiputrescent, antirheumatic, antiseptic (intestinal, pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antitussive, antitoxic, aperitif, astringent, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypertensive, nervine, revulsive, rubefacient, parasiticide, stimulant (immune system, circulation), sudorific, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and flowering tops. 1. ‘Red thyme oil’ is the crude distillate. 2. ‘White thyme oil’ is produced by further redistillation or rectification. (An absolute is also produced in France by solvent extraction for perfumery use.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A red, brown or orange liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, powerful odour. 2. A clear, pale yellow liquid with a sweet, green-fresh, milder scent. It blends well with bergamot, lemon, rosemary, melissa, lavender, lavandin, marjoram, Peru balsam, pine, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thymol and carvacrol (up to 60 per cent), cymene, terpinene, camphene, borneol, linalol; depending on the source it can also contain geraniol, citral and thuyanol, etc.
There are many chemotypes of thyme oil: notably the ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ types (warming and active); the ‘thuyanol’ type (penetrating and antiviral); and the milder ‘linalol’ or ‘citral’ types (sweet-scented, non-irritant).
SAFETY DATA: Red thyme oil, serpolet (from wild thyme), ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ type oils all contain quite large amounts of toxic phenols (carvacrol and thymol). They can irritate mucous membranes, cause dermal irritation and may cause sensitization in some individuals. Use in moderation, in low dilution only. They are best avoided during pregnancy.
White thyme is not a ‘complete’ oil and is often adulterated. Lemon thyme and ‘linalol’types are in general less toxic, non-irritant, with less possibility of sensitization – safe for use on the skin and with children.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, bruises, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, insect bites, lice, gum infections, oily skin, scabies.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, gout, muscular aches and pains, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, sports injuries.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis, sinusitis, sore throat, tonsillitis.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urethritis.
Immune system: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.
Nervous system: Headaches, insomnia, nervous debility and stress-related complaints – ‘helps to revive and strengthen both body and mind’..
OTHER USES: The oil is used in mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes and cough lozenges. ‘Thymol’ is isolated for pharmaceutical use in surgical dressings, disinfectants etc. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, aftershaves, perfumes, colognes, etc. Extensively employed by the food and drink industry, especially in meat products.... thyme, common
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: Terebinth, therebentine, gum thus, gum turpentine, turpentine balsam, spirit of turpentine (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: ‘Gum turpentine’ is a term loosely applied to the natural oleoresin formed as a physiological product in the trunks of various Pinus, Picea and Abies species. Turpentine refers both to the crude oleoresin (a mixture of oil and resin) and to the distilled and rectified essential oils.
DISTRIBUTION: All over the world. The largest producer is the USA, also Mexico, France, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Scandinavia, New Zealand, Tasmania, India, China, the USSR, etc.
OTHER SPECIES: Apart from the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), which is the leading source of American gum turpentine, other sources in the USA include the slash pine (P. elliottii) and the Mexican white pine (P. ayacahuite). In India the chir pine (P. roxburghii); in Tasmania the lodgepole pine (P. contorta var. latifolia); in China the masson or Southern red pine (P. massoniana); in Europe and Scandinavia the Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) and the sea pine (P. pinaster), as well as many others. See Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Known to Galen and Hippocrates for its many applications, especially with regard to pulmonary and genito-urinary infections, digestive complaints and externally as a treatment for rheumatic or neuralgic pain and skin conditions. In China the oleoresin has been used (both internally and externally) for centuries for excess phlegm, bronchitis, rheumatism, stiff joints, toothache, boils, sores, ringworm and dermatitis.
The turpentine essence or spirit of turpentine is said to be four times more active than the crude turpentine.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, diuretic, cicatrisant, counter-irritant, expectorant, haemostatic, parasiticide, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleoresin, then rectified. ‘It has to be purified because it is viscous, coloured and acidic.’.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless, water white mobile liquid with a fresh, warm balsamic, familiar odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly alphapinene (approx. 50 per cent), betapinene (25–35 per cent) and carene (20–60 per cent) in the American oils. In European oils the alpha pinene can constitute up to 95 per cent – constituents vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Environmental hazard – marine pollutant. Relatively non-toxic and non-irritant; possible sensitization in some individuals. Avoid therapeutic use or employ in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Use with care for:
Skin care: Boils, cuts, fleas, insect repellent, lice, ringworm, scabies, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sciatica.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, whooping cough.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, urethritis.
Immune system: Colds.
Nervous system: Neuralgia.
OTHER USES: Used in many ointments and lotions for aches and pains; and in cough and cold remedies. Neither oil nor oleoresin is used in perfumery work, although resin derivatives are used as fixative agents and in pine and industrial perfumes. Mainly known as a paint and stain remover, solvent and insecticide. Also used as a starting material for the production of terpineol, etc.... turpentine
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